GEd 102

Mathematics in the Modern World

Lesson 2.2
Four Basic Concepts
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:
1. Define what a set and its basic terminologies.
2. Differentiate two ways in describing sets.
3. Perform basic operations on set.
4. Define what a relation and a function is.
5. Translate relation and function into a diagram.
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:
6. Name and apply the different properties of a
relation and function.
7. Identify the domain and range in a relation
and function.
8. Evaluate a function.
9. Define and perform a binary operation.
Four Basic Concepts:
Sets and its basic operation
relations
functions
Binary operations
Sets and
subsets
 Sets
A formal mathematical
term was introduced in 1879
by Georg Cantor. For most
mathematical purposes we
can think of a set intuitively,
as Cantor did, simply as a
collection of elements.
 Sets
well - defined collection of
objects, called elements that share
a common characteristic.
Examples
A set of counting numbers from 1 to 10

A set of English alphabet from a to e

A set of positive even numbers
A set of negative integers
 Sets
A set is denoted with braces or
curly brackets { } and label or
name the set by a capital letter
such as A, B, C,...
A set of counting numbers
from 1 to 10

𝑨 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔, 𝟕, 𝟖, 𝟗, 𝟏𝟎}
A set of English alphabet from
a to e

𝑩 = {𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄, 𝒅, 𝒆}
A set of positive even numbers

𝑪 = {𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟔, 𝟖, … }
A set of negative integers

𝑫 = {… , −𝟒, −𝟑, −𝟐, −𝟏}

Element of a Set
Each member of the set. The
notation ∈ means that an item
belongs to a set.

1 ∈𝑨
 A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }

1 ∈𝑨 2 ∈𝑨
3 ∈𝑨 4 ∈𝑨
5 ∈𝑨 6 ∉𝑨
Terminologies
Of sets
Unit Set
It is a set that contains only
one element.
𝑨 = {𝟏} 𝑩 = {𝒈}

𝑪 = {𝒃𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒂}
Empty Set
It is a set that has no element.

𝑨={} 𝑩=∅

𝑨 𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒚𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒃𝒂𝒐𝒔.

Example
Set C: The days of the week that
starts with letter B
𝑪={}
 Finite Set
A set that the elements in a
given set is countable.
𝑨 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑} 𝑩 = {−𝟐, −𝟏, 𝟎, 𝟏}
𝑺𝒆𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝟏 𝒕𝒐 𝟓𝟎
 Infinite Set
A set that elements in a given set
has no end or not countable.
𝑨 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, … } 𝑩 = {… , −𝟐, −𝟏}
𝑺𝒆𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏 𝟐𝟎
Cardinality of Set
It is that used to measure the number
of elements in a given set. It is just
similar in counting the total number of
element in a set.

𝑨 = {𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄, 𝒅, 𝒆} 𝒏=𝟓
 Examples

𝑩 = {−𝟐, −𝟏, 𝟎} 𝒏=𝟑

𝑪 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓} 𝒏=𝟔

𝑫 = {𝑺𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒚, 𝑴𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒚} 𝒏=𝟐

Equal Sets
Two sets, say A and B, are said to be
equal if and only if they have equal
number of cardinality and the
element/s are identical.
There is a 1 -1 correspondence.
 Example

𝑨 = {𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄, 𝒅} 𝑩 = {𝒄, 𝒂, 𝒅, 𝒃}

𝑨=𝑩
Equivalent Sets
Two sets, say A and B, are said to be
equivalent if and only if they have the
exact number of element. There is a
1 – 1 correspondence.
 Example

𝑨 = {𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄, 𝒅} 𝑩 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒}

𝑨 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝑩
Universal Set

The universal set is the set of all

elements under discussion. It is
denoted by capital U.
Example

𝑨 = {𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄, 𝒅} 𝑩 = {𝒅, 𝒆, 𝒇, 𝒈, 𝒉}

𝑼 = {𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄, 𝒅, 𝒆, 𝒇, 𝒈, 𝒉}
Example

𝑨 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟓} 𝑩 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟔}

𝑼 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔}
Joint Sets

Two sets, say A and B, are said to be

joint sets if and only if they have
common element/s.
 Example

𝑨 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟓} 𝑩 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟔}

sets A and B are joint set since they have

common element such as 1.
Disjoint Sets
Two sets, say A and B, are said to be
disjoint if and only if they are mutually
exclusive or if they don’t have
common element/s.
Example

𝑨 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟓} 𝑩 = {𝟎, 𝟑, 𝟔}

sets A and B are disjoint set since they

don’t have common element
 Ways of
Describing a set
Roster or Tabular Method
A method of listing using braces { },
with each member separated by a
comma. It is done by listing or
tabulating the elements of the set.
Example
Set A: The natural numbers from
1 to 10.
𝑨 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔, 𝟕, 𝟖, 𝟗, 𝟏𝟎}
Example
Set B: The vowels in the English
alphabet
𝑩 = {𝒂, 𝒆, 𝒊, 𝒐, 𝒖}
Rule or Set-builder Method
It is done by stating or describing the
common characteristics of the
elements of the set.
We use the notation A = { x |x … }
 Example
Set A: The natural numbers from
1 to 10.
𝑨 = {𝒙|𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝟏 𝒕𝒐𝟏𝟎}
 Example
Set B: The vowels in the English
alphabet

𝑩 = {𝒙|𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒗𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒂𝒍𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒃𝒆𝒕}

Subset
A set of which all the elements are
contained in another set. It is
denoted by this symbol ⊆
 Example

𝑨 = {𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟓} 𝑩 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔}

𝑨⊆𝑩
 Example

𝑨 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓} 𝑩 = {𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟓}

𝑩⊆𝑨
Proper Subset
A set A is said to be a proper subset
of B if and only if every element in A
is also in B, and there exist at least
one element in B that is not in A.
 Example

𝑨 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓} 𝑩 = {𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟓}

𝑨⊂𝑩
 Example

𝑨 = {𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟓} 𝑩 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔}

𝑩⊂𝑨
Number of Subset
The number of subsets of a given
set is given by 2 , where 𝑛 is the
𝑛

number of elements of the given

set.
 Example
𝑯𝒐𝒘 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒔
{𝟏} {𝟐} {𝟑}
𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏
𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝑩 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 ? {𝟏, 𝟐} {𝟐, 𝟑} {𝟏, 𝟑}

𝒏 𝟑
𝟐 =𝟐 =𝟖 {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑} {}
 Example {𝟏} {𝟐} {𝟑} {𝟒} {𝟓}
{𝟏, 𝟐} {𝟏, 𝟑} {𝟏, 𝟒} {𝟏, 𝟓}
𝑯𝒐𝒘 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒔 {𝟐, 𝟑} {𝟐, 𝟒} {𝟐, 𝟓} {𝟑, 𝟒}
𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏 {𝟑, 𝟓} {𝟒, 𝟓} {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑} {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟒}
𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝑨 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓 ? {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟓} {𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟒} {𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟓} {𝟏, 𝟒, 𝟓}
{𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒} {𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟓} {𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟓} {𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓}
𝒏 𝟓
𝟐 = 𝟐 = 𝟑𝟐
{𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒} {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟓} {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟓}
{𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓} {𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓} {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓} {}
Ordered pair
Given elements 𝒂 and 𝒃, the symbol (𝒂, 𝒃)
denotes the ordered pair consisting of
𝒂 and 𝒃 together with the specification that “𝒂”
is the first element of the pair and “𝒃” is
the second element. Two ordered pairs (𝒂, 𝒃)
and (𝒄, 𝒅) are equal if 𝒂 = 𝒄 and 𝒃 = 𝒅
Symbolically,
(𝒂, 𝒃) = (𝒄, 𝒅) means that 𝒂 = 𝒄 and 𝒃 = 𝒅
Example
𝑰𝒇 𝒂, 𝒃 = 𝟑, 𝟐 , 𝒘𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒘𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅
𝒃𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃.

𝒂 = 𝟑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃 = 𝟐
Example
𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒙 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚 𝒊𝒇
(𝟒𝒙 + 𝟑, 𝒚) = (𝟑𝒙 + 𝟓, – 𝟐).

𝟒𝒙 + 𝟑 = 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟓 𝒚 = −𝟐
𝟒𝒙 − 𝟑𝒙 = 𝟓 − 𝟑
𝒙=𝟐
Operations
On sets
Union of Sets
Written as 𝑨 ∪ 𝑩 and read as
“A union B.”
The set of elements that belong to
A or B (or to both).
Example
𝑨 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟓} 𝑩 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟔}
𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑨 ∪ 𝑩.
𝑨 ∪ 𝑩 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔}
Example
𝑪 = {𝒃, 𝒏, 𝒐, 𝒕} 𝑫 = {𝒑, 𝒐, 𝒏, 𝒚}
𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑪 ∪ 𝑫.
𝑪 ∪ 𝑫 = {𝒃, 𝒏, 𝒐, 𝒑, 𝒕, 𝒚}
Intersection of Sets
written as 𝑨 ∩ 𝑩 and read as
“A intersection B” . This is formed by
getting the elements that are
common to both A and B
Example
𝑨 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟓} 𝑩 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟔}
𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑨 ∩ 𝑩.
𝑨 ∩ 𝑩 = {𝟏}
Example
𝑪 = {𝒃, 𝒏, 𝒐, 𝒕} 𝑫 = {𝒑, 𝒐, 𝒏, 𝒚}
𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑪 ∩ 𝑫.
𝑪 ∩ 𝑫 = {𝒏, 𝒐}
Difference of Sets
Denoted by 𝑨 − 𝑩, is the set
containing those elements that
are in 𝑨 but not in 𝑩
Example
𝑨 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟓} 𝑩 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟔}
𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑨 − 𝑩.
𝑨 − 𝑩 = {𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟓}
Example
𝑪 = {𝒃, 𝒏, 𝒐, 𝒕} 𝑫 = {𝒑, 𝒐, 𝒏, 𝒚}
𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑪 − 𝑫.
𝑪 − 𝑫 = {𝒃, 𝒕}
Complement of Set
It is denoted as 𝑨’ and read as
“A complement or A prime”
The set of elements in the
universal set 𝑼 that do not belong
to set 𝑨.
Example
𝑨 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟓} 𝑩 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟔}
𝑼 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔} 𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑨′.
𝑨′ = {𝟎, 𝟑, 𝟔}
 Example
𝑪 = {𝒃, 𝒏, 𝒕} 𝑫 = {𝒑, 𝒐, 𝒚} 𝑬 = {𝒔, 𝒕, 𝒙, 𝒛}

𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑬′.
𝑼 = {𝒃, 𝒏, 𝒐, 𝒑, 𝒔, 𝒕, 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛}

𝑬′ = {𝒃, 𝒏, 𝒐, 𝒑, 𝒚}
Cartesian Product
Given sets A and B, the Cartesian
product of A and B, denoted by
𝑨 × 𝑩 and read as
“𝑨 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝑩”, is the set of all ordered
pair (𝒂, 𝒃) where 𝒂 is in A and 𝒃 is in B.
Example
𝑪 = {𝒃, 𝒏, 𝒔} 𝑫 = {𝒑, 𝒐, 𝒚}
𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑪 × 𝑫.
𝑪 × 𝑫 = { 𝒃, 𝒑 , 𝒃, 𝒐 , 𝒃, 𝒚 , 𝒏, 𝒑 ,
𝒏, 𝒐 , 𝒏, 𝒚 , 𝒔, 𝒑 , 𝒔, 𝒐 , (𝒔, 𝒚)}
Example
𝑨 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑} 𝑩 = {𝟑, 𝟒}
𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑨 × 𝑩.
𝑨 × 𝑩 = { 𝟏, 𝟑 , 𝟏, 𝟒 , 𝟐, 𝟑 ,
𝟐, 𝟒 , 𝟑, 𝟑 , 𝟑, 𝟒 }
 Example
𝑨 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑} 𝑩 = {𝟑, 𝟒}
𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑨′ ∩ 𝑩.
𝑼 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒} 𝑨′ = {𝟒}
𝑨′ ∩ 𝑩 = {𝟒}
Example
𝑨 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑} 𝑩 = {𝟑, 𝟒}
𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 (𝑨 ∪ 𝑩)′.
𝑨 ∪ 𝑩 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒} 𝑼 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒}
(𝑨 ∪ 𝑩 )′ = { }
Venn Diagram

Union of Complement
Sets of Sets

Intersection Difference
of Sets of Sets
Relations &
Functions
 Relations abound in daily life.
People are related to each other in
many ways as parents and children,
teachers and students, employees
and many others.
 Relation
It is a rule that relates values from
a set of values (called domain) to
another set of values (called co-
domain)
 Relation
A relation from set X to Y is the set of
ordered pairs of real numbers (x, y) such
that to each element x of the set X there
corresponds at least one element of the
set Y.
Relations
The notation for a relation R may
be written symbolically as follows:

x R y meaning (x, y) ∈ R.
Relations
The notation x ℟ y means that x is
not related to y by R

x ℟ y meaning (x, y) ∉ R.
Example
Given a set of ordered pairs:
{(0, -5), (1, -4), (2, -3), (3, -2), (4, -1), (5, 0)}

The domain are x = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

The co-domain are y = {-5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0}
Example
Given a the relation R:
R = {(-1, 2), (0, 3), (1, 3), (2, 4), (5, 5), (6, 7)}

The domain are x = {-1, 0, 1, 2, 5, 6}

The co-domain are y = {2, 3, 4, 5, 7}
 Example
Let A = {1,2} and B = {1,2,3} and define a relation R
from A to B as follows: Given any (x,y) ∈ A x B,
𝑥−𝑦
(x,y) ∈ R means that is an integer;
2
a. State explicitly which ordered pairs are in A x B
and which are in R.
b. Is 1 R 3? Is 2 R 3? Is 2 R 2?
c. What are the domain and the co-domain of R?
 Answers
a. State explicitly which ordered pairs are in
A x B and which are in R.

A = {1,2} B = {1,2,3}

A x B = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2),(2,3)}

 Answers
A x B = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2),(2,3)}
𝑥−𝑦
(x, y) ∈ R means that is an integer
2
1−1 0 2−1 1
(1,1) ∈ R because = =0 (2,1)∉ R because =
2 2 2 2
1−2 −1 2−2 0
(1,2) ∉ R because = (2,2) ∈ R because = =0
2 2 2 2
1−3 −2 2−3 −1
(1,3)∈R because = = −1 (2, 3)∉ R because =
2 2 2 2

R = {(1,1), (1,3), (2,2)}

 Answers
b. Is 1 R 3? Is 2 R 3? Is 2 R 2?

R = {(1,1), (1,3), (2,2)}

Yes! 1 R 3 because (1,3) ∈ R

No! 2 ℟ 3 because (2,3) ∉ R.
Yes! 2 R 2 because (2,2) ∈ R
 Answers
c. What are the domain and the co-domain of R?

R = {(1,1), (1,3), (2,2)}

domain of R is {1,2}

co-domain is {1,2,3}
ARROW DIAGRAM
OF A RELATION
 Suppose R is a relation from a set A to a set B. The arrow
diagram for R is obtained as follows:
1. Represent the elements of A as points in one region
and the elements of B as points in another region.
2. For each x in A and y in B, draw an arrow from x to y,
and only if, x is related to y by R. Symbolically:
Draw an arrow from x to y
1. If and only if, x R y
2. If and only if, (x, y) ∈ R.
Example
Given a relation {(1, 2),(0, 1),(3, 4),(2, 1),(0, −2)}.
Illustrate the given relation into an arrow diagram.

0 -2
1 1
2 2
3 4
Example
Given a relation {(1, 2),(0, 1),(3, 4),(2, 1),(0, −2)}.
Illustrate the given relation into an arrow diagram.

0 -2 What will be the domain

1 1 and co – domain?
2 2 The domain are : {0, 1, 2, 3}
3 4 The co-domain are : {-2, 1, 2, 4}
Example
Let A = {1,2,3} and B = {1,3,5} and define
relations S and T from A to B as follows:
For all (x, y) ∈ A x B, (x, y) ∈ S means that x < y,
S is a “less than” relation.
T = {(2,1), (2,5)}
a. Draw arrow diagrams for S and T.
 Answers
A = {1, 2, 3} B = {1, 3, 5}

A x B = {(1,1), (1,3), (1,5), (2,1), (2,3), (2,5),

(3,1), (3,3), (3,5)}
(x, y) ∈ S if x < y
S = {(1,3), (1,5), (2,3), (2,5), (3,5)}
Answers
S = {(1,3), (1,5), (2,3),
T = {(2,1), (2,5)}
(2,5), (3,5)}

1 1 1 1
2 3 2 3
3 5 3 5
Properties of
a relation
 Properties of a
relation
Reflexive Symmetric

Transitive
 Reflexive
A relation R on A is said to be
reflexive if every element of A is related
to itself. In notation, a R a for all a ∈ A
Examples of reflexive relations include:
- "is equal to" (equality)
- "is a subset of" (set inclusion)
- "is less than or equal to" and "is greater
than or equal to" (inequality)
- "divides" (divisibility).
 When looking at an arrow diagram, a relation
is reflexive if every element of A has an arrow
pointing to itself. For example, the relation in a
given figure below is a reflexive relation.
Symmetric
A relation R on A is symmetric if given
a R b then b R a
 For example, "is married to" is a symmetric
relation, while, "is less than" is not. The arrow
diagram of a symmetric relation has the property
that whenever there is a directed arrow from a to b,
there is also a directed arrow from b to a.
Transitive
A relation R on A is transitive if given
a R b and b R c then a R c.
Examples of transitive relations include:
- "is equal to" (equality)
- "is a subset of" (set inclusion)
- "is less than or equal to" and "is greater
than or equal to" (inequality)
- "divides" (divisibility).
 The arrow diagram of a transitive relation has
the property that whenever there are directed
arrows from a to b and from b to c then there is also
a directed arrow from a to c.
Equivalence Relation
A relation that is reflexive, symmetric,
and transitive is called an equivalence
relation on A.
 Function
A function is a relation in which every
input is paired with exactly one output.
A function from set X to Y is the set of
ordered pairs of real numbers (x, y) in
which no two distinct ordered pairs have
the same first component.
 A function F from a set A to a set B is a relation with
domain and co-domain B that satisfies the following
two properties:
1. For every element x in A, there is an
element y in B such that (x, y) ∈ F.

2. For all elements x in A and y and z in B, If

(x, y) ∈ F and (x, z) ∈ F, then y = z
 The two properties can be stated less
formally as follows:
1. Every element of A is the first element of an
ordered pair of F.

2. No two distinct ordered pairs in F have the

same first element.
 Is a function a relation?
1. If the set of ordered pairs have different
x-coordinates, it is a function.
2. If the set of ordered pairs have same
x-coordinates, it is NOT a function but it
could be said a relation.
 Note:
a. Y-coordinates have no bearing in
determining functions

b. Function is a relation but relation could

not be said as function
Function can be represented in
different ways:
1. Table of values
2. Ordered pairs

3. graph
3. an equation
 Vertical line test
A relation is a
function if a vertical
line drawn through
its graph, passes
through only one
point.
 Determine if the
following is a function
or not a function
Function or Not?

{(0, -5), (1, -4), (2, -3), (3, -2), (4, -1), (5, 0)}

FUNCTION
Function or Not?

{(-1, -7), (1, 0), (2, -3), (0, -8), (0, 5), (-2, -1)}

Not FUNCTION
Function or Not?

–1
0
1 2 FUNCTION
3 3
Function or Not?

-1 0 not
0 1
1 2
FUNCTION
Function or Not?

FUNCTION
Function or Not?

FUNCTION
Function or Not?

𝒚 = 𝒙 + 𝟐

FUNCTION
Function or Not?
−𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚 = 𝟕

FUNCTION
𝟐
𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟕
Function or Not?

𝒚 𝟐 = 𝒙𝟐 +𝟏

Not FUNCTION
Function or Not?

FUNCTION
Function or Not?

not
FUNCTION
Function or Not?

not
FUNCTION
 Types of function
a. Linear function - if f(x) is of degree 1
b. Quadratic function - if f(x) is of degree 2
c. Cubic function - if f(x) is of degree 3
d. Quartic function - if f(x) is of degree 4
e. Quintic function - if f(x) is of degree 5
Function Notation
The symbol 𝒇(𝒙) means function of x
and it is read as “f of x.” Thus, the
equation 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 could be written in
a form of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 meaning
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙). It can be stated that 𝒚 is a
function of x.
Evaluating Functions
Let us say we have a function in a form
of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙 – 𝟏. If we replace 𝒙 = 𝟏,
this could be written as 𝒇(𝟏) = 𝟑(𝟏) – 𝟏.
The notation 𝒇(𝟏) only means that we
substitute the value of 𝒙 = 𝟏 resulting the
function value.
Thus,
𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒙 = 𝟏
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙 – 𝟏

𝒇(𝟏) = 𝟑(𝟏) – 𝟏

𝒇(𝟏) = 𝟑 – 𝟏

𝒇(𝟏) = 𝟐
Example
𝟐
𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒈 −𝟐 .
𝒈 𝒙 = 𝒙 − 𝟑
𝟐
𝒈 −𝟐 = (−𝟐) − 𝟑

𝒈(−𝟐) = 𝟒 – 𝟑

𝒈(−𝟐) = 𝟏
Example
Given f(x) =𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙, find the following:
𝟏. 𝒇(𝟑)

𝟐. 𝟑𝒇(𝒙)

𝟑. 𝒇(𝟑𝒙)
 Answers 𝟐
Given f(x) =𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑𝒙, find the following:

𝟏. 𝒇(𝟑) 𝟐. 𝟑𝒇(𝒙) 𝟑. 𝒇(𝟑𝒙)

𝟐
f(x) =𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑𝒙 𝟐
f(x) = 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑𝒙 f(x) =𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙
𝟐
𝟐
f(3)=𝟐(𝟑) − 𝟑(𝟑) 3f(x)=𝟑(𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑𝒙)
𝟐 f(3x)=𝟐(𝟑𝒙) − 𝟑(𝟑𝒙)

f(3) = 𝟏𝟖 − 𝟗 𝟐
3f(x)=𝟔𝒙 − 𝟗𝒙 f(3x) = 𝟐(𝟗𝒙𝟐 ) − 𝟗𝒙

f(3) = 𝟗 f(3x) = 𝟏𝟖𝒙𝟐 − 𝟗𝒙

Operations on
functions
 The following are definitions on
the operations on functions.
a. The sum or difference of f and g,
denoted by 𝒇 ± 𝒈 is the function defined
by (𝒇 ± 𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙) ± 𝒈(𝒙).
b. The product of f and g, denoted by
𝒇 · 𝒈 is the function defined by
(𝒇 · 𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙) · 𝒈(𝒙).
 𝒇
c. The quotient of f and g denoted by is the
𝒈
𝒇(𝒙)
function defined by , where 𝒈(𝒙) is not
𝒈(𝒙)
equal to zero.
d. The composite function of f and g denoted
by 𝒇 𝝄 𝒈 is the function defined by
(𝒇 𝝄 𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒈(𝒙)). Similarly, the composite
function of g by f, denoted by 𝒈 𝝄 𝒇, is the
function defined by ( 𝒈 𝝄 𝒇)(𝒙) = 𝒈(𝒇(𝒙)).
Example
If f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 3x + 2, what is (f+g)(x)?
(𝒇 + 𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒙)
= (𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏) + (𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐)
= 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟏 + 𝟐
= 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟑
Example
If f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 3x + 2, what is (g−f)(x)?
𝒈 − 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒈 𝒙 − 𝒇(𝒙)
= 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐 − (𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏)
= 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟐 − 𝟏
=𝒙 +𝟏
Example
If f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 3x + 2, what is(f ∙ 𝒈)(x)?
(𝒇 ∙ 𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙) ∙ 𝒈(𝒙)
= (𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏)(𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐)
= 𝟔𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐
= 𝟔𝒙𝟐 + 𝟕𝒙 + 𝟐
Example
𝒇
What is ( )(x) if f(x) = 2a + 6b and g(x) = a + 3b?
𝒈

𝒇 𝒇(𝒙) 𝟐𝒂 + 𝟔𝒃 𝟐(𝒂 + 𝟑𝒃)

( )(x) = = = =𝟐
𝒈 𝒈(𝒙) 𝒂 + 𝟑𝒃 𝒂 + 𝟑𝒃
 Example
𝒇 𝟐 𝟐
What is ( )(x) if f(x) = 𝒙 − 9 and g(x) =𝒙 +5𝒙+6?
𝒈

𝒇 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒙𝟐 − 9 (𝒙 − 𝟑)(𝒙 + 𝟑) 𝒙−𝟑

( )(x) = = 𝟐 = =
𝒈 𝒈(𝒙) 𝒙 + 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟔 (𝒙 + 𝟐)(𝒙 + 𝟑) 𝒙+𝟐
Example
If f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 3x + 2, what is (g o f)(x)?
𝒈𝒐𝒇 𝒙 =𝒈 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒈(𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏)
= 𝟑(𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏) + 𝟐
= 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟑 + 𝟐
= 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟓
Example
If f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 3x + 2, what is (f o g)(x)?
𝒇𝒐𝒈 𝒙 =𝒇 𝒈 𝒙 = 𝒇(𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐)
= 𝟐(𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐) + 𝟏
= 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟒 + 𝟏
= 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟓
 Binary
operations
Binary Operations
A binary operation on a set G,
then, is simply a method (or formula)
by which the members of an ordered
pair from G combine to yield a new
member of G.
 Binary Operations
Let G be a non-empty set. An operation
* on G is said to be a binary operation on G if
for every pair of elements, a, b is in G that is a,
b ∈ G, the product a * b ∈ G.
For each (a, b) ∈ G, we assign an
element a * b of G.
 Binary Operations
In mathematics, a binary
operation on a set is a
calculation that combines
two elements of the set
(called operands) to
produce another element
of the set.
 Binary Operations
The most familiar binary operations are ordinary
addition, subtraction, and multiplication of
integers. Division of integers is not a binary
operation on the integers because an integer
divided by an integer need not be an integer.
Example
Tell whether the following is a binary operation or not.
𝑮 ∈ 𝒁 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 (𝒖𝒔𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒏 𝒁)

𝑳𝒆𝒕 𝒂 ∈ 𝒁 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃 ∈ 𝒁.
𝑰𝒇 𝒘𝒆 𝒂𝒅𝒅 𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒂 + 𝒃 ∈ 𝒁.

𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏.

Example
Tell whether the following is a binary operation or not.
𝑮 ∈ 𝒁 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂𝒃 (𝒖𝒔𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒏 𝒁)

𝑳𝒆𝒕 𝒂 ∈ 𝒁 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃 ∈ 𝒁.
𝑰𝒇 𝒘𝒆 𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒚 𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒂𝒃 ∈ 𝒁.

𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂𝒃 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏.

Example
Tell whether the following is a binary operation or not.
𝑮 ∈ 𝑹+ 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂 + 𝟏𝟕𝒃

𝑳𝒆𝒕 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑹+ .
𝑰𝒇 𝒘𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 + 𝟏𝟕𝒃 ∈ 𝑹+

𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏.

Example
Tell whether the following is a binary operation or not.
𝑮 ∈ 𝒁+ , 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 ∗ 𝒃𝒚 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂 – 𝒃 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝒁+ .

𝑰𝒇 𝒂 > 𝒃 = 𝒂 – 𝒃 > 𝟎 ∈ 𝒁+
𝑰𝒇 𝒂 < 𝒃 = 𝒂 – 𝒃 < 𝟎 ∉ 𝒁+

𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒂 𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏.

Example Tell whether the following is a binary operation or not.

𝑮 ∈ 𝑹 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂𝒃
𝑻𝒐 𝒃𝒆 𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒅𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒊𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒂
𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒓 𝒏𝒐𝒕, 𝒘𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒉𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆.

𝑰𝒇 𝒂 = 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃 = 𝟎, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒃 𝒅𝒐𝒆𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒆𝒙𝒊𝒔𝒕, 𝒉𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 ∉ 𝑹

𝑰𝒇 𝒂 = −𝟒 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃 = ½, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒃 𝒅𝒐𝒆𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒆𝒙𝒊𝒔𝒕, 𝒉𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 ∉ 𝑹

𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒂 𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏.

Example Tell whether the following is a binary operation or not.

𝑮 ∈ 𝒁 \ −𝟏 , 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 ∗ 𝒃𝒚
𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒂𝒃 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝒁.

𝑳𝒆𝒕 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝒁 𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕 − 𝟏, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒂 > −𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃 > −𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅

𝒂 < −𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃 < −𝟏. 𝑰𝒇 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒂𝒃,
𝒊𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒂𝒃 ∈ 𝒁
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒂𝒔 𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃 > −𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃 < −𝟏

𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏.

CLOSED
A set is “closed” under operation if
the operation assigns to every
ordered pair of elements from the set
an element of the set.
Example
𝑰𝒔 𝑺 = { ±𝟏, ±𝟑, ±𝟓, ±𝟕, … } 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒖𝒔𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏?

𝐵𝑦 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒, 𝑆 = ±1, ±3, ±5, ±7, …

𝑖𝑠 𝑁𝑂𝑇 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. 𝑊ℎ𝑦?
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 4 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆. 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑦 𝑤𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜
1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3. 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 𝑖𝑠 4.

𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅

Example
𝑳𝒆𝒕 + 𝒂𝒏𝒅 • 𝒃𝒆 𝒖𝒔𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒁 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝑯 = {𝒏𝟐 | 𝒏 𝒁+ }.
𝑰𝒔 𝑯 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏? 𝑼𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏?

To be able to determine if H is closed under addition, we

need to have a counter-example. Let us take two elements in
Z, say 1 and 4. If we are going to add this two numbers, the
result would be 5 and obviously, 5 ∈ 𝑛2 or 5 is not a perfect
square. Hence, H is not closed under addition.
Example
𝑳𝒆𝒕 + 𝒂𝒏𝒅 • 𝒃𝒆 𝒖𝒔𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒁 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝑯 = {𝒏𝟐 | 𝒏 𝒁+ }.
𝑰𝒔 𝑯 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏? 𝑼𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏?

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑟 ∈ 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 ∈ 𝐻. 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐻 𝑥 𝐻 ∈ 𝑟, 𝑠 = 𝑟 • 𝑠. 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑟 ∈ 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚
∈ 𝑍 + 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑟 = 𝑛2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 = 𝑚2 . 𝑆𝑜 𝑟, 𝑠 = 𝑟 • 𝑠 = 𝑛2 • 𝑚2 .
= 𝑛𝑚 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛, 𝑚 ∈ 𝑍 + . 𝐼𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑚 ∈ 𝑍 + , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑚 2 ∈ 𝐻.
𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝑯 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏.
Properties of
Binary
operations
Properties of Binary
operations

Associative Commutative
Identity Inverse
Associative
A binary operation ∗ on a set A is
said to be associative if
(𝒂 ∗ 𝒃) ∗ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∗ (𝒃 ∗ 𝒄)
for all elements 𝒂, 𝒃 and 𝒄 of A.
Example For every real number a and b, is the
operation * defined by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = (2𝑎)(3𝑏)
associative?
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐)

𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = 2𝑎 3𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (2𝑏)(3𝑐)
= 6𝑎𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ 6𝑏𝑐
= [2(6𝑎𝑏)](3𝑐) = 2𝑎 [3 6𝑏𝑐 ]
= 𝟑𝟔𝒂𝒃𝒄 = 𝟑𝟔𝒂𝒃𝒄
Commutative
A binary operation ∗ on a set A is
said to be commutative if
𝒂 ∗𝒃 =𝒃 ∗𝒂
for all elements 𝒂 and 𝒃 of A.
Example For every real number a and b, is the
operation * defined by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 5𝑎 + 5𝑏 +
(𝑎𝑏)2 commutative?
𝑎∗𝑏 =𝑏∗𝑎

𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 5𝑎 + 5𝑏 + (𝑎𝑏)2 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 = 5𝑏 + 5𝑎 + (𝑏𝑎)2

= 𝟓𝒂 + 𝟓𝒃 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 = 5𝑏 + 5𝑎 + 𝑏 2 𝑎2

= 𝟓𝒂 + 𝟓𝒃 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
 Identity
A binary operation ∗ on a set R
there exist just one element 𝒆 such
that 𝒆 ∗ 𝒂 = 𝒂 ∗ 𝒆 = 𝒂 where 𝒂, 𝒆 ∈ R.
𝒆 is called the identity element.
Example If 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝟑 where 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑹. Find the
identity element.

𝑎∗𝑒 =𝑎 𝑒∗𝑎 =𝑎

𝑎+𝑒+3=𝑎 𝒆+𝒂+𝟑=𝒂

𝒆 = −𝟑 𝒆 = −𝟑
 Inverse
An element 𝒂 is called as inverse
−𝟏

of 𝒂 under the binary operation *.

If 𝒂 ∗ 𝒂−𝟏 = 𝒂−𝟏 ∗ 𝒂 = 𝒆.
Where 𝒆 is called the identity element
under the operation *
Example If 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒂𝒃 where 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑹. Find
the inverse 𝑎−1 .
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑎 −1
𝑎∗𝑒 =𝑎
𝑎 + 𝑒 + 𝑎𝑒 = 𝑎 𝒂∗𝒚=𝒆
−𝒂
𝒂 + 𝒚 + 𝒂𝒚 = 𝟎 𝒚=
𝒆 + 𝒂𝒆 = 𝟎 (𝟏 + 𝒂)
𝒆(𝟏 + 𝒂) = 𝟎 𝒚 + 𝒂𝒚 = −𝒂

𝒆=𝟎 𝒚(𝟏 + 𝒂) = −𝒂
 Self-Learning Activity

1. Tell whether the following is true or false:

1. Empty set is also called a unit set.
2. {  } is an empty set.
3. A set with two elements has 2 subsets.
4. Equivalent set is also an equal set.
5. Counting number is an example of
a finite set.
2. List down all the subsets of a set A = { a, b, c, d }.

3. If A = {1,2,3} and B={i,o,u}, find A x B.

4. Let U = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}; A = {1, 3, 5, 7},

B = {2, 4, 6, 8} and C = {3, 6, 9, 0}.

Find the following:

a) A  B b) B  C
c) A’  B’ d) (A  B)’