AN ANALYSIS OF UNIT -2 -

PERMUTATIONS AND
COMBINATIONS

By:
RUCHITA MAARAN
252310022 & SHOBANA M
252310027

SPECIAL PROJECT REPORT

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for

the degree of Bachelor of Computer Apllication in the
Graduate College of the University of Saveetha at
Chennai-602105

FEBRUARY 2025

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 Introduction to Permutations and Combinations

2 Relationship between Permutation and Combinations

3 Difference between Permutations and Combinations
 4 Fun Facts on Permutations and Combinations

5 Sample Problems on Permutations and Combinations

Exploring Permutations and

Combinations: A Mathematical
Approach to Optimization
Problems

ABSTRACT
Permutations and combinations are fundamental concepts in combinatorics,
a significant area of discrete mathematics that addresses object
selection, arrangement, and counting. These ideas are essential to many
disciplines, such as network security, data science, cryptography, probability
theory, algorithm design, and artificial intelligence. Permutations, which
emphasize how many ways an object can be arranged in a particular order, are
useful in situations like scheduling issues, password generation, and ranking
systems. Combinations, which are frequently employed in statistical sampling,
decision-making, and probability computations, highlight the selection
of items where order is irrelevant. Factorial notation, permutation formulas, and
combination formulas are among the mathematical formulations used in the
study of permutations and combinations. These ideas facilitate effective
problem-solving in a wide range of practical applications, including the
organization of sizable datasets, the design of secure encryption techniques, the
analysis of genetic sequences, and the optimization of computational algorithms.
This essay offers a thorough examination of the theoretical underpinnings,
conclusions, and real-world uses of permutations and combinations. In order to
solve challenging combinatorial and probabilistic problems in mathematics,
computer science, and English.

Keywords: Permutations, Combinations, Optimization Problems, Algorithms,

Combinatorial Identities, Discrete Mathematics, DSA
INTRODUCTION
Permutations and combinations, the various ways in which objects from a set
may be selected, generally without replacement, to form subsets. This selection
of subsets is called a permutation when the order of selection is a factor, a
combination when order is not a factor. By considering the ratio of the number of
desired subsets to the number of all possible subsets for many games of chance
in the 17th century, the French mathematicians Blaise Pascal and Pierre de
Fermat gave impetus to the development of combinatorics and probability
theory.
Permutations and combinations are two important concepts in mathematics used
for counting and solving problems involving arrangements or selections. The key
difference between them is whether the order of items matters. In permutations,
the order is important, while in combinations, it is not.
For example, arranging books on a shelf involves permutations, but selecting a
group of friends to form a team involves combinations.

WHAT IS PERMUTATION?
In Mathematics, Permutation is defined as a mathematical concept that
determines the number of possible arrangements for a specific set of elements.
therefore, it plays a big role in computer science, cryptography and operations
research.
Let’s take an example, If three English alphabets are taken – p, q, and r and we
want to arrange them, then these can be arranged like (p, q, r), (p, r, q), (q, p, r),
(q, r, p), (r, p, q) and (r, q, p). Only these six arrangements are possible. Now the
word arrangement here is called a Permutation, i.e. only these six permutations
are possible.
Formula for finding the number of permutations
If ‘n’ elements are given, out of which we want to arrange ‘r’ elements, then the
number of possible arrangements or permutations is given by,
WHAT IS COMBINATION?
Combination is a way of choosing items from a set, (unlike permutations) when
the order of selection doesn’t matter. In smaller cases, it’s possible to count the
number of combinations. Combination refers to the mixture of n things taken k at
a time without repetition.
For example, the selection of 11 players from a wide number of players for a
cricket team comes under combination (that’s it, only selection) but which player
will bat first, which will bat second, and so on, this arrangement of players comes
under permutation.
Formula to find the number of combinations
If we have ‘n’ elements out of which we want to select ‘r’ elements then the
number of possible combinations is given by

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERMUTATION AND

COMBINATION
n
Cr = nPr / r!
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PERMUTATIONS AND
COMBINATION

ASPECT PERMUTATIONS COMBINATIONS

Definition Arrangements of Selections of elements

elements in a specific without considering the
order. order.
n n
Formula Pr = n!/(n−r)! Cr = n!/[(n−r)! × r!]
n n
Notation Pr OR P(n, r) Cr OR C(n, r)

Order Matters Yes, order matters. No, order doesn’t matter.

Example Arranging books on a Selecting members for a

shelf. committee.

Sample Problems How many ways to How many ways to

arrange 3 books out of choose 2 fruits from a
5? basket of 7?

Application Permutations are used Combinations are used

when order matters, when order doesn’t
such as arranging items matter,
in a sequence or forming like selecting a group of
a code. people or choosing items
without caring about
their order.

FUN FACTS:
You know, a "combination lock" should really be called a "permutation
lock". The order you put the numbers in matters.

A true "combination lock" would accept both 10-17-23 and 23-17-10 as

correct.
1. The "Ordering" Secret
  Permutations care about the order of elements, while combinations don’t.
 Think of a locker password (where order matters) vs. a group of friends
(where order doesn’t matter).
2. Factorial Explosion!
 The number of ways to arrange nn objects is n!n! (n factorial).
 This grows super fast—for just 20 objects, you get
2,432,902,008,176,640,000 arrangements!
3. Lottery Logic
 In many lotteries, you pick numbers in any order, which means
combinations are used, not permutations.
 If order mattered, winning would be much harder!
4. The Chessboard Confusion
 There are 8! = 40,320 ways to arrange 8 queens on a chessboard—but
only 92 ways avoid them attacking each other!
5. The Handshake Problem
 If n people shake hands once with each other, the total handshakes is
(n2)=n(n−1)2\binom{n}{2} = \frac{n(n-1)}{2}.
 With 100 people, there are 4,950 handshakes!
6. Card Shuffle Surprise
 The number of ways to arrange a deck of 52 cards is 52!—a number so
large that every shuffle in history likely created a unique order!
7. Anagrams & Words
 The number of ways to rearrange "MATH" is 4!=244! = 24.
 If letters repeat (like in "BALLOON"), we divide by factorials of repeated
letters!
8. DNA and Arrangements
 A strand of DNA with 10 different gene segments can have 10! =
3,628,800 possible sequences!
 This shows how diverse genetics can be!
9. Password Probability
 If a password is 6 characters long, using only digits (0-9), there are
106=1,000,00010^6 = 1,000,000 possibilities.
 Adding lowercase letters makes it 366=2,176,782,33636^6 =
2,176,782,336—much harder to guess!
10. Birthday Paradox
  In a group of just 23 people, the probability that at least two share a
birthday is over 50%!
 This happens due to combinatorial counting of birthday pairs!

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Question 1: In how many ways can you arrange the letters of the word
ARTICLE, taking 4 letters at a time, without repetition, to form words
with or without meaning?
Solution:
Here from 7 letters of the word ARTICLE, we have to arrange any 4 letters to form
different words.
So, n = 7 and r = 4.
Using permutation formula nrP = n! / (n – r)!
47P = 7! / (7 – 4)!
= 7!/3!
= (7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3!) / 3! = 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 = 840
Thus there are 840 different ways in which we can arrange 4 letters out of the 7
letters of ARTICLE to form different words.

Question 2: How many 6 digit pin codes can be formed from the digits 0
to 9 if each pin code starts with 48 and no digit is repeated?
Solution:
Here arrange 6 digits from 0 to 9 but the first two digits of the pin code has been
already decided (4 and 8).
So we have to now arrange only 4 digits out of the remaining 8 digits (0, 1, 2, 3,
5, 6, 7, 9).
So, n = 8 and r = 4,
84P = 8! / (8 – 4)!
= 8! / 4!
= (8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4!) / 4!
=8×7×6×5
= 1680
Thus, 1680 different permutation in which 6 digit pin codes can be formed.

Question 3: Out of 10 students, 4 are to be selected for a trip. In how

many ways the selection be made?
Solution:
In this question select 4 students out of given 10. So combination will be used
here to find the answer.
n = 10 and r = 4,
104C = 10! / 4!(10 – 4)!
= 10! / 4!6!
= (10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6!) / (4 × 3 × 2 × 1 × 6!)
= (10 × 9 × 8 × 7)/(4 × 3 × 2 × 1)
= 210
Thus there are 210 different ways of selecting 4 students out of 10.

Question 4: A bag contains 3 red, 5 black, and 4 blue balls. How many
ways are there to take out three balls so that each of the colors is taken
out?
Solution:
Here take out three balls of each colour. The order in which the balls are taken
out does not matter. So use combination to find the answer.
Number of ways of selecting one red ball out of 3 red balls = 31C
Number of ways of selecting one black ball out of 5 back balls = 51C
Number of ways of selecting one blue ball out of 4 blue balls = 41C
Total number of ways of selecting three balls of each colour = 31C × 51C × 41C
=3×5×4
= 60
Thus there are 60 ways of selecting three balls of each colour.

RESULT
Permutations and combinations provide mathematical tools to determine
possible arrangements or selections of objects. A permutation is used when the
order of selection matters and is given by the formula P(n,r)=n!(n−r)!P(n, r) = \
frac{n!}{(n - r)!}P(n,r)=(n−r)!n!. In contrast, a combination is used when order
does not matter, calculated as C(n,r)=n!r!(n−r)!C(n, r) = \frac{n!}{r!(n -
r)!}C(n,r)=r!(n−r)!n!. The factorial nature of these formulas results in rapid
growth in possibilities, making them useful in ranking, probability, and
cryptography. Special cases, such as P(n,n)=n! and C(n,0)=1,further highlight
their significance in different scenarios.

CONCLUSION
Permutations and combinations are fundamental concepts in discrete
mathematics, widely applied in probability, data science, artificial intelligence,
and optimization. While permutations help in problems where sequence is
important, combinations are used when selection is independent of order. Their
factorial-based formulas emphasize the importance of computational efficiency
in handling large datasets. Understanding these concepts enhances problem-
solving skills and is crucial for fields that rely on logical arrangements and
selections.