D

ECCE 322 : Electric Machines

Lecture Set 5 :
Transformers

>
J. Y. Alsawalhi
- = ku.ac.ae 2

How Will This Lecture Set Benefit You

• You will note the differences between ideal and real transformers
• You will learn modelling techniques for a transformer
• Understand why can you use a 50 Hz rated transformer with a 60 Hz excitation while you can
not do the opposite ; 60 Hz rated transformer with a 50 Hz excitation
• Magnetically coupled versus “electrically” coupled transformers (Autotransformers)
- ku.ac.ae 3

Topics
• Ideal transformer modelling and operation

• Real/Non-Ideal Transformer

• Steady-State T-equivalent circuit

• Parameter Identification : Open- and Short-Circuit Tests

• Transformer Loading

• Voltage Regulation

• Auto-transformers
 ku.ac.ae 4

Brief History
• The Edison Electric Light Company : first power distribution system ~ 1882
• ~ 3000 light-lamps for only 59 customers
• Maximum economic distance between generators and load was around 800 m

Limited Distance

Incandescent Incandescent
Light Bulb Light Bulb

120 V
dc-power
plant
Incandescent
Light Bulb
 ku.ac.ae 5

Brief History
• In 1885, the first practical transformer demonstrated in Budapest

By Zátonyi Sándor, (ifj.) - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=11041451
 ku.ac.ae 6

Why Transformers
• Invention of ac power sources (generators) and transformers allowed drastic reduction in losses
and significant increase in distance
 ku.ac.ae 7

Types and Construction

• Core-Transformer
 ku.ac.ae 8

Types and Construction High-Voltage coil

placed on top of the
• Shell-Transformer Low-Voltage coil
 ku.ac.ae 9

Ideal Transformer
 ku.ac.ae 10

Ideal Transformer

ip  t  is  t 
+ +
vp  t  Np Ns vs  t 
 ku.ac.ae 11

Ideal Transformer

ip  t  Np Ns is  t 

+ +
vp  t  vs  t 
 ku.ac.ae 12

The Dot Notation

• A ‘Dot ‘sign is often added to determine the polarity :

ip  t  ip  t 

+ +
vp  t  Np Ns Np Ns
 ku.ac.ae 13

The Dot Notation

• A ‘Dot ‘sign is often added to determine the polarity :

ip  t  Np Ns ip  t  Np Ns is  t 
is  t 

+ 
vp t
+  + 
vp t
+ 
vs t
vs t

Voltages and current are in phase Voltages and current are out phase by 180 deg
 ku.ac.ae 14

Voltage and Current in an Ideal Transformer

• We know from Faraday’s law
d ip t  Np Ns is  t 
Vemf 
dt + +
v p t  vs  t 
• Also assuming no losses

Pin  Pout
• The voltages and currents can be therefore related by the turns ratio as

d
Vp   N p Pin  Pout
dt Vp N p Ip
Ns 1
  a   
d Vs N s V p I p cos   Vs I s cos  Is N p a
Vs   N s
dt
 ku.ac.ae 15

Impedance Transformation / Reflected Impendence

• One feature of transformers is that they can be used to change the impedance of a circuit.

ip  t  Np Ns is  t 
+ +
Zin
vp  t  vs  t 
ZL
 ku.ac.ae 16

Impedance Transformation / Reflected Impendence

Vp
Zin 
IP
a
  aVs   
 Is 
Vs
a 2

Is
2
 NP 
Zin     a2 ZL
 Ns 
 ku.ac.ae 17

Summary : Ideal Transformer

Vp Np
 a
Vs Ns Primary/Input Secondary/Output

Ip Ns 1 Active Power Vp,rms Ip,rms cos(θ) Vs,rms Is,rms cos(θ)

 
Is N p a Reactive Power Vp,rms Ip,rms sin(θ) Vs,rms Is,rms sin(θ)

2 Apparent Power Vp,rms Ip,rms Vs,rms Is,rms

 NP 
Z L ,ref    a 2
ZL
 Ns 
 ku.ac.ae 18

Real/Non-Ideal
Transformer
 ku.ac.ae 19

Real / Non-Ideal Transformer

• Non-idealities, particularly :
• Losses
• Leakage
• Saturation
• Coil Resistance
• Temperature
 ku.ac.ae 20

MEC of a Transformer Including Leakage

• Assuming linear conditions, and taking into account leakage

+ +
- -

* More sophisticated and accurate models are possible by including stray flux
 ku.ac.ae 21

Flux Linkages
• The total flux linked by the first coil consist of three components:

1  N1  
1
  l1   2
  
core flux leakage core flux
due to 1 due to 1 due to 2

• Similarly for the second coil :

2  N2  
2
  l 2  1
  
core flux leakage core flux
due to 1 due to 1 due to 2

* Use 1 for primary and 2 for secondary

 ku.ac.ae 22

Leakage, Magnetizing and Mutual-Inductances

• The flux-linkage can be written in terms of inductances as

1  N11  N1 l1  N1 2

NI NI N I where
 N1 1 1  N1 1 1  N1 2 2 • Rm : the core reluctance
Rm Rl1 Rm • Rl1 : the reluctance of the leakage path
• LM : Magnetizing inductance
• Ll1 : leakage inductance
1  L1 I1  Ll1 I1  LM I 2 • L1 : Coil 1 self-inductance
 ku.ac.ae 23

Voltage Equations
• The voltage in both coils can now be solved for using:

d 1
v1  t   R1 i1  t  
dt
d
v2  t   R2 i2  t   2
dt
where

1  L1 I1  Ll1 I1  LM I 2

2  L2 I 2  Ll 2 I 2  LM I1
 ku.ac.ae 24

T-Equivalent Circuit Derivation

 ku.ac.ae 25

T-Equivalent Circuit
• The equations obtained so far are sufficient.
• However, an easier system can be analyzed by coupling the two equations together
• This will result in the famous and useful circuit known as the T-equivalent circuit
 ku.ac.ae 26

Referring
• Referring relies on two key concepts :
1. Define a new current that produces the same MMF in the other coil
2. The new defined current produces the same power

We will assume steady-state. Therefore phasor analysis can be applied

V1  R1 I1  j1 1  L1 I1  Ll1I1  LM I2

V  R I  j
2 2 2 1 2  L2 I2  Ll 2 I2  LM I1
 ku.ac.ae 27

Referring
1. Define a new current that produces the same MMF in the other coil

i1  t  N1 N2 i2  t 

MMF in the secondary coil : Define a new current which will Solve for the
N 2 i2 produce name MMF of coil 2 in coil 1 : referred current :
N1i2  N 2 i2 N2 1
i2  i2  i2
N1 a
 ku.ac.ae 28

Referring
2. The referred system of variables produces the same power as non-referred variables :

V2I 2  V2 I 2
V2  aV2
 ku.ac.ae 29

Referring
• Based on these concepts, and referring the secondary to primary, the following relationships
can be established :

Secondary Referred to Primary Variables

Voltage
V2  aV2
Current 1
I2  I2
a
Resistance
R2  a2 R2
Inductance

Lx 2  a Lx 2
2

Flux Linkage
2  a 2
 ku.ac.ae 30

Referring
• Re-arranging the flux-linkage equation based on the referred variables

V1  R1 I1  j1 1  L1 I1  Ll1I1  LM I2

V  R I  j 2  L2 I2  Ll 2 I2  LM I1
2 2 2 1

Check separate video that shows these steps

 ku.ac.ae 31

Referring
 ku.ac.ae 32

T-Equivalent Circuit
• Now the flux linkage equations can be written as :

1  Ll1 I1  Lm1  I1  I2' 

2'  L'l 2 I2'  Lm1  I1  I2' 

• And the voltage equations are equal to

     
V1  R1I1  j Ll1 I1  Lm1 I1  I2'  R1I1  j Xl1 I1  X m1 I1  I2'

V   R I  j  L I  L  I  I    R I  j  X  I  X  I  I  

2 2 2 l2 2 m1 1 2 2 2 l2 2 m1 1 2
 ku.ac.ae 33

T-Equivalent Circuit
• A circuit can be drawn as

 
V1  R1 I1  j X l1 I1  X m1 I1  I2'
V   R I  j  X  I  X  I  I  
2 2 2 l2 2 m1 1 2

+ I1 R1 X l1 R2 I2 +

Xl2
V1 Xm V2
 ku.ac.ae 34

T-Equivalent Circuit

+ I1 R1 X l1 R2 I2 +

Xl2
V1 Xm V2

Note: subscript 1 was dropped from Xm1

 ku.ac.ae 35

T-equivalent with Core Loss

• Core Loss in the core is often accounted for by adding an equivalent resistor in parallel to the
magnetizing inductance as shown below

+ I1 R1 Xl1 Ie Xl2 R2 I2 +

V1 Xm Rc V2
 ku.ac.ae 36

Remarks on Real Transformers

• In a properly designed transformer, the current flowing in the excitation branch (excitation
current) is only 2-3% of the full-load current (current going to secondary coil).

+ I1 R1 Xl1 Ie Xl2 R2 I2 +

V1 Xm Rc V2
 ku.ac.ae 37

Simplified T-Equivalent Circuit

• As a consequence of the previous point, simplified model can be used to model the system :

Req1  R1  R2 X eq1  X l1  Xl2

I1
+ Ie I2 +

V1 Xm Rc
V2
 ku.ac.ae 38

Remarks on Real Transformers

• When designing the transformer, special attention should be made to avoid operating in the
saturation region.
• When saturation occurs, the excitation current is significant and causes loss and
harmonics to exist

I1 Ie I2

Xm Rc
 ku.ac.ae 39

Remarks on Real Transformers

• As long as the core is unsaturated , the ideal relations hold with very little error :

V1 I1 1
a 
V2 I2 a

Important Note :
• Please pay attention to the superscript comma or prime.
• V’ and V for example are not the same.
• The ‘real’ measured value is always the unprimed one
 ku.ac.ae 40

Summary

i1  t  N1 N2 i2  t 
 ku.ac.ae 41

Summary of Referring Variables

Secondary Referred to Primary Primary Referred to Secondary
Variables Variables
Voltage
V2  aV2 V1  V1 / a
Current
I2  I2 / a I1  a I1
Resistance
R2  a2 R2 R1  R1 / a2
Inductance
X x2  a2 X x2 X x1  X x1 / a2
Core-
Resistance
Keep As it is
Rc  Rc / a2
 ku.ac.ae 42

Secondary Referred to Primary

Req1  R1  R2 X eq1  X l1  Xl2

I1
+ Ie I2 +

V1 Xm Rc
V2
 ku.ac.ae 43

Primary Referred to Secondary

Req2  R1  R2 X eq2  X l1  X l 2

I1
+ Ie I2 +

V1 X m Rc V2

 ku.ac.ae 44

T-Equivalent Circuit Parameter

Identification

Req , X eq , X m , Rc
 ku.ac.ae 45

Open-Circuit Test
1. The coil with higher number of turns is open-circuited (WHY?)

2. Sinusoidal-Excitation is applied to the other coil

3. Record the voltage, current and power applied by your source

4. Core Resistance and Magnetizing Reactance are solved for

 ku.ac.ae 46

Open-Circuit Test
• Example : Primary coil has 10 turns while secondary coil has 20 turns.

• Note :
• There are two options for the T-equivalent circuit. Use the one which is more convenient to
solve
• Series elements can be ignored
 ku.ac.ae 47

Short-Circuit Test
1. Coil with less number of turns is short-circuited (WHY?)

2. Sinusoidal excitation applied to the other coil

3. Record the voltage, current and power supplied by the source

4. Series equivalent elements are solved for

 ku.ac.ae 48

Short-Circuit Test
• Example : Primary coil has 10 turns while secondary coil has 20 turns.

• Note :
• There are two options for the T-equivalent circuit. Use the one which is more convenient to
solve
• Excitation-branch can be ignored
 ku.ac.ae 49

Transformer Loading
Efficiency
&
Voltage Regulation
 ku.ac.ae 50

Transformer Loading
• Transformers are designed to operate under rated or full-load conditions
• Rated operating conditions refer to the situation when the apparent power at the secondary side is
equal to the transformer rated apparent power

Stransformer  Sload
 ku.ac.ae 51

Transformer Loading
• For example given the transformer below is connected to a lagging load with power factor of 0.8
and at rated conditions, the secondary current flowing is given by

r1 Ll1 Ll2 r2

i2
30 kVA + pf = 0.8 lagging
Lm1 500/2000
Rc V (always rms) v2
60 Hz
 ku.ac.ae 52

Voltage Regulation
• The output voltage of a transformer varies depending on the loading conditions, even if the same input
voltage is applied

• Voltage regulation is a metric used to quantify how much variation in the output voltage occurs from no-
load conditions to full-load (rated) conditions.

VS ,nl VS , fl
VR = 100
VS , fl
• We aim usually for as small as possible VR. Ideal transformer has VR = 0
 ku.ac.ae 53

Voltage Regulation
• Vs,fl refers to the secondary voltage at rated conditions
• Vs,nl refers to the secondary voltage at no-load conditions
• How to find the latter ? Since at no-load the ideal relationship Vp / Vs = a holds, then :
Vp
 VS , fl V p  VS , fl
VR = a  100   100
VS , fl VS , fl
 ku.ac.ae 54

Voltage Regulation
• Applying KVL to the circuit gives the following equation which we will use to solve
for VR and study the voltage drops using phasors

V1 
 V2  Req ,2 I2  jX eq ,2 Is
a
 ku.ac.ae 55

Voltage Regulation
• The previous equation seems confusing :
• Why use the current that we found under rated conditions
• Why not from the beginning, for Vp / a (or sometimes written as V1 / a ) did we not just
substitute the given transformer rated secondary voltage
 ku.ac.ae 56

The Autotransformer

When small change in voltage is needed

 ku.ac.ae 57

The Autotransformer
• In a number of applications, a small change in voltage is required
• It is inefficient and costly to accomplish this task using a regular single-phase transformer with
two fully rated coils.
N1 N2

Vg  110V + Vload  120V

-
 ku.ac.ae 58

The Autotransformer
• Instead, a special kind of single-phase transformer, known as an autotransformer can be used
• In the lab you might pass by a device known as VARIAC, which is an autotransformer

Vg  110V + Vload  120V

- Autotransformer
 ku.ac.ae 59

The Autotransformer
 ku.ac.ae 60

Step-Up Autotransformer

+ ISE +
Series Winding
VSE NSE

IL
VH
+ + Common Winding
VL VC NC

IC
 ku.ac.ae 61

Step-Down Autotransformer

+ +
Series Winding VSE NSE

VH
+ +
Common Winding VC NC VL
 ku.ac.ae 62

Autotransformer Relationship
• Common and Series voltages and currents are related as
a regular transformer :
VC NC IC NSE 1
 a  
VSE NSE ISE NC a

• Voltage at the low-voltage and high-voltage terminals

are :
VH  VSE VC VL  VC

• Current at the low-voltage and high-voltage terminals

are :

IL  ISE  IC IH  ISE
 ku.ac.ae 63

Autotransformer Relationship
• Find a relationship between the two terminals :

VH  VC VSE IL  IC  ISE
NSE NSE
VSE  VC IC  ISE
NC NC
 ku.ac.ae 64

Autotransformer
• To find a relationship between the two terminals, substitute the previous equations :

VL NC I L NSE  NC
 , 
VH NC  N SE IH NC
 ku.ac.ae 65

Apparent Power
• The size of a transformer is related to its apparent power

SW

SI SO
 ku.ac.ae 66

Apparent Power
• Applying a simple derivation, we can come up with a relationship between the input and output
apparent powers (can be mathematically shown to be equal to each other) and the apparent
power in the transformer windings :

SIO NSE  NC

SW NSE

• Again SW is the apparent power travelling through the transformer’s windings (the rest travels
from primary to secondary without being coupled through the transformer’s windings.
• Knowing SW gives us an idea about the size of a transformer
 ku.ac.ae 67

Disadvantage of Autotransformers
• Autotransformers have some disadvantages, the biggest being the lack of electrical isolation
between the two windings.