HOW EVOLUTION WORKS

 The genetic make up of an organism is

known as its genotype.
 The organisms genotype (nature) and the
environment in which it lives (nurture)
regulate the characteristic traits of the
organism called as phenotype.
 Every time an organism develops a new
cell, a new copy of the DNA is also
produced. These DNA copies are identical
since any errors copying the genotype
may avert the cell from functioning
correctly.
 For a population to start evolving,
members of the population should
possess variations, which is the material
on which agents of evolution act.
 Without any genetic variation, the basic
mechanisms of evolutionary change
cannot activate.

2. Gene Flow

 Gene flow —a result of migrating

individuals that breed in a new location.
1. Mutation Genes from the immigrants may add new
alleles to the existing gene pool of the
 A mutation is a change in the DNA population or they may modify the allele
sequence of an organism. Mutations can frequencies already present if they come
result from errors in DNA replication from a population with different allele
during cell division, exposure to mutagens frequencies.
or a viral infection. o Pollen/spores being dispersed by
 Very occasionally, little copying alteration air in new location.
or change (mutations) occurs during the o Animals hibernating and
process of DNA replication. Caused by a
transferring to a new locale due to
number of factors such as radiation,
changes in temperatures.
viruses, or carcinogens.
o Humans moving to another cities
 The blueprint of any cell function is
or countries.
dictated by its genotype, even a minute of
 Genetic variations will be the product of
mutation might mean that the cells fail to
genes that are carried to a population
work properly.
where those genes previously did not
 Due to the potential for mutation, most
exist.
species have a group of specialized
enzymes that function in any mishap in the
DNA.

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  These identical twins married identical
twins. Now they have sons. The
Salyerses' unusual marriages are known
as a quaternary marriage, and their sons
are known as quaternary twins.

Natural Selections

 Darwin's theory of natural selection in

3. Recombinations species, encompasses the statement
"when the environment changes natural
 Because of sexual reproduction, new gene
selection often favors different traits in a
combinations are introduced into a
species."
population.
 Siblings are not genetically identical to
their parents or even to each other
because when organisms reproduce
sexually, some genetic "recombinations"
on how homologous chromosomes occur
during meiosis, bringing together new
combinations of genes.

4. Genetic Drift

 Genetic Drift — is any change in the allele

frequencies in population due to random
sampling. Artificial Selections
o Some generations leave behind a  Artificial selection is exactly the same
few more descendants than other mechanism as natural selection but it is
individuals. sort of controlled by human purpose rather
 Genetic drift may happen to all than natural forces.
populations since there is no means that
chance can be avoided. • E.g. Breeding dogs (Canis lupus)
 When certain predators lessen a
 Breeding of dogs is hence an example of
population of its prey to a very small
what biologist called as microevolution,
number, it results to low genetic variations.
wherein the frequency of alleles in the
When a few "original" individuals settle in
population has changed but not enough to
a new region, the resulting populations will
produce an actual new species.
not have all the alleles found among the
members of the population.Resulting Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium (HWE)
pattern of genetic variation is known as
 Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium (HWE) is a
founder effect
principle in population genetics that
explains how the frequencies of alleles
(different versions of a gene) in a
population will remain constant over time if
certain conditions are met.
 The HWE principle states that in a
population:

• The frequency of each allele (e.g., A and a) will

remain the same from one generation to the next.

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• The frequency of different genotypes (e.g., AA,
Aa, and aa) can be predicted from the allele
frequencies.

Modes of speciation

Allopatric speciation or geographic speciation

(allo — other, patric — place; 'other place')
 occurs when some members of a
 The conditions that need to be met for population become geographically
HWE are: separated from the other members
o No mutations that create or destroy thereby preventing gene flow. Examples of
alleles. geographic barriers are bodies of water
o No migration (movement of and mountain ranges.
individuals in or out of the Sympatric speciation
population). (sym — same, patric — place; 'same place')
o No natural selection (where certain
 occurs when members of a population that
traits or genotypes have an
initially occupy the same habitat within the
advantage in survival and
same range diverge into two or more
reproduction).
different species. It involves abrupt genetic
o A large population size. changes that quickly lead to the
o Random mating (where individuals reproductive isolation of a group of
choose their mates without any individuals. Example is change in
preference for particular traits). chromosome number (polyploidization).
 When these conditions are met, the
Parapatric speciation
frequency of alleles and genotypes will
(para — beside, patric — place; 'beside each
remain stable over generations, and the
other')
population is said to be in Hardy-Weinberg
Equilibrium.  occurs when the groups that evolved to be
 The HWE principle is useful for studying separate species are geographic
how populations evolve over time and how neighbors. Gene flow occurs but with
genetic factors contribute to certain great distances is reduced. There is also
diseases or traits. abrupt change in the environment over a
geographic border and strong disruptive
Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms:
selection must also happen.

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