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FLUID FLOW KINEMATICS

Hydrokinematics
The science which deals with the geometry of motion of fluids without
reference to the forces causing the motion is known as hydrokinematics
or simply kinematics.

Thus kinematics involves merely the description of the motion of fluids

in terms of space-time relationship.

A fluid unlike solid, is composed of different particles, which move at

different velocities and may be subject to different accelerations.

Moreover, the velocity and acceleration of a fluid particle may change

both with respect to time and space. Therefore in the study of fluid flow
it is necessary to observe the motion of fluid particles at various points in
space and at successive instants of time.

There are in general two methods by which the motion of a fluid may be
described. i) Lagrangian method and ii) the Eulerian method

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i) Lagrangian method
In the Lagrangian method any individual fluid particle is selected, which
is pursued throughout its course of motion and the observation is made
about the behaviour of this particle during its course of motion through
space.
ii) Eulerian method
In the Eulerian method any point in the space occupied by the fluid is
selected and observation is made of whatever changes of velocity,
density and pressure which take place at that point.

Out of these two methods the Eulerian method is commonly adopted in

fluid mechanics.

i) Lagrangian method
In the Cartesian system, the position of the
fluid particle in space (x, y, z) at any time t
from its position (a, b, c) at time t = 0 shall be
given as

The velocity and acceleration components (obtained by taking

derivatives with respect to time) are given by

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At any point, the resultant velocity or acceleration shall be the resultant

of three components of the respective quantity at that point.

Similarly, other quantities like pressure, density, etc. can be found.

This method entails the following shortcomings:
1. Cumbersome and complex, and
2. The equations of motion are very difficult to solve and the
motion is hard to understand.
ii) Eulerian method
This method is almost exclusively used in fluid mechanics, especially
because of its mathematical simplicity.
In fluid mechanics, we are not concerned with the motion of each
particle, but we study the general state of motion at various points in the
fluid system.

The velocities at any point (x, y, z) can be written as:

The components of acceleration of the fluid particle can be worked out

by partial differentiation as follows:

But

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Thus the acceleration consists of the two parts:

This part is due to change in position or movement and is
called convective (or spatial) acceleration.

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This part is with respect to time at a given location and is

called local (or temporal) acceleration.

Tangential and normal acceleration:

Tangential acceleration
as =

Normal acceleration
an =

Types of Fluid Flow.

Fluids may be classified as follows:
i) Steady and unsteady flows
ii) Uniform and non-uniform flows
iii) One, two and three-dimensional flows
iv) Rotational and irrotational flows
v) Laminar and turbulent flows

i) Steady and unsteady flows

Steady flow: The type of flow in which the fluid characteristics like
velocity, pressure, density, etc. at a point do not change with time is
called steady flow.
Mathematically, we have:

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where (x0, y0, z0) is a fixed point in a fluid field where these variables are
being measured w.r.t. time.
Example: Flow through a prismatic or non-prismatic conduit at a
constant flow rate Q (m3/s) is steady.
(A prismatic conduit has a constant size shape and has a velocity
equation in the form u = ax2 + bx + c, which is independent of time t).
Unsteady flow: It is that type of flow in which the fluid characteristics
like velocity, pressure or density at a point change w.r.t. time.
Mathematically, we have:

Example: The flow in a pipe whose valve is being opened or closed

gradually (velocity equation is in the form u = ax2 + bxt ).

ii) Uniform and non-uniform flows

The type of flow, in which the velocity at any given time does not change
with respect to space is called uniform flow.
Mathematically, we have:

where, ∂V = Change in velocity, and

∂s = Displacement in any direction
Example: Flow through a straight prismatic conduit (i.e. flow through a
straight pipe of constant diameter).
Non-uniform flow: It is that type of flow in which the velocity at any
given time changes with respect to space.
Mathematically, we have:

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Example:
(i) Flow through a non-prismatic conduit
(ii) Flow around a uniform diameter pipe-bend or a canal bend
All these types of flows can exist independent of each other so that any
of the four types of combinations of flows is possible, viz., (a) steady-
uniform flow; (b) steady-non-uniform flow; (c) unsteady uniform flow;
and (d) unsteady-non-uniform flow.
Some of the common examples of these combinations of flows are:
 Flow of liquid through a long pipe of constant diameter at a constant
rate is steady uniform flow;
 Flow of liquid through a long pipe line of constant diameter, at either
increasing or decreasing rate is unsteady-uniform flow;
 Flow of liquid through a tapering pipe at a constant rate is steady-non-
uniform flow; and
 Flow through a tapering pipe at either increasing or decreasing rate is
unsteady-non-uniform flow.

iii) One, two and three-dimensional flows

The various characteristics of flowing fluid such as velocity, pressure,
density, temperature etc., are in general the functions of space and time
i.e., these may vary with the coordinates of any point x, y and z and time
t. Such a flow is known as a three-dimensional flow.
If any of these characteristics of flowing fluid does not vary with respect
to time, then it will be a steady three-dimensional flow.

Figure: One, Two and Three-dimensional flows

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Mathematically,

Examples:
(i) Flow in a converging or diverging pipe or channel
(ii) Flow in a prismatic open channel in which the width and the
water depth are of the same order of magnitude.
Two-dimensional flow: When the various characteristics of flowing
fluid are the functions of only any two of the three coordinate directions,
and time t, i.e., these may not vary in any one of the directions, then the
flow is known as two-dimensional flow.
For example, if the characteristics of flowing fluid do not vary in the
coordinate direction Z, then it will be a two-dimensional flow having
flow conditions identical in the various planes perpendicular to the Z-
axis.

Again it will be a steady two-dimensional flow if the characteristics of

flowing fluid do not vary with respect to time.
Mathematically,

Examples:
(i) Flow between parallel plates of infinite extent
(ii) Flow in the main stream of a wide river
One-dimensional flow: When the various characteristics of flowing
fluid are the functions of only one of the three coordinate directions and
time t, i.e., these may vary only in one direction, then the flow is known
as one-dimensional flow.
Similarly, it will be a steady one dimensional flow if the characteristics
of flowing fluid do not vary with respect to time.
Similarly, it will be a steady one dimensional flow if the characteristics
of flowing fluid do not vary with respect to time.

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Mathematically,
Example:
Flow in a pipe where average flow parameters are considered for
analysis.
The problems involving three-dimensional flow are quite complicated
because of the variation of the characteristics of flowing fluid with x, y
and z, and t.
Even in steady three-dimensional flow the variation of the characteristics
of flowing fluid with x, y and z render the problems fairly complicated to
solve.
In this respect the assumption of either two-dimensional flow or one-
dimensional flow, considerably simplifies the problem making it
amenable to analytical solution.

iv) Rotational and irrotational flows

Rotational flow: A flow is said to be rotational if the fluid particles
while moving in the direction of flow rotate about their mass centres.

Flow near the solid boundaries is rotational. Example: Motion of liquid

in a rotating tank.
Irrotational flow: A flow is said to be irrotational if the fluid particles
while moving in the direction of flow do not rotate about their mass
centres.
Flow outside the boundary layer is generally considered irrotational.
Example: Flow above a drain hole of a stationary tank or a wash basin.

iv) Laminar and turbulent flows

Laminar flow. A laminar flow is one in which paths taken by the
individual particles do not cross one another and move along well
defined paths. This type of flow is also called stream-line flow or viscous
flow.
Examples. (i) Flow through a capillary
tube. (ii) Flow of blood in veins and
arteries. (iii) Ground water flow.

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Turbulent flow: A turbulent flow is that flow in which fluid particles

move in a zig zag way. Example. High velocity flow in a conduit of large
size.

Nearly all fluid flow problems encountered in engineering practice have

a turbulent character.
Laminar and turbulent flows are characterised on the basis of Reynolds
number.

Open channel flow

Types of Flow Lines

Whenever a fluid is in motion, its innumerable particles move along
certain lines depending upon the conditions of flow.
i) Path line:
A path line is the path followed by a fluid particle in motion. A path line
shows the direction of particular particle as it moves ahead.
In general, this is the curve in three-dimensional space. However, if the
conditions are such that the flow is two-dimensional the curve becomes
two-dimensional

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ii) Stream line:

A stream line may be defined as an imaginary line within the flow so that
the tangent at any point on it indicates the velocity at that point.
Equation of a stream line in
a three-dimensional flow is
given as:

Following points about streamlines are worth noting:

 A streamline cannot intersect itself, nor two streamlines can cross.

 There cannot be any movement of the fluid mass across the

streamlines.
 Streamline spacing varies inversely as the velocity; converging of
streamlines in any particular direction shows accelerated flow in that
direction.

 Whereas a path line gives the path of one particular particle at

successive instants of time, a streamline indicates the direction of a
number of particles at the same instant.
 The series of streamlines represent the flow pattern at an instant.
Note:
 In steady flow, the pattern of streamlines remains invariant with time.
The path lines and streamlines will then be identical.
 In unsteady flow, the pattern of streamlines may or may not remain
the same at the next instant.
iii) Stream Tube:
A stream tube is a fluid mass bounded by a group of streamlines. The
contents of a stream tube are known as ‘current filament’.

Examples of stream tube:

Pipes and nozzles.

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Following points about stream tube are worth noting:

 The stream tube has finite dimensions.
 As there is no flow perpendicular to stream lines, therefore, there is no
flow across the surface (called stream surface) of the stream tube. The
stream surface functions as if it were a solid wall.
 The shape of a stream tube changes from one instant to another
because of change in the position of streamlines.
iv) Streak Line:
The streak line is a curve which gives an instantaneous picture of the
location of the fluid particles, which have passed through a given point.
Examples
(i) The path taken by smoke coming out of chimney.
(ii) In an experimental work to trace the motion of fluid particles, a
coloured dye may be injected into the flowing fluid and the resulting
coloured filament lines at a given location give the streak lines

Figure: Streak line of smoke Figure: Streak lines at t = t1

issuing from a nozzle

Note:
 In case of a steady flow there is no geometrical distinction between
the streamlines, path lines and streak lines; they are coincident if they
originate at the same point.
 For an unsteady flow (e.g. a person giving out whiff of smoke from a
cigarette), the path, streak and stream lines are all different.

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Figure: Streak–lines in unsteady flow

Problem: For a given velocity field vx = x/(1+t) and vy = y draw stream

lines, path lines and streak lines.
Solution:

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Rotational and Irrotational Motion

A fluid particle as it moves can undergo the following four types of
displacements viz., (i) Linear translation or pure translation, (ii) Linear
deformation, (iii) Angular deformation, and (iv) Rotation.

A fluid particle is said to

have undergone linear or
pure translation if it moves
bodily in such a way that
the two axes ab and cd
have their new positions
represented by a'b' and
c'd' which are parallel to
the previous ones, as
shown in Figure (a) below.

Figure: Displacements of fluid particles

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A fluid particle is said to have undergone linear deformation if as it

moves it gets deformed in the linear direction, so that two axes a'b' and
c'd' of the deformed particle are parallel to the two axes ab and cd of the
undeformed particle, as shown in Figure (b) above.
It is thus observed that in the case of both linear translation and linear
deformation the fluid particles are displaced parallel to their original
position.
A fluid particle is said to have undergone angular deformation if it
deforms in such a way that the two axes ab and cd rotate by the same
amount but in opposite directions with respect to their previous positions
i.e., the clockwise rotation of the vertical axis cd is at the same rate as the
counterclockwise rotation of the horizontal axis ab as shown in Figure
(c) above.
A fluid particle is said to have undergone rotation if its both the
horizontal and the vertical axes rotate in the same direction as shown in
Figure (d) above.

When the fluid particles while moving in the direction of flow rotate
about their mass centres then the flow is said to be rotational flow.
The rotation of a fluid element may be defined in terms of the
components of rotation about three mutually perpendicular axes.
Mathematical expression for the rotation component about an axis
parallel to z-axis:
Let a fluid element at any point
P(x, y, z) has the velocity
components u and v in the x and
y directions respectively.
Consider any two line segments
PA and PB of lengths δx and δy,
taken parallel to the x and y
axes respectively for the sake of
convenience.
Figure: Rotation of rectangular fluid element about z-axis

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The velocity at A in the y direction will be

and the velocity at B in the x direction will be

Since the velocities at P and A in the y direction are different, there will
be an angular velocity developed for the linear element PA.
Similarly the velocities at P and B in the x direction are different and
hence there will be an angular velocity developed for the linear element
PB.
Now if during a time interval of dt the elements PA and PB have moved,
relative to P, to new positions PA' and PB' as indicated by the dotted
lines, then the angular velocity (wPA) of element PA about Z axis is

Similarly, the angular velocity (ωPB) of element PB about Z axis is

The negative sign has been introduced because the motion in the
anticlockwise direction has been considered as positive.
The rotation component about any axis may be defined as the average
angular velocity of any two infinitesimal linear elements in the particle
that are perpendicular to each other and to the axis of rotation (in this
case it is Z axis).
Thus by the above definition the rotation component ωz of a particle
situated at point P is

By adopting the same procedure the rotation components about the x and
y axes will be obtained as

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and

If at every point in the flowing fluid the rotation components ωx, ωy and
ωz are equal to zero, then the flow is known as irrotational flow. Thus for
a flow to be irrotational the following conditions must be satisfied
throughout the flow field.

For

For (1)

For

In vector notation the rotation of a fluid at a point is expressed as

where

Thus

The condition for the flow to be irrotational may be expressed as

curl V = ∇×V = 0
which is equivalent to the condition expressed by Equation (1).

The rotation of a fluid particle is always associated with shear stress,

because the rotation can be caused only by a torque exerted on the fluid
particle and this will be produced by the shear forces.

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As such in the case of flow of fluids having larger viscosity or in the

regions of flow field where the viscosity of the fluid has predominance
the flow is invariably rotational flow.

However, in the case of fluids such as air or water having small viscosity
the flow in the region away from the boundary may for all practical
purposes be treated as irrotational.

Moreover, in the case of rapidly converging or accelerating flows the

flow may be treated as irrotational. The consideration of an irrotational
flow in general leads to a simplified analysis of fluid flow problems.

Circulation and Vorticity

The flow along a closed curve is called circulation (i.e., the flow in
eddies and vortices).
The mathematical concept of circulation is the line integral, taken
completely around a closed curve, of the tangential component of the
velocity vector.

Let us consider a closed curve in a two-dimensional flow field shown in

Figure below; the curve being cut by the stream lines.
Let P be the point of intersection of the curve with one stream line, θ be
the angle which the stream line makes with the curve.
The component of velocity along the closed curve at the point of
intersection is equal to Vcosθ.

By the definition the circulation Γ

(Greek, capital ‘gamma’) around a
closed curve C is

where, V is the velocity in the flow

field at the element ds, and θ is the
angle between V and tangent to the
path (in the positive anticlockwise
direction along the path) at that Figure: Circulation in
point. a two-dimensional flow

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Circulation around regular curves can be obtained by integration.

Now, let us consider the circulation around an elementary box (fluid
element ABCD) shown in Figure below.
Starting from A and proceeding anticlockwise, we have

The vorticity (Ω) is defined as

the circulation per unit of
enclosed area,

Thus

Figure: Irrotational flow condition

If a flow possesses vorticity, it is rotational.

Rotation ω (omega) is defined as one-half of the vorticity, i.e.,

The flow is irrotational if rotation ω is zero.

For a three-dimensional flow the rotation is possible about three axes.
The expressions for rotation ωz, ωx and ωy can be obtained in like
manner.

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In the vector notation, the above equation can be rewritten as

The vector (∇×V) is the curl of velocity vector.

Vorticity in a fluid motion is taken numerically equal to twice the value
of rotation.
Vorticity, Ω = curl V = (∇×V)
Which may be expressed as

The vorticity components are separately given by

The motion is described as irrotational when the components of rotation

or vorticity are ‘zero’ throughout certain portion of the fluid.

When torque is applied to the fluid particle it will give rise to rotation;
the torque is due to shear stress.
Therefore, the rotation of fluid particle will always be associated with
shear stress.
As the shear stresses, in turn, depend upon the viscosity, the rotational
flow occurs where the viscosity effects are predominant.

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However, in the cases where the viscosity effects are small, the flow is
sometimes assumed to be irrotational. This simplifies analysis of
problems of fluid flow.

Velocity Potential and Stream Function

Velocity Potential or Velocity Potential Function or Potential
Function (ϕ)
The velocity potential is defined as a scalar function of space and time
such that its negative derivative with respect to any direction gives the
fluid velocity in that direction. It is denoted by ϕ (phi).
Thus mathematically the velocity potential is defined as:

and

such that:

(1)

where, u, v and w are the components of velocity in the x, y and z

directions respectively.

The negative sign signifies that ϕ decreases with an increase in the values
of x, y and z.
In other words it indicates that the flow is always in the direction of
decreasing ϕ.
For an incompressible steady flow the continuity equation is given by

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(2)

By substituting the values of u, v and w in terms of ϕ from Equation (1),

we get

(3)

This equation is known as Laplace equation.

Thus any function ϕ that satisfies the Laplace equation will correspond to
some case of fluid flow.
The rotational components are given by

By substituting the values of u, v and w in term of ϕ from Equation (1),

we get

However, if ϕ is a continuous function then,

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Thus if velocity potential (ϕ) satisfies the Laplace equation, it represents

the possible steady, incompressible, irrotational flow. Often an
irrotational flow is known as potential flow.

Equipotential line: An equipotential line is one along which velocity

potential ϕ is constant. i.e. For equipotential line, ϕ = constant.
∴ dϕ = 0

But, ϕ = f(x, y) for steady flow.

But,

∴
For equipotential line, dϕ = 0
or, – ( udx + vdy) = 0
or, (udx + vdy) = 0

or, dy/dx = – u/v

where, dy/dx = slope of equipotential line.
Stream Function (ψ)
The stream function is defined as a scalar function of space and time,
such that its partial derivative with respect to any direction gives the
velocity component at right angles to this direction. It is denoted by ψ
(psi).
In case of two-dimensional flow, the stream function may be defined
mathematically as

For two-dimensional flow the continuity equation is

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Substituting the values of u and v

Hence, existence of ψ means a possible case of fluid flow.

The flow may be ‘rotational’ or ‘irrotational’.

The rotational component ωz is given by

Substituting the values of u and v

This equation is known as Poisson’s equation.

For an irrotational flow, since ωz = 0, then above equation becomes

which is the Laplace equation in ψ.

In the polar co-ordinates:

Let ψ(x, y) represent the stream line L (See Figure below).

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Figure: Flow between two points and its relation to stream function

The (ψ + dψ) represents the adjacent stream line M. The velocity vector
V perpendicular to the line AB has components u and v in the direction of
X-axis and Y-axis respectively.
From continuity consideration, we have
Flow across, AB = Flow across AO + Flow across OB
i.e., Vds = – vdx + udy

(The minus sign indicates that the velocity v is acting in the downward
direction)

or,

i.e.,

Obviously, the stream function can also be defined as the flux or flow
rate between two stream lines. The units of ψ are m3/s (discharge) per
unit thickness of flow.

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Properties of stream function

The properties of stream function are:
i) On any stream line, ψ is constant everywhere.

ii) If the flow is continuous, the flow around any path in the fluid is
zero.
iii) The rate of change of ψ with distance in arbitrary direction is
proportional to the component of velocity normal to that direction.
iv) The algebraic sum of stream function for two incompressible flow
patterns is the stream function for the flow resulting from the
superimposition of these patterns.

i.e.,

Cauchy Riemann equations

From the above discussion of velocity potential function and stream
function
 Potential function (ϕ) exists only for irrotational flow.
 Stream function (ψ) applies to both the rotational and
irrotational flows (which are steady and incompressible).
 In case of irrotational flow, both the stream function and
velocity function satisfy Laplace equation and as such they are
interchangeable.
For irrotational incompressible flow, the following relationship between
ϕ and ψ holds good.

These equations, in hydrokinematics, are sometimes called “Cauchy

Riemann equations”.

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Relation between Stream Function (ψ) and Velocity Potential (ϕ)

One of the properties of a stream function is that the difference of its
values at two points represent the flow across any line joining the points.
Thus if two points lie on the same stream line, then, there being no flow
across a stream line, the difference between the stream functions ψ1 and
ψ2 = 0; this means the streamline is given by
ψ = constant
Similarly, ϕ = constant, represents a case for which the velocity potential
is same at every point, and hence it represents an equipotential line.
Let, two curves ϕ = constant and ψ = constant intersect each other at any
point.
At the point of intersection the slopes are
For the curve ϕ = constant:

For the curve ψ = constant:

Now, product of the slopes of these curves

It shows that these two sets of curves, viz stream lines and equipotential
lines intersect each other orthogonally at all points of intersection.

Flow Nets
A grid obtained by drawing a series of stream lines and equipotential
lines is known as a flow net.
The flow net provides a simple graphical technique for studying two-
dimensional irrotational flows especially in the cases where
mathematical relations for stream function and velocity function are
either not available or are rather difficult and cumbersome to solve.

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Figure: Typical flow nets

Use of flow nets:

 To determine the stream lines and equipotential lines.
 To determine quantity of seepage and upward lift pressure below
hydraulic structure.
 To determine the velocity and pressure distribution, for given
boundaries of flow (provided the velocity distribution and pressure at
any reference section are known).
 To determine the design of the outlets for their streamlining.

Limitations of flow nets:

 The flow net analysis cannot be applied in the region close to the
boundary where the effects of viscosity are predominant.
 In case of a flow of a fluid past a solid body, while the flow net gives
a fairly accurate picture of the flow pattern for the upstream part of the
solid body, it can give little information concerning the flow
conditions at the rear because of separation and eddies.

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Problem: A flow net is plotted for a homogeneous earthen dam of height

25 m and length 2000 m with free board 2 m. The results obtained
indicate number of potential drops as 10 and number of flow channels as
4. Calculate the discharge through the dam if the coefficient of
permeability of the dam material is 5×10-4 cm/s.

Solution

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Basic Principles of Fluid Flow

(i) Principle of conservation of mass
(ii) Principle of conservation of energy
(iii) Principle of conservation of momentum
(i) Principle of conservation of mass:
The principle of conservation of mass states that mass can neither be
created nor destroyed. On the basis of this principle the continuity
equation is derived.
(ii) Principle of conservation of energy:
The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be
created nor destroyed. On the basis of this principle the energy equation
is derived.
(iii) Principle of conservation of momentum:
The principle of conservation of momentum or impulse momentum
principle states that the impulse of the resultant force, or the product of
the force and time increment during which it acts, is equal to the change
in the momentum of the body. On the basis of this principle the
momentum equation is derived.

In applying these principles usually control volume approach is adopted,

in which a definite volume with fixed boundary shape is chosen in space
along the fluid flow passage.
This definite volume is called the control volume and the boundary of
this volume is known as the control surface.
The boundaries of the control volume may be extended up to such an
extent that it includes the portion of the flow passage which is to be
studied.
In fact the use of the Eulerian method for describing fluid motion,
implies the use of the control volume approach without specifying it.
Continuity Equation:
The continuity equation is actually mathematical statement of the
principle of conservation of mass.
A most general expression on the basis of this principle may be obtained
by considering a fixed region within a flowing fluid as shown in Figure
below.

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Figure: Diagrammatic representation of the principle of conservation of

mass

Since fluid is neither created nor destroyed within this region it may be
stated that the rate of increase of the fluid mass contained within the
region must be equal to the difference between the rate at which the fluid
mass enters the region and the rate at which the fluid mass leaves the
region.

However if the flow is steady, the rate of increase of the fluid mass
within the region is equal to zero, then the rate at which the fluid mass
enters the region is equal to the rate at which the fluid mass leaves the
region.
This relation is used to derive a general equation of continuity for a three
dimensional steady or unsteady flow, as indicated below.

Continuity Equation in Cartesian Coordinates

Consider an elementary rectangular parallelopiped with sides of length
δx, δy and δz as shown in Figure below.
Let the centre of the parallelopiped be at a point P(x, y, z) where the
velocity components in the x, y, z direction are u, v and w respectively
and ρ be the mass density of the fluid.
The mass of fluid passing per unit time through the face of area δy δz
normal to the x-axis through point P, is (ρu δy δz).
Then the mass of fluid flowing per unit time into the parallelopiped
through the face ABCD is

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Figure: Elementary rectangular parallelopiped

In the above expression negative sign has been used because face ABCD
is on the left of point P.
Similarly, the mass of fluid flowing per unit time out of the
parallelopiped through the face A'B'C'D' is

Therefore, the net mass of fluid that has remained in the parallelopiped
per unit time through the pair of faces ABCD and A'B'C'D' is obtained as

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The area (δy δz) has been taken out of the parentheses since it is not a
function of x.
By applying the same procedure the net mass of fluid that remains in the
parallelopiped per unit time through the other two pairs of faces of the
parallelopiped may also be obtained as

By adding all these expressions the net total mass of fluid that has
remained in the parallelopiped per unit time is obtained as

Since the fluid is neither created nor destroyed in the parallelopiped, any
increase in the mass of the fluid contained in this space per unit time is
equal to the net total mass of fluid that remained in the parallelopiped per
unit time, which is represented by the above expression.

The mass of the fluid in the parallelopiped is (ρ δx δy δz) and its rate of
increase with time is

Equating the two expressions

Dividing both sides of the above expression by the volume of the

parallelopiped (δx δy δz) and taking the limit so that the parallelopiped
shrinks to the point P(x, y, z), the continuity equation is obtained as

This equation represents the continuity equation in cartesian coordinates

in its most general form which is applicable for steady as well as
unsteady flow, uniform and non-uniform flow, and compressible as well
as incompressible fluids.

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For steady flow since, ∂ρ/∂t = 0, this equation reduces to

Further for an incompressible fluid the mass density ρ does not change
with x, y, z and t and hence the equation simplifies to

In vector notation the continuity equation may be expressed as

in which

and

Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Polar Coordinates

Consider any point P(r, θ, z) in
space. Let δr, δθ and δz be the
small increments in the directions
r, θ and z respectively, so that PS =
δr, PQ =rδθ and PT = δz.

Construct an elementary
parallelopiped as shown in Figure.
Let Vr, Vθ and Vz be the
components of the velocity V in the
directions of r, θ and z at point P.
Further let ρ represent
the mass density of
fluid at point P.

Figure: Elementary cylindrical parallelopiped

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Considering the pair of faces PST'Q and P'S'TQ', the mass of fluid
entering the parallelopiped per unit time through the face PST'Q
= ρVz (δr × rδθ)
Mass of fluid leaving the parallelopiped per unit time through the face
P'S'TQ'

Therefore, the net mass of fluid that has remained in the parallelopiped
per unit time through this pair of faces

Similarly, the net mass of fluid that remains in the parallelopiped per unit
time through the pair of faces PTQ'S and P'T'QS'

and that through the pair of faces PQS' T' and P'Q'ST

By adding all these expressions the net total mass of fluid that has
remained in the parallelopiped per unit time through all the three pairs of
faces

The mass of fluid in the parallelopiped = ρ (δr δz rδθ) and its rate of
increase with time

Thus equating the two expressions

Dividing both sides of the above expression by the volume of the

parallelopiped (δr δz rδθ) and taking the limit so as to reduce the
parallelopiped to point P, the continuity equation is obtained as

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This equation represents the continuity equation in cylindrical polar

coordinates in its most general form which is applicable for steady or
unsteady flow, uniform or non-uniform flow and compressible or
incompressible fluids.
Again for steady flow since, ∂ρ/∂t = 0, the above equation reduces to

Further for an incompressible fluid the mass density ρ does not change
with r, θ, z and t and hence the above equation simplifies to

Rate of Flow or Discharge

Rate of flow (or discharge) is defined as the quantity of a liquid flowing
per second through a section of pipe or a channel. It is generally denoted
by Q.

Let us consider a liquid flowing through a pipe.

Let, A = Area of cross-section of the pipe, and
V = Average velocity of the liquid.
∴ Discharge, Q = Area × average velocity
i.e., Q = A.V

If area is in m2 and velocity is in m/s, then

Q = m2 × m/s = m3/s = cumecs.

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Velocity distribution curves for laminar and turbulent flows in a pipe

For laminar flow:

Mean Velocity ( V )

V=Q/A

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