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HUMAN BEHAVIOR
Human Being
 Intelligent social animals with the mental capacity to comprehend, infer and think in rational ways.

Behavior
 It is the response of the system or organism to various stimuli or inputs.

HUMAN BEHAVIOR
 Anything an individual does that involves self-initiated action and/or reaction to a given situation.
 The sum total of man's reaction to his environment or the way human beings act.
 Is the collection of behaviors exhibited by human beings and influenced by culture, society, values,
morals, ethics and genetics.

Individual Differences
 No two people are alike.
 Men differs from women - qualitative differences; and physical differences
 People differ from day-to-day activities.

Deviant Behavior
 It is a behavior that deviates from the norms and standards of the society. It is NOT
criminal behavior but it has the tendency to become abnormal behavior, it will become criminals when
it violates the provision of the criminal law.

Criminal Behavior
 Is the intentional behavior that violates a criminal code; intentional in that it did not occurs
accidentally or under duress.
 Modern Criminologists regard crime as social phenomenon: meaning – an individual’s
criminal behavior could be attributed directly or indirectly with his experiences and interactions to his
social environment. Thus, one’s knowledge of human behaviors will give him better understanding as
to the causes of normal and abnormal behaviors which eventually lead to criminal behaviors.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT HUMAN BEHAVIOR (Determinants of Behavior)

1. Heredity / Biological Factors (nature) - genetic inheritance; it is the passing of traits to offspring
(from its parent or ancestors). It explains that certain emotional aggression, our intelligence, ability and
potentials and our physical appearance are inherited.

2. Environment (nurture) - socio-cultural inheritance; refers to surroundings of an object. It consists of

conditions and factors that surround and influence behavioral pattern.
Further, environment as factor affecting behavior pertains to all conditions inside and outside
of an organism that is in any way influence behavior, growth, development of life process.

a. Physical Environment (External Forces) - all things in this world that affect man directly and
stimulates the sense organs; social environment are physical influences steaming from outside
contact with other people.
a.1. Primary Social Group – Home, neighborhood..
a.2. Broader Social Group – School, church, Criminal Justice System

b. Internal Environment - the immediate environment within which the genes exist and function.
b.1. biological condition of the body
b.2. exist in the intercellular and extra cellular

Some Environmental factors are:

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a. Childhood Trauma - which affect the feeling of security of a child undergoing development
processes.
b. Pathogenic Family Structure – those families associated with high frequency of problems such
as:
 Inadequate family – characterized by the inability to cope with the ordinary problems of
family living. It lacks the resources, physical or psychological, for meeting the demands of
family satisfaction.
 Anti-social family – those that espouses unacceptable values as a result of the influence of
parents to their children.
 Discordant/disturbed family – characterized by dissatisfaction of one or both parent from
the relationship that may express feeling of frustration. This is usually due to value
differences as common sources of conflict and dissatisfaction.
 Disrupted family – characterized by incompleteness whether as a result of death, divorce,
separation or some other circumstances.

c. Institutional Influences - peer groups, mass media, church and school, government
institutions, NGO’s, and the like.
d. Socio-cultural factors - war and violence, group prejudice and discrimination, economic and
employment problems and other social changes.
e. Nutrition – the quality of food that a person intake is also a factor that influence man to commit
crime because poverty is one of the many reasons to criminal behavior.

3. Self (Training / Learning) – fundamental functioning of the self-structure that we make about ourselves
and our world. These assumptions are based on learning:

Learning - is the process by which an individual’s behavior changes as a result of experience or

practice.

Three Kinds of Assumptions:

a. Reality assumptions – assumptions about how things really are and what kind of person
we are.
b. Possibility assumptions – assumptions about how things could be, about possibilities for
change, opportunities and social progress.
c. Value assumptions – assumptions about the way things ought to be, about right and
wrong.

BIOLOGICAL BACKGROUND OF BEHAVIOR

 Self-preservation - is keeping you alive, either physically or psychologically.

 The reason for self-preservation, reproduction; and
 A method to enhance self-preservation and reproduction, greed.

Stages of Growth - At birth, man is considered as blank except for reflexes necessary for survival.

A. The Pre-Natal Period

1. Ovum - first two (2) weeks
2. Embryo - from the second (2nd) week to the second (2nd) month
3. Fetus - second (2nd) month to birth
B. Infancy - first two (2) weeks after birth.
C. Babyhood - second (2nd week) to the second (2nd) year.
D. Childhood - which is divided into two (2):
1. Early Childhood - which is from two (2) years to six (6) years old
2. Late Childhood - which is from six (6) to eleven (11) or twelve (12) years old
E. Puberty - which marks the end of childhood and the beginning of adolescence
1. Early Adolescence - which from puberty to about seventeen (17) years old.
2. Late Adolescence - which from seventeen (17) to twenty-one (21) years old
F. Adulthood - which is from twenty-one (21) to forty (40) years
G. Middle Age - from forty (40) to sixty (60) years.
H. Old Age - from sixty (60) years and above.

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TWO BASIC TYPES OF BEHAVIOR

1. Inherited (Inborn) = refers to any behavioral reactions or reflexes exhibited by people because of their
inherited capabilities or the process of natural selection.
2. Learned (Operant) = involves knowing or adaptation that enhances human beings’ ability to cope with
changes in the environment in ways which improve the chances of survival. It may be acquired through
environment or training.

CAUSATION OF BEHAVIOR

1. Sensation - feeling or impression of stimulus; the goal of sensation is detection. Sensations are the
first stages in the functioning of senses to represent stimuli from the environment

a. Visual - sight
b. Auditory - hearing
c. Olfactory - smell
d. Gustatory – taste
e. Cutaneous - touch

2. Perception - refers to the person’s knowledge of a given stimulus which largely help to determine the
actual behavioral response in a given situation. It is the conscious recognition and interpretation of
sensory stimuli that serve as a basis for understanding, learning, and knowing or for motivating a
particular action or reaction.

The goal of perception is to create useful information of the surroundings. Perception is a

higher brain function about interpreting events and objects in the world.

3. Awareness - it is a psychological activity. It is the state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be

conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns. It is based on interpretation of past experiences
with a given stimulus or object.
ATTRIBUTES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR

1. Duration - length of time

2. Extensity - spatial characteristics
3. Intensity - magnitude
4. Quantity - amount

CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR

1. Conscious - It is any behavior that the person is aware of. State of awareness of thoughts, feelings,
perception and what is going on in the environment. It is an action you do from what you really wanted
to do.
2. Unconscious - It is any behavior that the person is not aware of. State of unawareness of thoughts,
feelings, and perception. It is doing anything without thinking of any motivation because it is
automatically done.
3. Overt - Open to public observation. A behavior that is observable by others, an obvious act and can be
seen readily.
4. Covert - a type of behavior that is an unobvious manner and that is being disguised and secret. It can't
be easily observed by other people such as thoughts, feelings or responses. Or a behavior that is
internal therefore not observable and cannot be seen.
5. Rational - Pertaining to reason influenced or guided by reason rather than emotion. A type of behavior
that is reasonable and used to explain the choices that people make with regards to achieving
satisfaction.
6. Irrational - Illogical. It is defined as unreasonable behavior or having no clear objective or meaning.
7. Voluntary – Intentional. Behavior that a person is naturally contributed to an action. It also means that
you have a free will and able to make a decision to take a specific action.
8. Involuntary - Doing something against your will, action made without intent or carried out despite an
attempt to prevent them. Behavior that can't be controlled over.
9. Simple - What you see is what you get.
10. Complex - compound complicated behavior or combination of simple behavior

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PSYCHOLOGY AND CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR

Criminal Psychology
 is the totality or sum of all actions, attitudes, thoughts, mental states of a person or groups of persons, it
is the science dealing with the mind of human being including animal behavior.
 the branch of psychology pertaining to the mind, the sum of all actions, attitude, thoughts, and mental
states, all that partakes in the criminal behavior.

Criminal Psychiatry
 It is a branch of psychiatry that deals with the evaluations, prevention and cure of criminal behavior.

Criminal Sociology
 It is a branch of sociology that studies about the criminal and to its relation to the social structure or
organization of society as well the process on how the criminal learn the behavior, both criminal and non-
criminal.
Structural - studies crime as its relatives to the social structure/organization of society.
Processual - the process on how people become criminal.

Copycat Crime - is a crime inspired by another crime that has been publicized in the news media
or fictionally or artistically represented in which the offender incorporates aspects of the original
offense.
PSYCHOLOGY OF HUMAN ADJUSTMENT

Adjustment - It is defined as the satisfaction of a need.

Most of man’s behavior can be trace to his attempts to satisfy his needs. All of us have certain fundamental
needs that we seek to satisfy. These needs create tensions in the human body. When we are able to satisfy our
needs, the tension disappears, adjustment has been made.

Three (3) Elements of the Adjustment Processes (Other Determinants of Behavior)

1. a need which arises
2. drives / motivations - leading towards
3. a goal - which satisfies the need

Needs are the triggering factor that drives or moves a person to act. It is a psychological state of tissue
deprivation. Drives are aroused state that results from some biological needs. The aroused condition motivates the
person to remedy the need. Motivation on the other hand refers to the causes and “why’s” of behavior as required
by a need.

Drive and motivation cover all of psychology, they energize behavior and give its direction to man’s
action. For example, a motivated individual is engaged in a more active, more vigorous, and more effective that
unmotivated one, thus a hungry person directs him to look for food.

THE NEEDS ACCORDING TO ABRAHAM MASLOW

Hierarchy of Needs Theory - It is human nature for people to seek to know more about themselves and to
strive to develop their capacities to the fullest. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology proposed by
Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation”.

1. Physiological Needs - The basic physiological needs are probably fairly apparent – these include the
things that are vital to our survival, such as air, food, water, shelter, rest, sleep, activity and temperature
maintenance are crucial for survival.
2. Safety and Security Needs - The need for safety has both physical and psychological aspects. The
person needs to feel safe both in the physical environment and in relationship.
3. Love and Belonging Needs - The third level needs include giving and receiving affection, attaining a
place in group, and maintaining the feeling of belonging.
4. Self-Esteem Needs - The individual needs both self-esteem (ex. Feelings of independence, competence,
and self-respect) and esteem from others (ex. Recognition, respect, and appreciation). It is the need for
appreciation and respect. When the needs at the bottom three levels have been satisfied, the esteem
needs begin to play a more prominent role in motivating behavior.
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5. Self-Actualization - When the need for self-esteem is satisfied, the individual strives for self-actualization,
the innate need to develop one’s maximum potential and realize one’s abilities and qualities. It is a term
that has been used in various psychology theories, often in slightly different ways. The term was originally
introduced by the organism theorist Kurt Goldstein for the motive to realize one's full potential.

NORMAL AND ABNORMAL BEHAVIORS

1. Normal Behavior (adaptive or adjusted behavior) is the standard behavior, the totally accepted
behavior because they follow the standard norm of the society.

2. Abnormal Behavior (Maladaptive/ Maladjusted Behavior) - Literally means ‘away from the normal’. It
is a group of behaviors that are deviant from social expectation because they go against the norms
or standard behavior of society. It simply implies deviation from some clearly defined norm.

Social norms - rules that a group uses for appropriate and inappropriate values,
beliefs, attitudes and behaviors.

In the case of physical illness, the norm is the structural and functional integrity of the body. A
maladaptive (abnormal) person may be understood by the following criteria are used to determine
whether a person’s behaviors behavior is abnormal or not:

a. Deviation from the Average (from the statistical form). To determine abnormality, we simple
observe what behaviors are rare or infrequent in a given society or culture and label these
deviations from the norm as abnormal. Examples: weight, height, and intelligence cover a
range of values when measured over a population.
b. Deviation from the Ideal (from social norms). One that measures behavior against the
standards toward which most people are striving - the ideal.
c. Abnormality as a sense of subjective discomfort (personal distress). It focuses on the
psychological consequences of the behavior of the individual. In this approach, behavior is
considered abnormal if it produces a sense of distress, anxiety, or guilt in an individual - or if it
is harmful to others.
d. Abnormality as the inability to function effectively (maladaptive behavior).

LEGAL DEFINITION OF ABNORMALITY

According to the law, the distinction between normal and abnormal behavior rests on the definition of insanity
(one which cannot understand the difference between right and wrong or inability to exert control over his behavior
at the time he or she commits a criminal act), which is a legal, but not psychological, term.

Causes of Abnormal Behavior

1. Anxiety (Psychological Perspective) - Stressful situations that if become extreme, it may result to
maladaptive behavior.
2. Faulty Learning (Behavior Perspective) - The failure to learn the necessary adaptive behavior
because of wrongful development. This usually results to delinquent behavior based on the failure to
learn the necessary social values and norms.
3. Blocked or Distorted Personal Growth (Humanistic Perspective) - Presumably, human nature tends
towards cooperation and construction activities, however, if we show aggression, cruelty or other
maladaptive behavior, the result may be an unfavorable environment
4. Unsatisfactory Interpersonal Relationship - Self-concept in early childhood by over critical parents
or by rigid socialization measures usually cause deviant behaviors among individuals because they are
not contented and even unhappy on the kind of social dealings they are facing.
5. Pathological Social Condition - Poverty, social discrimination and destructive violence always result
to deviant behavior.

PERSONALITY TRAITS THAT AFFECT HUMAN BEHAVIOR

1. Extroversion - characterized by interests directed toward the external environment of people and things
rather than toward inner experiences and oneself.
2. Introversion - characterized by direction of interest toward oneself and one’s inner world of experiences.
Introverts, in contrast, tend to be more reserved, less outgoing, and less sociable.
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3. Ambiversion - is a balance of extrovert and introvert characteristics. An ambivert is normally comfortable

with groups and enjoys social interaction, but also relishes time alone and away from the crowd.

PATTERNS OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIORS

1. NEUROTIC BEHAVIORS - group of mild functional personality disorders in which there is no gross
personality disorganization and the individual is not required for hospitalization. People with neurotic behaviors are
sometimes called psychoneurotic.
These are persons who are in the twilight zone between normality and abnormality. They are not insane,
but neither are they normal. They are always tense, restless and anxious. Frequently, they have obsessions,
compulsions, phobias and in some cases, amnesia. Anxiety is the dominant characteristics.

Neurotic Behaviors are composed of the following disorders:

a. Anxiety disorders - These are commonly known as “neurotic fear”. When it is occasional but
intense, it is called “panic”. When it is mild but continuous, it is called “worry”. They are considered as the central
feature of all neurotic patterns. They are characterized by: mild depressions, fear and tensions and mild stresses.

Anxiety disorders are grouped as:

a.1. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders

 When an individual is compelled to think about something that he don’t want to think
about or carry out some action against his will.
 The experience of persistent thoughts that we cannot seem to get out of our mind
such as thoughts about haunting situations.
 This disorder may lead to committing immoral acts, etc.
a.2. Asthenic Disorders (Neurasthenia)
 An anxiety disorder characterized by chronic mental and physical fatigue and various
aches and pains.
 Symptoms includes: spending too much sleep to avoid fatigue but to no avail, even
feels worsen upon awake, headaches, indigestion, back pains and dizziness
a.3. Phobic Disorders – the persistent fear on some objects or situation that present no
actual danger to the person.

b.Somatoform Disorders - Complains of bodily symptoms that suggest the presence of physical
problem but no organic basis can be found. The individual is pre-occupied with his state of health or diseases.
Somatoform disorders are grouped as:

b.1. Hypochondriasis – the excessive concern about state of health or physical condition
(multiplicity about illness). A Hypochondriacally person tend to seek medical advises, but
their fears is not lessened by their doctor’s reassurances, and they may be disappointed
when no physical problem is found.
b.2. Psychogenic Pain Disorder – characterized by the report of severe and lasting pain.
Either no physical basis is apparent or the reaction is greatly in excess of what would be
expected from the physical abnormality.
b.3. Conversion Disorders (Hysteria) – a neurotic pattern in which symptoms of some
physical malfunction or loss of control without any underlying organic abnormality.

Sensory Symptoms of Hysteria

 Anasthesia – loss of sensitivity
 Hyperesthesia – excessive sensitivity
 Hypesthesia – partial loss of sensitivity
 Analgesia – loss of sensitivity to pain
 Paresthesia - exceptional sensations

Motor Symptoms of Hysteria

 Paralysis – selective loss of function
 Astasia-abasia – inability to control leg when standing
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 Aphonia – partial inability to speak

 Mutism – total inability to speak

Visceral Symptoms of Hysteria

 Choking sensation
 Coughing spells
 Difficulty in breathing
 Cold and clammy extremities
 Nausea

c. Dissociative Disorders - A response to obvious stress characterized by:

c.1. Amnesia – partial or total inability to recall or identify past experiences.

 Brain Pathology Amnesia – total loss of memory and it cannot be retrieved by
simple means. It requires long period of medication.
 Psychogenic Amnesia – failure to recall stored information and still they are
beneath the level of consciousness but “forgotten material”.
c.2. Multiple Personality – also called “dual personalities”. The person manifests two or
more symptoms of personality usually dramatically different.
c.3. Depersonalization – loss of sense of self or the so called out of body experience.

d. Affective Disorders - The affective disorders are “mood disorders”, in which extreme or
inappropriate levels of mood – extreme elation or extreme depression. Forms of affective
disorders:

d.1. Milder forms of affective disturbances

 Sadness
 Discouragement
 Sense of hopelessness
 Grief and the grieving process

d.2. Neurotic Affective – also called “neurotic mania”, characterized by overactive,

dominating, and deficient in self-criticism.
d.3. Neurotic Depression – sadness and dejection (grave sadness). The individual
often fails to return to normal after a reasonable period of time resulted to high level
of anxiety and lowers self-confidence and loss of initiative.
d.4. Major Depressive Disorders – also called “severe affective disorders” with the
following classifications:

i. Sub-acute Major Depressive Disorders – symptoms of this depressive

disorder include loss of enthusiasm, feeling of dejection, feeling of failure and
unworthiness, fatigue and loss of appetite.
ii. Acute Major Depressive Disorder – symptoms include mild hallucinations,
feeling of guilt, want to be alone, and increasingly inactive.
iii. Depressive Stupor – a severe degree of psychomotor retardation, almost
unresponsive, refuse to speak, and confusions or hallucinations.

2. PSYCHOPATHIC BEHAVIOR - the second groups of abnormal behaviors typically stemmed from
immature and distorted personality development, resulting in persistent maladaptive ways of perceiving and
thinking.
People with psychopathic behaviors are also called sociopaths or psychopaths. These are persons who do
not have any neurotic or psychotic symptoms but are not able to conform to prevailing customs and standards of
conduct of his social group.

Some common characteristics are:

 absence of a conscience
 emotional immaturity
 absence of a life plan
 lack of capacity for love and emotional involvement

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 failure to learn from experience

PERSONALITY DISORDERS

It is formerly referred to as character disorders, are a class of personality types and behaviors defined
as “an enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the expectations of the
culture of the individual who exhibits it”. This category includes those individuals who begin to develop a
maladaptive behavior pattern early in childhood as a result of family, social, and cultural influences.

Types of Personality Disorders

a. Paranoid Personality - this is characterized by suspiciousness, hypersensitivity, rigidity, envy,

excessive self-importance, and argumentativeness plus a tendency to blame others for one's own
mistakes and failures and to ascribe evil motives to others.
b. Schizoid Personality - Individuals with this personality disorder neither deserve nor enjoy close
relationship. They live a solitary life with little interest in developing friendships. They exhibit
emotional coldness, detachment, or a constricted affect. This is characterized by a lack of interest
in social relationships, a tendency towards a solitary lifestyle, secretiveness, and emotional
coldness.
c. Schizotypal Personality - Individuals with this type of personality disorder exhibit odd behaviors
based on a belief in magic or superstition and may report unusual perceptual experiences.
d. Histrionic Personality - this is characterized by attempt to be the center of attention through the
use of theatrical and self-dramatizing behavior. Sexual adjustment is poor and interpersonal
relationships are stormy. It is characterized by excessive emotionality and attention-seeking,
including an excessive need for approval and inappropriate seductiveness, usually beginning in
early adulthood.
e. Narcissistic Personality - Individuals with this type of personality have a pervasive sense of self-
importance. A disorder and its derivatives can be caused by excessive praise and criticism in
childhood, particularly that from parental figures.
f. Borderline Personality - This is characterized by instability, reflected in drastic mood shifts and
behavior problems. Individuals with this type of personality are acutely sensitive to real or imagined
abandonment and have a pattern of repeated unstable but intense interpersonal relationships that
alternate between extreme idealization and devaluation. Such individuals may abuse substances
or food, or be sexually promiscuous.
g. Avoidant Personality - Individuals with this personality are fearful of becoming involved with
people because of excessive fears of criticism or rejection.
h. Dependent Personality - This is characterized by inability to make even daily decisions without
excessive advice and reassurance from others and needs others to assume responsibility for most
major areas of his or her life.
i. Obsessive-Compulsive Personality - This is characterized by excessive concern with rules,
order efficiency, and work coupled with insistence that everyone do things their way and an
inability to express warm feelings.
j. Passive-Aggressive Personality - The individual with personality disorder is usually found to
have overindulged in many things during the early years to the extent that the person comes to
anticipate that his needs will always be met and gratified.
k. Antisocial Personality - This is characterized by a lifelong history of inability to conform to social
norms. They are irritable and aggressive" and may have repeated physical fights. These
individuals also have a high prevalence of morbid substance abuse disorders.

Common Characteristics of Anti-Social Personalities

 Inadequate conscience development and unable to accept ethical values.
 Irresponsible and impulsive behavior; low frustration tolerance.
 Ability to impress and exploit others; projecting blame unto others of their own anti-social
acts.
 Rejection of authority.
 Inability to maintain good interpersonal relationship.

3. PSYCHOTIC BEHAVIOR - The group of disorders involving gross structural defects in the brain tissue,
severe disorientation of the mind thus it involves loss of contact with reality.

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People suffering from psychotic behaviors (psychosis) are also called psychotic. They are regarded as the
most severe type of mental disorder. A psychotic has tensions that disturb thinking, feeling and sensing; the
perception of reality is distorted. He may have delusions and hallucinations.

a. Organic Mental Disorders - this occurs when the normal brain has been damage resulted from
any interference of the functioning of the brain.

Types of Organic Mental Disorders

a.1. Acute brain disorder – caused by a diffuse impairment of the brain function. Its
symptoms range from mild mood changes to acute delirium.

a.2. Chronic brain disorder – the brain disorder that result from injuries, diseases, drugs,
and a variety of other conditions. Its symptoms include impairment of orientation (time,
place and person), impairment of memory, learning, comprehension and judgment,
emotion and self-control.

Groups of Organic Mental Disorders

a.1. Delirium – the severe impairment of information processing in the brain affecting the
basic process of attention, perception, memory and thinking.
a.2. Dementia – deterioration in intellectual functioning after completing brain maturation.
The defect in the process of acquiring knowledge or skill, problem solving, and
judgment.
a.3. Amnestic Syndrome – the inability to remember on going events more than a few
minutes after they have taken place.
a.4. Hallucinosis – the persistent occurrence of hallucinations, the false perception that
arise in full wakefulness state. This includes hallucinations on visual and hearing or
both.
a.5. Organic Delusional Syndrome – the false belief arising in a setting of known or
suspected brain damage.
a.6. Organic Affective Syndrome – the extreme/severe manic or depressive state with
the impairment of the cerebral function.
a.7. Organic Personality Syndrome – the general personality changes following brain
damage.
a.8. General Paresis – also called “dementia paralytica”, a syphilitic infection of the brain
and involving impairment of the CNS.

b. Disorders Involving Brain Tumor - A tumor is a new growth involving abnormal enlargement of
body tissue. Brain tumor can causes variety of personality alterations, and it may lead to any
neurotic behavior and consequently to psychotic behavior.

c. Disorders Involving Head Injury - Injury to the head as a result of falls, blows, and accidents
causing sensory and motor disorders; and mental disorder such as:

c.1. Retrograde Amnesia – the inability to recall events preceding immediately the injury.
c.2. Intra-cerebral Hemorrhage – gross bleeding at the site of damage.
c.3. Petechial Hemorrhage – small spots of bleeding at the site of damage.

These injuries may also impair language and other related sensory motor functions and
may result to brain damage such as:

 Auditory Asphasia – loss of ability to understand spoken words.

 Expressive Asphasia – loss of ability to speak required words.
 Nominal Asphasia – loss of ability to recall names of objects.
 Alexia – loss of ability to read.
 Agraphia – loss of ability to express thoughts in writing
 Apraxia – loss of ability to perform simple voluntary acts.

d. Senile and Pre-senile Dementia

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d.1. Senile Dementia – mental disorder that accompanied by brain degeneration due to
old age.
d.2. Pre-senile Dementia – mental disorder associated with earlier degeneration of the
brain.

e. Mental Retardation - A mental disorder characterized by sub-average general functioning existing

concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior. It is a common mental disorder before the age of
18. The person is suffering from low I.Q, difficulty in focusing attention and deficiency in past
learning.

Levels of Mental Retardation

 Mild Mental Retardation (I.Q. 52-67) - “educable”
 Moderate Mental Retardation (I.Q. 36-51) - “trainable”
 Severe mental Retardation (I.Q. 20-35)
 “Dependent retarded”
 Profound Mental Retardation (I.Q. under 20) – “life support retarded”

f. Schizophrenia – refers to the group of psychotic disorders characterized by gross distortions of

reality, withdrawal of social interaction, disorganization and fragmentation of perception, thoughts
and emotion. It also refers to terms such as “mental deterioration”, “dementia praecox”, or “split
mind”.

Types of Schizophrenia

f.1. Simple Schizophrenia (Undifferentiated Type) – the schizophrenia in which

symptoms are rapidly changing mixture of all the primary indicators of schizophrenia.
The varying combinations of delusions, hallucinations, thought disorders, and gross
bizarreness.
f.2. Paranoid Schizophrenia – it is the illogical, changeable delusions frequently
accompanied by vivid hallucinations, with a resulting impairment of critical judgment,
unpredictable and occasionally dangerous behavior.
f.3. Catatonic Schizophrenia – it is the altering period of extreme withdrawal and
extreme excitement. The individual may talk or shout incoherently and engage in
uninhibited, impulsive behavior. The person may be dangerous.
f.4 Hebephrenic Schizophrenia (Disorganized Type) – there is emotional distortion
manifested in inappropriate laughter, peculiar mannerism, and bizarre behavior.

g. Paranoia – the same as “delusions”, “impaired contact with reality”. A psychotic behavior
characterized by delusion of apprehension following a failure or frustration.

Symptoms of the Disorder include feeling of being mistreated, ignored, stolen from, spied
upon, and over suspicious. The Disorder is characterized by: (sequence of events in paranoia)

g.1. Suspiciousness – the individual mistrust the motives of others and fear that he will
be taken advantage.
g.2. Protective thinking – blame others for one’s own mistake
g.3. Hostility – respond to alleged mistreatment with anger and hostility, the person
becomes increasingly suspicious.
g.4. Paranoid illumination – strange feelings of events being experienced.
g.5. Delusion – feeling of persecution.

OTHER GROUPS OF HUMAN DISORDERS

1. ADDICTIVE GROUPS OF DISORDERS - This group of disorders includes substance use, obesity and
pathological gambling.

h. Substance Use (Alcohol and Drug Abuse)

Alcoholism or “problem drinking” is an addictive source of human disorders. It is evident by its
general effects as follows:
 It serves as a depressant
 It numbs the higher brain center
 It impairs judgment and other rational
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 It lowers self-control
 Deterioration of perception

i. Drug Abuse or the inappropriate/misuse is a threat to normal behavior. It is an addictive disorder,

the fact that causes both physical and psychological dependency to the drug.
j. Extreme Obesity – also known as “habitual over eating” is an addictive form of disorder. It is a life
threatening disorder, resulting in such conditions as diabetes, high blood pressures and other
cardiovascular diseases that can place an individual at high risk of heart attack.
k. Pathological Gambling – is an addictive form of disorder, which does not involve chemically
addictive

2. SEXUAL DEVIATIONS or DYSFUNCTION (Paraphilia) – these are characterized by abnormal sexual

desires or acts which are also known as sexual perversion. A psychosexual disorder in which sexual
gratification is obtained through highly unusual practices that are harmful or humiliating to others or socially
repugnant.

Sigmund Freud stated that perversions are sexual activities which either:
 extend, in an anatomical sense, beyond the regions of the body that are designed for
sexual union, or
 linger over the immediate relations to the sexual object which should normally be
traversed rapidly on the path towards the final sexual aim.

Abnormal or Sexual Deviancy - A sexual act that seeks gratification by means other than
heterosexual relationship.

a. Masochism - A psychological disorder in which sexual gratification is derived from being

physically or emotionally abused.
b. Sadism - is the derivation of pleasure as a result of inflicting pain, cruelty, degradation, or
humiliation, or, watching such behaviors inflicted on others.
c. Maso-sadism - combination of the first two.
d. Voyeurism - is the sexual interest in or practice of spying on people engaged in intimate
behaviors, such as undressing, sexual activity, or other actions usually considered to be of a private
nature.
e. Transvertism - is not simply a sexual disorder, but is best understood as primarily a disorder
of the sense of self buy obtaining sexual gratification by wearing the clothes of the opposite sex.
f. Fetishism - obtaining sexual gratification primarily and exclusively from specific objects.
g. Lesbianism - is sexual activity or attraction between women.
h. Homosexuality - is romantic or sexual attraction or behavior between members of the same
sex or gender.
i. Incest - is sexual intercourse between family members and close relatives; sexual relations
between persons related by blood.
j. Pedophilia - means any sexual interest in children or the act of child sexual abuse, often
termed "pedophilic behavior"
k. Bestiality - sexual relations between a human being and a lower animal
l. Necrophilia - is the sexual attraction to corpses.
m. Exhibitionism - obtaining pleasure by exposing one’s genitals to others.
n. Sodomy = sexual act through the anus of another human being.
o. Froilism = a form of sexual perversion in which three (3) persons are participating in sexual
act.
p. Pluralism = a group participates in sexual orgies (sexual festival).

HUMAN SEXUALITY – Human sexuality can also refer to the way someone is sexually attracted to
another person - which is determined by their sexual orientation – whether:
a. Heterosexuality - to the opposite sex;
b. Homosexuality - to the same sex;
c. Bisexuality - having both these tendencies;
d. Asexuality - or not being attracted to anyone in a sexual manner.

EGO STATES
It is a metaphor for a collection of behaviors. Because we can’t see inside our heads we need to find
ways of labeling clusters of related behaviors and the term ’Ego State’ does that for us.

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Transactional Analysis Ego States - it is how people interacts.

1. Parent-ego State - an ego state that incorporates the feelings and behavior learned from parents or
other authority figures; a part of the self that offers advice like that of one's own parents, containing
messages that emphasize what one "ought to" or "should not" do.
2. Adult-ego State - a part of the self that analyzes and solves problems, using information received
from the parent ego and child ego states. It is assumed to be fully developed in a normal individual at
the age of 12.
3. Child-ego State - refers to the collection of experiences we logged as a young person and which we
now use as we make our way through life. Some estimates suggest that about 80% plus of our current
behavior is a repetition of our development up to the age of 5 or 6.

FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING

1. Motivation - is the psychological feature that arouses an organism to action toward a desired goal and
elicits, controls, and sustains certain goal directed behaviors.
2. Reinforcement - is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with greater frequency.
3. Extinction - is caused by the lack of any consequence following a behavior. When a behavior is
inconsequential
4. Association - connections with other.
5. Interest - A state of curiosity or concern about or attention to something
6. Rewards or Punishment - is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with less frequency.
7. Recency - learning should always be recent in the mind of learners.

FRUSTRATION

 It refers to the unpleasant feelings that results from the blocking of motive satisfaction.
 It occurs when a person is blocked in the satisfaction of his needs. Sustained frustration may be
characterized by anxiety, irritability, fatigue or depression.
 It is a form of stress, which results in tension.
 It is the feeling that is experienced when something interferes with our hopes, wishes, plans and
expectations.

Common Sources or Causes of Frustration

1. Physical Obstacles – are physical barriers or circumstances that prevent a person from doing his
plan or fulfilling his wishes.
2. Social Circumstances – are restrictions or circumstances imposed by other people and the
customs and laws of social living.
3. Personal Shortcomings – such as being handicapped by diseases, deafness, paralysis, etc.
which serves as a barrier to the things one ought to do.
4. Conflicts between motives

Reasons why Some People Fail to Reach their Goal

1. Unrealistic Goal - when a person’s level of aspiration is much higher than his level of achievement, he is
bound to fail.
2. Harmful or Anti-Social Goal
3. Environment Difficulties, including force majeure;
4. Conflicting Goal

CONFLICT - refers to the simultaneous arousal of two or more incompatible motives resulting to unpleasant
emotions. It is a source of frustration because it is a threat to normal behavior.

Basic Forms or Types of Conflict

1. Approach-Avoidance Conflict - occurs when an individual faces a situation having both a desirable and
undesirable feature or a person moves closer to a seemingly desirable object, only to have the potentially
negative consequences of contacting that object push back against the closing behavior.
It is sometimes called “dilemma”, because some negative and some positive features must be
accepted regardless of which course of action is chosen.
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2. Approach-Approach Conflict (Double Approach Conflict) - This is a conflict resulting from the necessity
of choosing between two desirable alternatives. There are usually two desirable things wanted, but only
one option can be chosen. A person is motivated to engage in two desirable activities that cannot be
pursued simultaneously.
3. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict (Double Avoidance Conflict) - This form of conflict involves two
undesirable or unattractive alternatives where a person has to decide of choosing one of the undesirable
things. A person faces two undesirable situations in which the avoidance of one is the exposure to the
other resulting to an intense emotion.
4. Multiple Approach - Avoidance Conflict – a situation in which a choice must be made between two or
more alternatives each of which has both positive and negative features. It is the most difficult to resolve
because the features of each portion are often difficult to compare.

COPING MECHANISM

 It is defined as the way people react to frustration. People differ in the way they react to frustration. This
could be attributed to individual differences and the way people prepared in the developmental task they
faced during the early stages of their life.

FRUSTRATION TOLERANCE

 It is the ability to withstand frustration without developing inadequate modes of response such as being
emotionally depressed or irritated, becoming neurotic, or becoming aggressive.
 Individuals also differ in their capacity to tolerate unadjusted states, or frustration tolerance. Some people
are able to withstand prolonged periods of tension without showing signs of abnormality. Others become
neurotic or psychotic, or convert their frustrations into physical illness, while some act out their frustrations
by committing antisocial acts or becoming alcoholics or drug addicts.

Broad Reactions to Frustration

People differ in the way the react to frustrations. An individual’s way of reacting to frustrations is sometimes
known as his coping mechanism. Generally, people faced with frustration react with it in one of two ways:

1. Fight - is manifested by fighting the problem in a constructive and direct way by means of breaking down
the obstacles preventing the person reaching his goals.
2. Flight - it can be manifested by sulking, retreating, becoming indifferent and giving up.

Different Types of Reaction to Frustration

1. Direct Approach - can be seen among people who handle their problems in a very objective way. They
identify first the problem, look for the most practical and handy way to solve it, and proceeded with the
constructive manner of utilizing the solution which will produce the best results.
2. Detour - when an individual realizes that in finding for the right solution of the problem, he always ends up
with a negative outcome or result. Thus, he tries to make a detour or change direction first and find out if
the solution or remedy is there.
3. Substitution - most of time are resulted to in handling frustration when an original plan intended to solve
the problem did not produce the intended result, thus the most practical way to face the problem, is to look
for most possible or alternative means.
4. Withdrawal or Retreat - is corresponding to running away from the problem or flight which to some is the
safest way.
5. Developing Feeling of Inferiority - comes when a person is unable to hold on to any solution which gives
a positive result. Being discourage to go on working for a way to handle a frustration could result to
diminishing self-confidence, until the time when inferiority complex sets in.
6. Aggression - is a negative outcome of a person's inability to handle frustration rightly. Manifestation in
physical behavior can be observed in one's negative attitudes towards life both in the personal and
professional aspect.
7. Use of DEFENSE MECHANISM - is the most tolerated way of handling frustration. It is a man’s last result
when a person attempts to overcome fear from an anticipated situation or event. It is an unconscious
psychological process that serves as safety valve that provides relief from emotional conflict and anxiety.

Primitive Defense Mechanisms

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a. Denial - is the refusal to accept reality or fact, acting as if a painful event, thought or feeling did not
exist. It is considered one of the most primitive of the defense mechanisms because it is characteristic
of early childhood development.
b. Regression - is the reversion to an earlier stage of development in the face of unacceptable thoughts
or impulses.
c. Acting Out - is performing an extreme behavior in order to express thoughts or feelings the person
feels incapable of otherwise expressing. When a person acts out, it can act as a pressure release, and
often helps the individual feel calmer and peaceful once again.
d. Dissociation - is when a person loses track of time and/or person, and instead finds another
representation of their self in order to continue in the moment.
e. Compartmentalization - is a lesser form of dissociation, wherein parts of oneself are separated from
awareness of other parts and behaving as if one had separate sets of values.
f. Projection - is the misattribution of a person’s undesired thoughts, feelings or impulses onto another
person who does not have those thoughts, feelings or impulses. It is characterized by projecting or
assigning individual’s problem, impulses, desires or thoughts to other people in order to reduce the
feeling of anxiety.
g. Reaction Formation - is the converting of unwanted or dangerous thoughts, feelings or impulses into
their opposites. It is defined as the development of a trait/s which are the opposite of tendencies that
we do not want to recognize. The person is motivated to act in a certain way, but behaves in the
opposite way. Consequently, he is able to keep his urges and impulses under control.

Less Primitive, More Mature Defense Mechanisms

h. Repression - is the unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts, feelings and impulses or it is

unconscious process whereby unacceptable urges or painful traumatic experiences are completely
prevented from entering consciousness. The key to repression is that people do it unconsciously, so
they often have very little control over it.
i. Suppression - which is sometimes confused with that of repression, is a conscious activity by which
an individual attempts to forget emotionally disturbing thoughts and experiences by pushing them out
of his mind.
j. Displacement - is the redirecting of thoughts feelings and impulses directed at one person or object,
but taken out upon another person or object. People often use displacement when they cannot express
their feelings in a safe manner to the person they are directed at.
k. Intellectualization - is the overemphasis on thinking when confronted with an unacceptable impulse,
situation or behavior without employing any emotions whatsoever to help mediate and place the
thoughts into an emotional, human context.
l. Rationalization - is putting something into a different light or offering a different explanation for one’s
perceptions or behaviors in the face of a changing reality. It is the defense mechanism that enables
individuals to justify their behavior to themselves and others by making excuses or formulating
fictitious, socially approved arguments to convince themselves and others that their behavior is logical
and acceptable.
m. Undoing - the attempt to take back an unconscious behavior or thought that is unacceptable or hurtful.

Mature Defense Mechanisms or Compromise Reactions

n. Sublimation - simply the channeling of unacceptable impulses, thoughts and emotions into more
acceptable ones; considered as redirection of unacceptable impulses to socially acceptable patterns
o. Humor - when used as a defense mechanism, is the channeling of unacceptable impulses or thoughts
into a light-hearted story or joke. Humor reduces the intensity of a situation, and places a cushion of
laughter between the person and the impulses.
p. Substitution - is considered as a form of defensive mechanism where frustrated impulses are
indirectly satisfied, that is without changing the quality of the desires. It is through this defense
mechanism; the individual seeks to overcome feelings of frustration and anxiety by achieving alternate
goals and gratifications.
q. Compensation - is a process of psychologically counterbalancing perceived weaknesses by
emphasizing strength in other area or by concentrating on another area where they can excel.
r. Assertiveness - is the emphasis of a person’s needs or thoughts in a manner that is respectful, direct
and firm.

Aggressive Reaction Defense Mechanisms

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s. Identification - an individual who is threatened merges into own self the qualities of the aggressor
t. Introjections - an individual incorporates into his/her personality the achievements as well as the
qualities of the aggressor.
u. Suicide - is a kind of aggressive behavior wherein an individual kills him/herself because of frustration.
It is a self-directed displacement of aggression.
v. The Free-Floating Anger - is another aggressive behavior wherein there is a prolong reaction of
extreme anger.
w. Scapegoating - is also a kind of an aggressive behavior characterize by blaming another person or
object for the own failure or fault.
x. Displaced Aggression - is a kind of defense mechanism from where a frustrated individual transfer
his/her aggressive behavior against other person, him/herself or to the objects that may be the cause
of frustration.

Withdrawal Reaction Defense Mechanism

y. Fantasy - is a defense reaction that provides harmless respites from the sometimes conflict realities of
life. When used as a defense mechanism, is the channeling of unacceptable or unattainable desires
into imagination.
z. Nomadism - is another withdrawal reaction wherein in an individual who suffered from frustration has
a tendency to wander from place to place as the individual desires to escape from a certain frustrating
condition.

PSYCHOANALYTIC DEVELOPMENT THEORY

This theory explained that human behavior is motivated by an inner force called the human mind. This theory
was introduced by Sigmund Freud.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

 He was born named Sigismund Schlomo Freud, was an Austrian neurologist who became known as the
founding father of psychoanalysis or psychology.
 Freud theorized that people have Two (2) Basic Instincts –Sexual and Aggression. These two (2) basic
instincts are not always socially acceptable. When people exhibit behavior that is not acceptable, they often
experience punishment, guilt and anxiety.

Three (3) components of personality:

1. Id - Represents psychological energy, or libido and it operates on pleasure principles which can be
understood as a demand to take care of needs immediately, instinctual craving especially sexually.
 The ID only knows that what it wants and what it wants right away regardless of the present
circumstances. It does not care about morals, society and other individual.
 ID is the animalistic self.

2. Ego
 It is the one that relates to the world or reality to satisfy the demands of the ID. The ego operates by
reality principle and uses problem solving based on how it judges reality.
 It operates on conscious level.
 It begins in the first 6 or 8 months of life and fairly well developed at age 2 or 3 years.
 It serves to control and guide actions of an individual.
 It is the organized, realistic part.
 The mediator between the ID and the superego.
 It refers to the developing awareness of self or the “I”.
3. Superego
 It plays the critical and moralizing role.
 It is the one that rewards the moral behavior and punishes actions that are not acceptable by creating
guilt. The superego is our conscience.
 It is a residue of internalized values and moral training of early childhood.
 It operates on both conscious and unconscious.
 It functions on Moral Principle.
 Develops around the age of 3 - 4 or 4 - 5 and fairly well developed at age 10 years.
 The super-ego aims for perfection.
 The socialized component of the personality.
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 It is the authoritative or parental direction which becomes incorporated into the personality as the
censoring force or “conscience

Ego Ideal - rewards the person with feeling of well-being and pride when a person conforms to the
demands of the superego. It is concern with what is believe to be morally or basically right.

Conscience - punishes the person with guilt feelings when person deviates from the demands of the
superego. It is concern with what is believe to be morally or basically wrong.

VICTIMOLOGY
FOUR (4) SUBFIELDS OF CRIMINOLOGY
1. Penology (and the Sociology of Law);
2. Psychological Criminology);
3. Comparative (and historical) Criminology;
4. Victimology

VICTIMOLOGY

 came from Latin word Victima, a word used to those who were sacrificed to please god and Logos
(Greek) which means a system of knowledge;
 simply the scientific study of crime victims and victimization;
 a scientific discipline which studies data that describes phenomena and casual relationships related to
victimizations;
 the scientific study of the psychological effects of crime and the relationship between victims and offender
which examines the following:
a. victim patterns and tendencies;
b. how victims interact with the Criminal Justice System
c. analyzes how different factors affect the perception of the victim

 The scientific study of victimization, including the relationships between victims and offenders, the
interactions between victims and the criminal justice system -- that is, the police and courts, and corrections
officials -- and the connections between victims and other societal groups and institutions, such as the media,
businesses, and social movements." (Andrew Karmen, author of Crime Victims: An Introduction to Victimology
in 1990)

To summarize, it encompasses the study of:

 victimization
 victim-offender relationships
 victim-criminal justice system relationships
 victims and the media
 victims and the costs of crime
 victims and social movements

Crime Victim – term used in Modern Criminal Justice System to describe a person who has been physically,
financially or emotionally injured and/or had their property taken or damaged by someone committing a crime

General Victim – refers to person who has been physically, emotionally or financially injured and/or had their
property taken or damaged by someone, an event, an organization or a natural phenomenon.

General Victimology – the study of victimization in the broadest sense including those that have been harmed by
natural disasters, accidents, wars and others.

Victimogenesis – the cause or origin of a victimization

Victimization – an event where persons, communities and institutions are damaged or injured in a significant way.

Victim Precipitation – when a crime is caused or partially facilitated by the victim himself.

Victim Prone – individuals who share a capacity for being victimized.

Victim Recovery – the presumption of the same or better level of functionality as was enjoyed prior to
victimization.
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Victim Rights – refers to the privileges and procedures required by a written law which guarantee victims specific
considerations and treatment by the Criminal Justice System.

Victim Survey – a periodic data collection and analysis process conducted usually by a government entity within
the general population to study information about crime victims regardless whether they reported their victimization
to the law enforcement or not.

Victim Trauma – it includes emotional and physical experiences that produce pain and/or injuries which may
results from the pairing of a painful or frightening emotional experience with a specific memory which emerge and
have a long-lasting effect on the life of a person.

Vulnerability – physical, social, financial, psychological or material condition whereby a person or an object has a
weakness which could render them a victim if another person/s would recognize these weaknesses and take
advantage of them.

HANS VON HENTIG – a Criminologists who found that certain victim’s characteristics did play a role in shaping the
crimes suffered (Doemer and Lab 2005; Meadows 2007). He believed that some victims contributed to their own
victimization by virtue of many converging factors, not all of which were in their control.

THIRTEEN (13) CATEGORIES OF VICTIMS ACCORDING TO HANS VON HENTIG

1. The Young – children and infants

 Physically weaker
 Less mental prowess
 Economically Dependent
 Less able to defend themselves
 Fewer Legal Rights

2. The Female – referring to all woman

 Physically weaker compared to man
 Culturally Conditioned
 Financially Dependent to man

3. The Old – referring to elderly

 Same vulnerability as children
 Mentally less facile
 May need other’s care
 Poor Memory
 Greater access to money

4. The Mentally Defective and Deranged – feeble-minded, insane, drug addicts and alcoholics
 Have an altered perception of reality
 May also suffer many of the same general kinds of exposures as children and the elderly

5. The Immigrants – foreigners or unfamiliar with a given culture

 Subject to varying gaps in communication and comprehension

6. The Minorities – racially disadvantaged

 There is some amount of bias or prejudice by another

7. The Dull Normals – simple-minded persons

 Having same types of exposure to harm as those who are Mentally Defective and Deranged

8. The Depressed – those with various psychological maladies

 May expose themselves to all manner of danger, intentional and otherwise
 May take psychotropic medication that alters perception

9. The Acquisitive – those who are greedy and looking for quick gain
 Such individuals may suspend their judgment or intentionally put themselves in dangerous situation, in
order to achieve their goals.

10. The Wanton – Promiscuous persons

 They engage in indiscriminate sexual activity with many different partners
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11. The Lonesome or Heartbroken – widows/widowers and those in mourning

 Lonely
 Prone to substance abuse and can be easy prey for con men

12. The Tormentor – abusive parents, caretakers, intimates and family members
 Expose themselves to the harm they inflict, the resulting angst and the decree to which their victims
fight back

13. The Blocked, Exempted or Fighting – victims of blackmail, extortion, and confidence scams
 Still exposed to continual financial loss or physical harm

BENJAMIN MENDELSOHN – French-Israeli lawyer who explains victim’s contribution through situational factors.
While working on the defense of a rape case, he became interested in the correlations between the rapists and
their victims. He found out that there was often a strong interpersonal relationship between the two, and it could
lead some victims to unknowingly invited or even cause their own victimization (Meadows 2007). He referred to
thus as Victim Precipitation. He ultimately believed that many victims shared unconscious capacity for being
victimized (Victim Prone)

SIX (6) VICTIM TYPES ACCORDING TO BENJAMIN MENDELSOHN

1. The Completely Innocent Victim – no provocative or contributory behavior to the offender’s attack
2. The Victim due to Ignorance – unintentionally does something that places himself in a position to be
victimized
3. The Voluntary Victim – Suicides or those injured while participating in high-risk crimes
4. The Victim more guilty than the offender – victim provokes the criminal act
5. The Guiltiest victim – The initial aggressor but due to circumstances beyond his control ends up the
victim
6. The Simulating or Imaginary Victim – a pretender or false reporter

stephen schafer – was a professor of Sociology at Northeastern University in Boston, Massachusetts who
proposed seven (7) Types of Victim Responsibility

1. Unrelated Victims – no victim responsibility

2. Provocative Victims – victim shares responsibility
3. Precipitative Victims – some degree of responsibility
4. Biological Weak Victims – no responsibility
5. Socially Weak Victims – no responsibility
6. Self-Victimizing – total victim responsibility
7. Political Victims – no responsibility

MARVIN E WOLFGANG – was a Criminology professor, legal studies and law at the Western School and founding
Director of the Sellin Center for Studies in Criminology and Criminal Law at the University of Pennsylvania.
According to Doemer and Lab (2005), Wolfgang was the First to present Empirical Research Findings as support
for his Theories of Victimology or a pioneer of quantitative and Theoretical Criminology

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References:

Criminology Glossary, Agas and Guevara

Human Behavior and Crisis Management, Bautista and Guevara
Human Behavior and Crisis Management (Criminology 3), Prof. Callueng, PCCr
Human Behavior and Crisis Management, Prof. John Romer L. Venturillo
Manual on Human Behavior and Crisis Management, Oscar Gatchalian Soriano
Psychology (General Psychology), Dr. Maria Lourdes V. Galindez
Wikipedia
https://booksite.elsevier.com/samplechapters/9780123740892/Sample_Chapters/02~Chapter_1.pdf
https://www.gcu.edu/blog/criminal-justice-government-and-public-administration/3-modern-theories-victimology
https://www.unafei.or.jp/publications/pdf/RS_No70/No70_12VE_Dussich.pdf
https://www.waldenu.edu/online-masters-programs/ms-in-forensic-psychology/resource/what-is-victimology-and-why-is-it-important-in-
forensic-psychology
https://soapboxie.com/government/The-Four-Theories-of-Victimization

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