Phys 2002

MODERN PHYSICS
Special Theory of Relativity
LECTURE 1

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 1

 Content List
Special Theory of Relativity,
• Frame of Reference
Space and Time
• Time Dilation
• Length Contraction
Twin Paradox

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 2

 Special Theory of Relativity

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 3

 Special Theory of Relativity
In 1905 Albert Einstein showed how measurements of time
and space are affected by motion between an observer and
what is being observed.

Einstein introduced his special theory of relativity, proposing

drastic revisions in the Newtonian concepts of space and
time.

Relativity connects space and time, matter and energy,

electricity and magnetism—links that are crucial to our
understanding of the physical universe.

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 4

 Special Theory of Relativity
Measurements of time and space are affected by
motion

Einstein special theory of relativity on two postulates.

1. The laws of physics are the same in all inertial

frames of reference;

2. The speed of light in vacuum is the same in all

inertial frames.

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 5

 Special Theory of Relativity
Inertial Frame of Reference
What we mean by motion?

When we say that something is moving, what we mean is

that its position relative to something else is changing.

A passenger moves relative to an airplane; the airplane

moves relative to the earth; the earth moves relative to the
sun; the sun moves relative to the galaxy of stars (the Milky
Way) of which it is a member; and so on.

In each case a frame of reference is part of the description

of the motion
Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 6
 Special Theory of Relativity
Inertial Frame of Reference
An inertial frame of reference is one in which Newton’s first law of motion
holds. In such a frame, an object at rest remains at rest and an object in
motion continues to move at constant velocity (constant speed and
direction) if no force acts on it.

Any frame of reference that moves at constant velocity relative to an inertial

frame is itself an inertial frame. All inertial frames are equally valid.

There is no universal frame of reference that can be used everywhere, no

such thing as “absolute motion.”

The theory of relativity deals with the consequences of the lack of a universal
frame of reference.
Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 7
 Special Theory of Relativity
The theory is “special” in the sense that it applies to
observers in such special reference frames.
First Postulate
Einstein’s first postulate, called the principle of
relativity, states: The laws of physics are the same in
every inertial frame of reference.

If the laws differed, that difference could distinguish

one inertial frame from the others or make one frame
more “correct” than another.
This postulate follows from the absence of a universal frame of reference.
Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 8
 Special Theory of Relativity
First Postulate
As an example, suppose you watch two children playing
catch with a ball while the three of you are aboard a
train moving with constant velocity.

Your observations Relativity of the motion of the ball, no

matter how carefully done, can’t tell you how fast (or
whether) the train is moving.

This is because Newton’s laws of motion are the same in

every inertial frame

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 9

 Special Theory of Relativity
Second Postulate
The speed of light in vacuum is the same in all inertial
frames of reference and is independent of the motion
of the source.

Suppose two observers measure the speed of light in

vacuum. One is at rest with respect to the light
source, and the other is moving away from it.
Both are in inertial frames of reference. According to the principle of relativity, the two
observers must obtain the same result, despite the fact that one is moving with respect to
the other.
Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 10
 Special Theory of Relativity
Second Postulate
A spacecraft moving past the earth at 1000 𝑚/𝑠 fires a missile straight ahead
with a speed of 2000 𝑚/𝑠 (relative to the spacecraft). What is the missile’s
speed relative to the earth? Simple, the correct answer, according to Newtonian
mechanics, is 3000 𝑚/𝑠.

But now suppose the spacecraft turns on a searchlight, pointing in the same
direction in which the missile was fired. An observer on the spacecraft
measures the speed of light emitted by the searchlight and obtains the value 𝑐.

According to Einstein’s second postulate, the motion of the light after it has left
the source cannot depend on the motion of the source. So the observer on
earth who measures the speed of this same light must also obtain the value 𝑐,
not 𝑐 + 1000 𝑚/𝑠.
Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 11
 Special Theory of Relativity
The Ultimate Speed Limit
Einstein’s second postulate immediately implies the following result: It is
impossible for an inertial observer to travel at c, the speed of light in
vacuum.
Suppose you are in a spacecraft traveling at a constant speed 𝑣 relative
to the earth that is greater than 𝑐. As I watch from the earth, the lamps
in the spacecraft suddenly go out. You switch on a flashlight to find the
fuse box at the front of the spacecraft and change the blown fuse. The
lamps go on again.
From the ground, though, I would see something quite different. To me, since your speed 𝑣 is greater than 𝑐,
the light from your flashlight illuminates the back of the spacecraft.
I can only conclude that the laws of physics are different in your inertial frame from what they are in my
inertial frame—which contradicts the principle of relativity. The only way to avoid this contradiction is to
assume that nothing can move faster than the speed of light.
Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 12
 Space and Time
Time Dilation
A moving clock ticks more slowly than a clock at rest.

Measurements of time intervals are affected by relative motion between an

observer and what is observed.
As a result, a clock that moves with respect to an observer ticks more slowly than
it does without such motion, and all processes (including those of life) occur
more slowly to an observer when they take place in a different inertial frame.
If someone in a moving spacecraft finds that the time interval between two events in the spacecraft is 𝑡𝑜 , we
on the ground would find that the same interval has the longer duration 𝑡. The quantity 𝑡𝑜 , which is
determined by events that occur at the same place in an observer’s frame of reference, is called the proper
time of the interval between the events. When witnessed from the ground, the events that mark the
beginning and end of the time interval occur at different places, and in consequence the duration of the
interval appears longer than the proper time. This effect is called time dilation (to dilate is to become larger).
Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 13
 Space and Time
Time Dilation
To see how time dilation comes about, let us consider two clocks,
both of the particularly simple kind shown in Fig.

In each clock a pulse of light is reflected back and forth between

two mirrors 𝐿𝑜 apart. Whenever the light strikes the lower mirror,
an electric signal is produced that marks the recording tape.

Each mark corresponds to the tick of an ordinary clock. One clock is

at rest in a laboratory on the ground and the other is in a spacecraft
that moves at the speed 𝑣 relative to the ground.

An observer in the laboratory watches both clocks: does she find

that they tick at the same rate

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 14

 Space and Time
Time Dilation
Figure shows the laboratory clock in operation.

The time interval between ticks in laboratory is the proper time 𝑡𝑜 and
the time needed for the light pulse to travel between the mirrors
separated by distance 𝐿𝑜 at the speed of light 𝑐 is 𝑡𝑜ൗ2.

Hence
𝑡𝑜 𝐿𝑜
=
2 𝑐

2𝐿𝑜
𝑡𝑜 =
𝑐

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 15

 Space and Time
Time Dilation
Figure shows the moving clock with its mirrors perpendicular to
the direction of motion relative to the ground.

The time interval between ticks is 𝑡. Because the clock is

moving, the light pulse, as seen from the ground, follows a
zigzag path.

On its way from the lower mirror to the upper one in the time
𝑡/2, the pulse travels a horizontal distance of 𝑣(𝑡/2) and a total
distance of 𝑐(𝑡/2). Since 𝐿𝑜 is the vertical distance between the
mirrors,
𝑐𝑡 2 𝑣𝑡 2
= 𝐿𝑜 2 +
2 2
Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 16
 Space and Time
Time Dilation
𝑐𝑡 2 𝑣𝑡 2
2
= 𝐿𝑜 +
2 2

𝑡2 2
𝑐 − 𝑣 2 = 𝐿𝑜 2
4
2
4𝐿 𝑜
𝑡2 = 2
𝑐 − 𝑣2
2
4𝐿 𝑜
𝑡2 =
2 𝑣2
𝑐 1− 2
𝑐

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 17

 Space and Time
Time Dilation
2
4𝐿 𝑜
𝑡2 =
2 𝑣2
𝑐 1− 2
𝑐

2𝐿𝑜 2
𝑐
𝑡2 =
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐
2𝐿𝑜
But is the time interval 𝑡𝑜 between ticks on the clock on the
𝑐
ground
2
𝑡𝑜
𝑡2 =
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐
Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 18
 Space and Time
Time Dilation
𝑡𝑜 2
𝑡2 =
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐

𝑡𝑜
𝑡=
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐

𝑣2
Because the quantity 1− is always smaller than 1 for a
𝑐2
moving object, 𝑡 is always greater than 𝑡𝑜 . The moving clock in
the spacecraft appears to tick at a slower rate than the stationary
one on the ground, as seen by an observer on the ground.
Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 19
 Space and Time
Time Dilation
Exactly the same analysis holds for measurements of the clock
on the ground by the pilot of the spacecraft. To him, the light
pulse of the ground clock follows a zigzag path that requires a
total time 𝑡 per round trip. His own clock, at rest in the
spacecraft, ticks at intervals of 𝑡𝑜 . He too finds that

𝑡𝑜
𝑡=
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐

so the effect is reciprocal: every observer finds that clocks in

motion relative to him tick more slowly than clocks at rest
relative to him.

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 20

 Space and Time
Time Dilation – Numerical problem
A spacecraft is moving relative to the earth. An observer on the earth finds that, between 1 𝑃. 𝑀. and
2 𝑃. 𝑀. according to her clock, 3601 𝑠 elapse on the spacecraft’s clock. What is the spacecraft’s speed 𝑣
relative to the earth?
Solution: 𝑡𝑜
𝑡=
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑡𝑜 = 3600 𝑠 𝑐
𝑡 = 3601 𝑠 3600
3601 =
𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
𝑣2
𝑣 =? 1−
3 × 108 2

𝑣 = 7.1 × 106 𝑚/𝑠

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 21

 Space and Time
Length Contraction
Faster means shorter
Measurements of lengths are also affected by relative motion similar to time measurements. The length 𝐿 of
an object in motion with respect to an observer always appears to the observer to be shorter than its length
𝐿𝑜 when it is at rest with respect to him.

This contraction occurs only in the direction of the relative motion. The length 𝐿𝑜 of an
object in its rest frame is called its proper length.

In time dilation example - the clock is moving perpendicular to 𝑣, hence 𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 22
 Space and Time
Length Contraction
The length contraction can be derived in a number of ways.

To develop a relationship between lengths that are measured

parallel to the direction of motion in various coordinate
systems, Consider another thought experiment.
We attach a light source to one end of a ruler and a mirror to
the other end. The ruler is at rest in reference frame 𝑆′, and its
length in this frame is 𝐿𝑜 . Then the time 𝑡𝑜 required for a light
pulse to make the round trip from source to mirror and back is
2𝐿𝑜
𝑡𝑜 =
𝑐
This is a proper time interval because departure and return
occur at the same point in 𝑆′

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 23

 Space and Time
Length Contraction
In reference frame 𝑆 the ruler is moving to the right with speed 𝑣
during this travel of the light pulse.
The length of the ruler in 𝑆 is 𝐿, and the time of travel from source
to mirror, as measured in 𝑆, is 𝑡1 .

During this interval the ruler, with source and mirror attached,
moves a distance 𝑣𝑡1 . The total length of path 𝑑 from source to
mirror is not 𝐿, but rather
𝑑 = 𝐿 + 𝑣𝑡1
The light pulse travels with the speed 𝑐, so it is also true
𝑑 = 𝑐𝑡1
By equating above two equations

𝑐𝑡1 = 𝐿 + 𝑣𝑡1

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 24

 Space and Time
Length Contraction
𝑐𝑡1 = 𝐿 + 𝑣𝑡1

𝑡1 𝑐 − 𝑣 = 𝐿

𝐿
𝑡1 =
𝑐−𝑣
Dividing the distance 𝐿 by 𝑐 − 𝑢 does not mean that light travels
with speed 𝑐 − 𝑢, but rather that the distance the pulse travels in S
is greater than 𝐿.
In the same way we can show that the time 𝑡2 for the return trip
from mirror to source is
𝐿
𝑡2 =
𝑐+𝑣

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 25

 Space and Time
Length Contraction
𝐿
𝑡1 =
𝑐−𝑣
𝐿
𝑡2 =
𝑐+𝑣
Total time
𝑡 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡2

𝐿 𝐿
𝑡= +
𝑐−𝑣 𝑐+𝑣

𝐿 𝑐+𝑣 +𝐿 𝑐−𝑣
𝑡=
𝑐−𝑣 𝑐+𝑣

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 26

 Space and Time
Length Contraction
𝐿 𝑐+𝑣 +𝐿 𝑐−𝑣
𝑡=
𝑐−𝑣 𝑐+𝑣
𝐿𝑐 + 𝐿𝑣 + 𝐿𝑐 − 𝐿𝑣
𝑡=
𝑐2 − 𝑣2
2𝐿𝑐
𝑡= 2
𝑐 − 𝑣2

2𝐿𝑐
𝑡= 2
𝑐2 𝑣
1− ൗ 2
𝑐

2𝐿
𝑡= 2
𝑐 1−𝑣 ൗ 2
𝑐
Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 27
 Space and Time
Length Contraction
2𝐿
𝑡= 2
𝑐 1−𝑣 ൗ 2
𝑐

2𝐿ൗ
𝑐
𝑡= 2
1−𝑣 ൗ 2
𝑐
We know from equation time dilation
2𝐿𝑜 2 2𝐿𝑜
2 𝑐 𝑐
𝑡 = → 𝑡 =
𝑣2 𝑣 2
1− 2 1− 2
𝑐 𝑐

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 28

 Space and Time
Length Contraction
2𝐿ൗ
𝑐
𝑡= 2
1−𝑣 ൗ 2
𝑐
2𝐿𝑜
𝑡= 𝑐
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐

2𝐿𝑜 2𝐿ൗ
𝑐 𝑐
=
𝑣2 1 − 𝑣 2ൗ
1− 2 𝑐2
𝑐

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 29

 Space and Time
Length Contraction
2𝐿𝑜 2𝐿ൗ
𝑐 𝑐
=
𝑣2 1 − 𝑣 2ൗ
1− 2 𝑐2
𝑐

2𝐿𝑜 2
1−𝑣 ൗ 2
𝑐 𝑐 = 2𝐿ൗ
𝑐
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐

2
𝐿𝑜 1−𝑣 ൗ 2 = 𝐿
𝑐
A length measured in the frame in which the object is at rest (the rest frame of the object) is called a proper length; thus 𝐿𝑜
is a proper length in 𝑆′, and the length 𝐿 measured in any other frame moving relative to 𝑆′ is less than 𝐿𝑜 . This effect is
called length contraction.
Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 30
 Space and Time
Length Contraction– Numerical problem
A spaceship flies past earth at a speed of 0.990𝑐. A crew member on board the spaceship measures its
length, obtaining the value 400 𝑚. What length do observers measure on earth?
Solution:

𝑣 = 0.990𝑐
𝐿𝑜 = 400 𝑚 𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜
2
1−𝑣 ൗ 2
𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠 𝑐
𝐿 =?
(0.990𝑐)2ൗ
𝐿 = 400 1−
𝑐2
𝐿 = 56.4 𝑚

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 31

 Space and Time
Length Contraction– Numerical problem
A spaceship flies past earth at a speed of 0.990𝑐. A crew member on board the spaceship measures its
length, obtaining the value 400 𝑚. What length do observers measure on earth?

Observers 𝑂1 and 𝑂2 are 56.4 𝑚 apart on the earth. How far apart does the spaceship crew measure
them to be?
Solution:
2
𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜 1−𝑣 ൗ 2
𝑣 = 0.990𝑐 𝑐
𝐿𝑜 = 56.4 𝑚
𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠 (0.990𝑐)2ൗ
𝐿 = 56.4 1−
𝐿 =? 𝑐2
𝐿 = 7.96 𝑚

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 32

 Space and Time
Length Contraction Time Dilation
𝑡𝑜
2
𝑡=
𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜 1−𝑣 ൗ 2 𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐 𝑐

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 33

 Twin Paradox
A longer life, but it will not seem longer
We are now in a position to understand the famous
relativistic effect known as the twin paradox.

This paradox involves two identical clocks, one of which

remains on the earth while the other is taken on a
voyage into space at the speed 𝑣 and eventually is
brought back.

Lets replace the clocks with the pair of twins Jack and
Jane, a substitution that is perfectly acceptable because
the processes of life—heartbeats, respiration, and so
on—constitute biological clocks of reasonable regularity.
Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 34
 Twin Paradox
A longer life, but it will not seem longer
Jack is 20 𝑦 old when he takes off on a space voyage at a speed of
0.80𝑐 to a star 20 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 away. To Jane, who stays behind,
the pace of Jack’s life is slower than hers by a factor of

2 (0.80𝑐)2ൗ
1−𝑣 ൗ 2 = 1− = 0.60 = 60%
𝑐 𝑐2
To Jane, Jack’s heart beats only 3 times for every 5 beats of her
heart; Jack takes only 3 breaths for every 5 of hers; Jack thinks only
3 thoughts for every 5 of hers.

Finally Jack returns after 50 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 have gone by according to Jane’s

calendar, but to Jack the trip has taken only 30 𝑦. Jack is therefore
50 𝑦 old whereas Jane, the twin who stayed home, is 70 𝑦 old.

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 35

 Twin Paradox
A longer life, but it will not seem longer
Where is the paradox?
If we consider the situation from the point of view of Jack in the
spacecraft, Jane on the earth is in motion relative to him at a speed
of 0.80𝑐.

Should not Jane then be 50 𝑦 old when the spacecraft returns,

while Jack is then 70 𝑦 —the precise opposite of what was
concluded above?

But the two situations are not equivalent. Jack changed from one
inertial frame to a different one when he started out, when he
reversed direction to head home, and when he landed on the earth.
Jane, however, remained in the same inertial frame during Jack’s
whole voyage. The time dilation formula applies to Jane’s
observations of Jack, but not to Jack’s observations of her.
Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 36
 Twin Paradox
A longer life, but it will not seem longer
Where is the paradox?
To look at Jack’s voyage from his perspective, we must take into
account that the distance 𝐿 he covers is shortened to
2
1 − 0.80𝑐 ൗ 2 = 12 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
2
𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜 1 − 𝑣 ൗ 2 = 20 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝑐 𝑐

To Jack, time goes by at the usual rate, but his voyage to the star has
taken 𝐿 = 15 𝑦 and his return voyage another 15 𝑦, for a total of
30 𝑦. Of course, Jack’s life span has not been extended to him,
because regardless of Jane’s 50 𝑦 wait, he has spent only 30 𝑦 on
the roundtrip.

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 37

 Twin Paradox
A longer life, but it will not seem longer
Where is the paradox?

The nonsymmetric aging of the twins has been verified by

experiments in which accurate clocks were taken on an airplane trip
around the world and then compared with identical clocks that had
been left behind.

An observer who departs from an inertial system and then returns

after moving relative to that system will always find his or her clocks
slow compared with clocks that stayed in the system.

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 38

 Summary
Special Theory of Relativity,
• Frame of Reference
Space and Time
• Time Dilation
• Length Contraction
Twin Paradox

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 39

 Thanks

Dr. Kashif Chaudhary 40