CHAPTER 4

Lecture Note: General Psychology - Memory and Forgetting

I. Introduction to Memory

Memory is a fundamental cognitive process that allows individuals to encode, store, and retrieve
information. It is crucial for learning, decision-making, and understanding the world. Memory is
not a single process but rather a collection of interrelated processes that involve:

 Encoding: The process of converting sensory input into a form that can be stored in
memory.
 Storage: The retention of encoded information over time.
 Retrieval: The process of accessing and bringing stored information into conscious
awareness.

II. Models of Memory

1. The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (1968)

 Sensory Memory: The initial stage of memory that holds sensory information for a very
brief period (milliseconds to seconds).
o Iconic Memory: Visual sensory information.
o Echoic Memory: Auditory sensory information.
 Short-Term Memory (STM): A limited capacity system where information is
temporarily held and processed (lasting about 15-30 seconds).
 Long-Term Memory (LTM): The stage of memory where information is stored for
prolonged periods, potentially for a lifetime.

2. Working Memory Model (Baddeley, 1974)

 An updated view of STM, focusing on active manipulation of information.

 Components:
o Central Executive: Controls attention and coordinates the activities of the other
components.
o Phonological Loop: Holds auditory information.
o Visuospatial Sketchpad: Holds visual and spatial information.
o Episodic Buffer: Integrates information from the other components into a
coherent episodic representation.

III. Stages of Memory Processing

1. Encoding:
o Attention: Focus is necessary for information to be encoded into memory.

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 o Levels of Processing: Deeper levels of processing (e.g., semantic encoding) lead
to better retention than shallow levels (e.g., rote memorization).
o Elaborative Rehearsal: Linking new information with existing knowledge to
enhance encoding.
2. Storage:
o Chunking: Grouping information into meaningful units to improve memory
retention (e.g., phone numbers).
o Schemas: Mental frameworks or structures that organize knowledge and
influence how new information is stored.
o Consolidation: The process through which newly acquired memories become
stable and durable.
3. Retrieval:
o Recall: Retrieving information without any external cues (e.g., essay questions).
o Recognition: Identifying information from a list of options (e.g., multiple-choice
questions).
o Retrieval Cues: Stimuli that aid memory retrieval, including context and
emotional states.

IV. Types of Memory

1. Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory):

o Episodic Memory: Personal experiences and specific events (e.g., your first day
of school).
o Semantic Memory: Facts and general knowledge (e.g., the capital of France).
2. Implicit Memory (Non-declarative Memory):
o Procedural Memory: Memory for skills and actions (e.g., riding a bike).
o Classical Conditioning: Memory for conditioned associations (e.g., associating a
sound with a reflexive response).
o Priming: Exposure to one stimulus influences the response to a subsequent
stimulus.

V. Forgetting

Forgetting refers to the inability to retrieve previously stored information. It can occur at any
stage of memory processing and can be caused by various factors:

1. Theories of Forgetting

 Encoding Failure: Information was never properly encoded into long-term memory.
o Example: Forgetting a person’s name immediately after hearing it.
 Decay Theory: Memory fades over time if not used or rehearsed.
o Example: Forgetting the details of a book read years ago.
 Interference Theory: Other information disrupts the retrieval of the target information.
o Proactive Interference: Older memories interfere with the retrieval of newer
ones.

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 o Retroactive Interference: Newer memories interfere with the retrieval of older
ones.
 Motivated Forgetting (Repression): The unconscious blocking of distressing memories
or thoughts.
o Example: Forgetting traumatic events due to emotional distress.
 Retrieval Failure: The inability to retrieve information, even though it is stored in
memory.
o Example: "Tip of the tongue" phenomenon.

2. Forgetting Curve (Ebbinghaus, 1885):

 The forgetting curve demonstrates that memory retention drops rapidly after learning and
then levels off. Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables to study forgetting, showing that
most forgetting happens within the first hour after learning, with less forgetting over time
thereafter.

VI. Memory Distortion

Memory is not always accurate. Over time, memories can become distorted due to various
factors:

 Misinformation Effect: Exposure to incorrect information after an event can lead to

false memories.
o Example: Witnesses to a crime may remember details that were never part of the
event.
 False Memories: Memories of events that never occurred can be implanted or formed
through suggestion.
o Example: Recalling details of an event from childhood that didn’t actually
happen.

VII. Improving Memory

To enhance memory, several strategies can be employed:

1. Mnemonics: Memory aids that help organize information, such as acronyms or rhymes.
2. Spaced Repetition: Reviewing information at increasing intervals to improve long-term
retention.
3. Practice Retrieval: Actively testing oneself on the material to strengthen memory.
4. Visualization: Creating mental images related to the material being learned.
5. Healthy Lifestyle: Adequate sleep, regular exercise, and proper nutrition support optimal
memory function.

VIII. Conclusion

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Memory is a complex and dynamic process involving encoding, storage, and retrieval of
information. While forgetting is a natural part of memory, it can also result from encoding
failures, interference, or retrieval issues. Understanding the processes of memory and forgetting
is crucial for improving learning and cognitive functioning. Using strategies like rehearsal,
mnemonics, and healthy lifestyle choices can significantly enhance memory performance.

End of Lecture Notes

IX. Factors Affecting Memory

1. Attention:
o Attention is critical for encoding information effectively. Distractions can impair
encoding, leading to poor memory formation. Multitasking, for instance, can
reduce the depth of processing and result in lower retention.
2. Emotional States:
o Strong emotions can enhance memory (emotional arousal can trigger the release
of stress hormones that improve memory encoding). However, extreme stress or
anxiety can impair memory retrieval. This is why people often have vivid
memories of emotionally charged events, such as weddings or traumatic incidents.
3. Sleep and Memory:
o Sleep plays an essential role in memory consolidation. During sleep, the brain
processes and stabilizes new information. Lack of sleep can severely impair both
short-term and long-term memory.
4. Age and Memory:
o Memory abilities can change with age. Older adults may experience a decline in
episodic memory (e.g., recalling specific events), but semantic memory (general
knowledge) tends to remain stable longer. Age-related decline in working
memory and slower processing speeds can impact learning and memory.
5. Stress and Memory:
o Chronic stress can impair the hippocampus (the brain region involved in forming
new memories), reducing memory capacity. Acute stress can sometimes enhance
memory for specific details of an event (like remembering where you were during
a traumatic event), but it can also impair broader memory retrieval.

X. The Role of Context in Memory

1. Context-Dependent Memory:
o Memory is often better when the context or environment during retrieval matches
the environment during encoding. For example, if you study in a quiet room, you
may recall the information better when in a similar setting (e.g., during an exam).
2. State-Dependent Memory:
o Memory retrieval is also influenced by your physiological or emotional state. If
you learn information while in a particular emotional state (e.g., happy or

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 anxious), you are more likely to recall that information when in the same state
later on.

XI. The Role of Schemas in Memory

 Schemas: Mental structures or frameworks that organize and interpret information based
on past experiences.
o Schemas help us organize information efficiently but can lead to memory
distortions. For instance, if someone has a schema of a “library,” they might
falsely recall seeing a library card or a checkout desk in a new library even if
those features were not actually present.
 Schemas and Memory Distortion:
o Memory is not always a perfect reproduction of past events. Instead, it is
influenced by pre-existing schemas. If the details of an event do not fit an
individual's schema, those details may be altered or “forgotten” during memory
retrieval.

XII. False Memories and the Power of Suggestion

1. Memory Implantation:
o Research by Elizabeth Loftus and others shows that people can be made to
"remember" events that never occurred. This can happen through the power of
suggestion, particularly in eyewitness testimony or therapy. For example, leading
questions or exposure to misleading information can create false memories of
events.
2. Eyewitness Testimony:
o Eyewitness memory is particularly susceptible to distortion. The mere act of
questioning or presenting misleading information can change how a person
remembers an event, leading to incorrect convictions in legal cases.

XIII. The Neurobiology of Memory

1. The Hippocampus:
o The hippocampus plays a critical role in the formation of new memories,
particularly in transferring information from short-term to long-term memory.
Damage to the hippocampus can result in anterograde amnesia, where individuals
are unable to form new memories.
2. The Amygdala:
o The amygdala is involved in emotional processing and plays a role in how
emotional events are remembered. It is often activated during intense emotional
experiences, which can make certain memories particularly vivid.
3. The Prefrontal Cortex:

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 oThe prefrontal cortex is involved in working memory and decision-making. It
helps organize and retrieve information from long-term memory. Damage to this
area can impair memory retrieval and executive functions like planning.
4. Neuroplasticity:
o The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections, known
as neuroplasticity, is crucial for memory. This is why practicing certain tasks or
learning new information can enhance memory and cognitive function over time.

XIV. Theories of Long-Term Memory Storage

1. Levels of Processing Theory (Craik and Lockhart, 1972):

o This theory suggests that memory retention depends on how deeply information is
processed. Shallow processing (such as simply repeating information) leads to
weak memory, while deeper processing (e.g., associating information with
existing knowledge) strengthens long-term memory.
2. Dual-Coding Theory (Paivio, 1971):
o Information is encoded in two ways: verbally and visually. This theory suggests
that information that is encoded both verbally and visually (e.g., through imagery
or diagrams) will be better remembered than information encoded through just
one method.
3. The Transfer-Appropriate Processing Theory:
o This theory posits that memory performance is enhanced when the type of
processing used during encoding matches the type of processing required during
retrieval. For example, if you study by answering practice questions (which
mimic the format of the test), you are more likely to do well on the test.

XV. Conclusion: Enhancing Memory and Reducing Forgetting

1. Healthy Habits:
o Regular physical exercise, a balanced diet, and proper sleep are vital for
maintaining brain health and enhancing memory.
2. Active Learning:
o Engage in active learning techniques such as self-testing, summarizing, and
teaching others to improve retention and understanding.
3. Reducing Stress:
o Manage stress through relaxation techniques, mindfulness, and time management
to prevent memory impairments caused by chronic anxiety or tension.

By understanding how memory works and what factors affect it, we can optimize our learning,
improve recall, and mitigate forgetting. Memory is not just about remembering facts—it's about
actively shaping and preserving our experiences.

Memory and Forgetting

Critical Points:
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 Memory refers to the mental process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.
 There are three main types of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and
long-term memory (LTM).
 Sensory memory holds information for a brief moment (a few seconds) before
transferring it to STM.
 Short-term memory (STM) retains information for about 20–30 seconds unless rehearsed.
 Long-term memory (LTM) stores information indefinitely and has an unlimited capacity.
 Forgetting is the failure to retrieve information from memory.
 The Decay Theory suggests that memory fades over time if not used.
 Interference Theory states that old and new memories compete, leading to forgetting.
 Proactive Interference occurs when old information hinders the recall of new information.
 Retroactive Interference happens when new information affects the recall of old
information.
 Retrieval Failure occurs when cues needed to access a memory are missing.
 Encoding Failure means the information was never properly stored in memory.
 Repression (Freud’s theory) suggests that unpleasant memories are pushed into the
unconscious.
 Amnesia is a severe memory loss due to injury or disease and can be of two types:
retrograde (loss of past memories) and anterograde (inability to form new memories).
 Chunking helps in improving short-term memory by grouping information into
meaningful units.
 Mnemonics are memory aids, such as acronyms and rhymes, that enhance recall.
 Rehearsal (repetition of information) strengthens memory retention.
 Flashbulb Memories are vivid, detailed memories of significant events.
 False Memories can occur due to suggestion, misinformation, or reconstruction.
 The Serial Position Effect suggests that we remember the first (primacy effect) and last
(recency effect) items in a list better.