Computer Networks

NETWORKING CONCEPTS
Network
A network is basically an interconnection of various points to make a connected system
e.g Road, Telephone, Social

Data Network
A computer network therefore refers to an interconnection of computers and other peripherals by use of a
communication link

Peer to Peer Networks

In a peer-to-peer network, all computers are considered equal; they all have the same abilities to use the resources
available on the network. Peer-to-peer networks are designed primarily for small to medium local area networks.
Strength (Setup Cost is low, simple to manage)
Weaknesses (Decentralized, Low security)

Client/Server Networks
Client/server network operating systems allow the network to centralize functions and applications in one or more
dedicated servers.

Advantages (Centralized, Scalability, Flexibility, Interoperability, Accessibility)

Disadvantages (Cost, maintenance, Dependence one server)

Server Types
A sever in a network is dedicated to perform some specific task in support of other computers on the network.
One server may perform all these tasks, or a separate server may be dedicated to each task.

Common server types

1. File server
2. Print server
3. Application server
4. Message server
5. Database server

File Server
It offers services that allow network users to share files with network .File servers , users can exchange, read,
write and manage shared files and the data contained in them. They are designed specifically to support the file
services for a network. The file servers include:
a) File transfer
b) File storage
c) File update synchronization
d) File archiving

File Transfer
Network offers file transfer services by typically transferring files between clients and servers. This calls for file
security. Every network operating systems has its own level of file security. Higher level use passwords to control
system access, File attributes to limit file usage and encryption schemes to prevent data from being obtained by
unauthorized individuals.

File Update Synchronization

It involves keeping all the files up to date. It ensures that changes made to a file are organized in chronological
order in which they actually took place and that files are properly updated. File synchronization is usually an
added option or an upgrade in most network operating systems

File Archiving
This is the process of backing up files on offline storage devices such as tapes or optical disks.

Print Server
A print server on a network will offer the following advantages:
 Allow user to share printers
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 Allow users to place the printer where convenient not just near individual computer
 Achieve better performance by using high -speed network data transfer and print queues.
 Allow user to share network fax services.
 Cuts cost by allowing shared access to printing devices.
Network operating systems offers print queues, which are special storage, are where print jobs are stored and then
sent to the printer in an organized fashion. The print jobs are stored in the queue and then forwarded to the printer
when the printer has finished the jobs scheduled ahead of it. At times jobs may be printed in the order of priority
according top other criteria

Objectives of Networking
 Sharing
 Backup
 Communication
 Security

Network Components
 Clients  Switches
 Server  Routers
 NIC  BRouters
 Media  Gateway
 Repeater  Software
 Hubs  Users
 Bridges

Geographical Classification of networks

 LAN
 MAN
 WAN

Characteristics of LAN, MAN, WAN

LAN (Cheap, fast, radius about 3KM)
MAN (Relatively Cheap, fairly fast, radius about 10KM)
WAN (Costly, Slow, No limits, not secures)

Classification of Network by Processing Modes

Distributed networking
In a distributed networking each machine is capable of operating independently. The network is used for the easier
sharing of data.

Centralized Networking
Centralized networks are used in mainframe configurations where the network client devices are actually dump
terminals where all function are done on the server

Collaborative networking
This is where in a busy network having several servers, the server can share their processing capabilities (if
situation demands due to one/more servers being overwhelmed)

Advantages of Networks
 Cost
 Security
 Collaboration
 Speed
 Resource sharing

Challenges of setting networks

 Initial costs
 administration/Personnel
 Breakdowns

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NETWORK TOPOLOGY
The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other peripherals.
Physical topology should not be confused with logical topology which is the method used to pass information
between workstations.

Main Types of Physical Topologies

 Linear Bus
 Star
 Star-Wired Ring
 Tree

Linear Bus Topology

A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each end. All nodes (file server,
workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable. Ethernet and LocalTalk networks use a linear bus
topology.

Diagram?

Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
 Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology
 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
 Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

Star Topology
A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals) connected directly to a
central network hub or concentrator.
Data on a star network passes through the hub or concentrator before continuing to its destination. The hub or
concentrator manages and controls all functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. This
configuration is common with twisted pair cable; however, it can also be used with coaxial cable or fiber optic
cable.

Diagram?

Advantages of a Star Topology

 Easy to install and wire.
 No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages of a Star Topology
 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
 If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators.
The protocols used with star configurations are usually Ethernet or LocalTalk. Token Ring uses a similar
topology, called the star-wired ring.

Star-Wired Ring Topology

A star-wired ring topology may appear (externally) to be the same as a star topology. Internally, the MAU (multi-
station access unit) of a star-wired ring contains wiring that allows information to pass from one device to
another in a circle or ring. The Token Ring protocol uses a star-wired ring topology.
Diagram?

Tree Topology
A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of groups of star-configured
workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable.

Advantages of a Tree Topology

 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
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 Supported by several hardware and software venders.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

Considerations When Choosing a Topology:

 Money. A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a network; you do not have to
purchase concentrators.
 Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable.
 Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding another
concentrator.
 Cable type. The most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which is most often used with
star topologies.

In Summary
Physical Topology Common Cable Common Protocol
Linear Bus Twisted Pair Ethernet
Coaxial LocalTalk
Fiber
Star Twisted Pair Ethernet
Fiber LocalTalk
Star-Wired Ring Twisted Pair Token Ring
Tree Twisted Pair Ethernet
Coaxial
Fiber

DATA TRANSMISSION AND ELECTRIC SIGNALS

Voltage
Voltage, sometimes referred to as electromotive force (EMF), is an electrical force, or pressure, that occurs when
electrons and protons are separated. The force that is created pushes toward the opposite charge and away from
the like charge.
Voltage is represented by the letter "V", and sometimes by the letter "E", for electromotive force. The unit of
measurement for voltage is volt (V), and is defined as the amount of work, per unit charge, needed to separate the
charges.

Current
Electrical current, or current, is the flow of charges that is created when electrons move. In electrical circuits,
current is caused by a flow of free electrons. When voltage (electrical pressure) is applied, and there is a path for
the current, electrons move from the negative terminal (which repels them), along the path, to the positive
terminal (which attracts them).
Current is represented by the letter "I". The unit of measurement for current is Ampere (Amp), and is defined as
the number of charges per second that pass by a point along a path.

Resistance
Materials through which current flows, offer varying amounts of opposition, or resistance, to the movement of the
electrons. Materials that offer very little, or no, resistance, are called conductors. Those that do not allow the
current to flow, or severely restrict its flow, are called insulators. The amount of resistance depends on the
chemical composition of the materials.
Resistance is represented by the letter "R". The unit of measurement for resistance is the ohm (Ω). The symbol
comes from the Greek capital letter "Ω" - omega.

Alternating Current (AC)

This is one of the two ways in which current flows. Alternating current (AC) and voltages vary with time, by
changing their polarity, or direction. AC flows in one direction, then reverses its direction, and repeats the process.
AC voltage is positive at one terminal, and negative at the other, then it reverses its polarity, so that the positive
terminal becomes negative, and the negative terminal becomes positive. This process repeats itself continuously.
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Direct Current (DC)

This is the other way in which current flows. Direct current (DC) always flows in the same direction, and DC
voltages always have the same polarity. One terminal is always positive, and the other is always negative. They do
not change or reverse.

Impedance
Impedance is the measure of the combined opposition to the flow of both AC and DC current flow. The term
resistance is generally used when referring to DC voltages. Impedance is the general term, and is the measure of
how the flow of electrons is resisted, or impeded.
Impedance is represented by the letter "Z". Its unit of measurement, like that for resistance, is the ohm (Ω).

Voltage, Current, Resistance Relationship

The mathematical relationship known as Ohm's Law relates to the amount of current that will flow through a piece
of conductor when a voltage is applied to it. If the resistance of the piece of conductor is R Ohms, then the current
that will flow is I = V/R.
A multimeter measures voltage, current, and resistance
The word 'signal' refers to information that can be transmitted by varying, in some way, a measurable quantity,
such as electrical voltage, light, or radio waves. All of these can carry networking data.

Signal types
One type of signal is analog. An analog signal has the following characteristics:
 Is wavy
 Has a continuously varying voltage versus time graph
 Is typical of things in nature
 Has been widely used in telecommunications for over 100 years
Another type of signal is digital. A digital signal has the following characteristics:
 Has discrete, or jumpy, voltage versus time graphs
 Is typical of technology, rather than nature

Note:
Digital signals are cheaper and less susceptible to noise but have greater attenuation

Data networks have become increasingly dependent on digital (binary or two-state) systems. The basic building
block of information is one binary digit, known as the bit or pulse. One bit, on an electrical medium, is the
electrical signal corresponding to binary 0 or binary 1. This may be as simple as 0 (zero) volts for binary 0 and +5
volts for binary 1, or a more complex encoding. Signal reference ground is an important concept relating to all
networking media that use voltages to carry messages.
With optical signals, binary 0 would be encoded as a low-light, or no-light intensity (darkness). Binary 1 would be
encoded as higher-light intensity (brightness), or other more complex patterns.
With wireless signals, binary 0 might be a short burst of waves; binary 1 might be a longer burst of waves, or
another more complex pattern.
Six things could happen to this single bit:
 propagation delay
 attenuation
 reflection
 noise
 timing problem
 collisions

Propagation means travel. The propagation speed depends on the actual material used in the medium, the
geometry (structure) of the medium, and the frequency of the pulses. The time it takes the bit to travel from one
end of the medium and back again is referred to as the round trip time, (RTT).
If the propagation time is too long, you should re-evaluate how the rest of the network will deal with this delay. If
the propagation delay is too short, one may have to slow down the bits, or save them temporarily (known as
buffering), so that the rest of the networking equipment can catch up with the bit.

Attenuation causes signals propagating through the medium (cable, optical fiber) to reduce in strength. This can
be minimized by the wavelength, or color, of the light that is chosen.
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Attenuation also happens to optical signals. The optical fiber absorbs and scatters some of the light energy as the
light pulse, one bit, travels down the fiber. This can also be minimized depending on whether single-mode or
multimode fiber is used, and by the actual glass that is used for the fiber. Even with these choices, some signal
loss is unavoidable.
Attenuation also happens to radio waves and microwaves as they are absorbed and scattered by specific molecules
in the atmosphere.
Attenuation can affect a network since it limits the length of network cabling over which messages can be sent. If
the cable is too long or too attenuating, a 1 bit sent from the source can look like a 0 bit by the time it gets to the
destination.

This problem can be overcome by carefully choosing a networking medium that has sufficiently low attenuation.
One way to fix the problem is to change the medium. A second way is to use a repeater after a certain distance.
There are repeaters for electrical, optical, and wireless bits.

Reflection occurs in electrical signals. When voltage pulses, or bits, hit a discontinuity, some energy can be
reflected. If not carefully controlled, this energy can interfere with later bits. In real networks, millions of bits are
transmitted every second, and this reflected energy can lead to severe information loss.
Reflection also occurs with optical signals. Optical signals reflect whenever they hit a discontinuity in the glass
fiber, such as when a connector is plugged into a device.
For optimal network performance, the network media should have a specific impedance in order to match the
electrical components in the NICs. Unless the network media has the correct impedance, the signal will suffer
some reflection and interference will be created. Then multiple reflecting pulses can occur.

Whether the system is electrical, optical, or wireless, impedance mismatches cause reflections. If enough
energy is reflected, the binary, two-state system can become confused by all the extra energy bouncing around.
You can resolve this by ensuring that all networking components are carefully impedance matched.

Noise is unwanted random addition to a signal, it is important to keep the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio as high as
possible. The S/N ratio is an engineering calculation and measurement that involves dividing the signal strength
by the noise strength. It gives a measure of how easy it will be to decipher the desired, intended signal from the
unwanted, but unavoidable, noise. In other words, each bit receives additional unwanted signals from various
sources. Too much noise can corrupt a bit, turning a binary 1 into a binary 0 (zero), or a 0 (zero) into a 1, thereby
destroying the message.

NEXT-A and NEXT-B

When electrical noise on the cable originates from signals on other wires in the cable, this is known as cross talk.
NEXT stands for near-end cross talk. When two wires are near each other and untwisted, energy from one wire
can wind up in an adjacent wire and vice versa. This can cause noise at both ends of a terminated cable. There are
actually many forms of cross talk that must be considered when building networks.
NEXT can be addressed by termination technology, strict adherence to standard termination procedures, and the
use of quality twisted pair cables.
NEXT-A is Near End cross talk at computer A and NEXT-B is Near End cross talk at computer B.

Thermal Noise
Thermal noise, due to the random motion of electrons, is unavoidable but usually relatively small compared to the
signals.

AC Power/Reference Ground Noise

If not properly prevented, power line noise can cause problems for a network.
AC line noise coming from a nearby video monitor or hard disk drive can be enough to create errors in a computer
system. By changing shape and voltage levels, the line noise is interfering with the desired signals. It is preventing
the logic gates of the computer from detecting the leading and trailing edges of the square waves. This problem
can be further compounded when a computer has a poor ground connection.

EMI/RFI
External sources of electrical impulses that can attack the quality of electrical signals on the cable include lighting,
electrical motors, and radio systems. These types of interference are referred to as electromagnetic interference
(EMI), and radio frequency interference (RFI).

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If the resulting electrical noise reaches a high enough level, it can become difficult for NICs to discriminate the
noise from the data signal. This is particularly a problem because most LANs use frequencies in the 1-100
megahertz (MHz) frequency region, which happens to be where FM Radio signals, TV signals, and lots of
appliances have their operating frequencies as well.

There are a number of ways to limit EMI and RFI. One way is to increase the size of the conductor wires. Another
way is to improve the type of insulating material used. However, such changes increase the size and cost of the
cable faster than they improve its quality. Therefore, it is more typical for network designers to specify a cable of
good quality, and to provide specifications for the maximum recommended cable length between nodes.
Two techniques that cable designers have used successfully in dealing with EMI and RFI are shielding and
cancellation. In cable that employs shielding, a metal braid or foil surrounds each wire pair or group of wire pairs.
This shielding acts as a barrier to any interfering signals.
When two wires in an electrical circuit are placed close together, their magnetic fields are the exact opposite of
each other. Thus, the two magnetic fields will cancel each other out. They also will cancel out any outside
magnetic fields as well. Twisting the wires can enhance this cancellation effect. By using cancellation in
combination with the twisting of wires, cable designers can provide an effective method of providing self-
shielding for wire pairs within the network media.

Dispersion, jitter, and latency are actually three different things that can happen to a bit. They are grouped
together because each affects the timing of a bit. Since millions and billions of bits travel on a medium in one
second, timing is extremely important.
Dispersion is when the signal broadens in time. It is caused by the type of media involved. If serious enough, one
bit can start to interfere with the next bit and confuse it with the bits before and after it. The signal must not be
allowed to spread out, since billions of bits per second may be sent on the network. Dispersion can be fixed by
proper cable design, limiting cable lengths, and finding the proper impedance. In optical fibers, using laser light of
a very specific wavelength can control dispersion. For wireless communications, dispersion can be minimized by
the frequencies used to transmit.
All digital systems are clocked, meaning it is the clock pulses that cause everything to happen. Clock pulses cause
the CPU to calculate, the data to be stored in memory, and the NIC to send bits. If the clock on the source host is
not synchronized with the destination, which is quite likely, timing jitter will occur. This means that bits will
arrive a little earlier and later than expected. Jitter can be fixed by a series of complicated clock synchronizations,
including hardware and software, or protocol synchronizations.

Latency, is signal delay and is caused by two factors:

Nothing can travel faster than the speed of light in a vacuum (3.0 x 108 meters/second)
If the bit goes through any devices, the transistors and electronics introduce more latency.
The solution to the problem of latency is the careful use of internetworking devices, different encoding strategies,
and various layer protocols.

A collision occurs when two bits from two different communicating computers are on a shared medium at the
same time
There are many ways to deal with collisions. One way is to detect them and simply have a set of rules for dealing
with them when they occur, as in Ethernet. Another way is to try to prevent collisions by only allowing one
computer on a shared media environment to transmit at a time. This requires that a computer have a special bit
pattern called a token to transmit, as in Token Ring and FDDI.

After a bit reaches a medium, it propagates. It may experience attenuation, reflection, noise, dispersion, or
collision. A network needs to transmit far more than one bit. In fact, you want to transmit billions of bits in one
second. All of the effects described thus far that can occur to one bit also apply to the various protocol data units
(PDUs) of the OSI model. Eight bits equal one byte. Multiple bytes equal one frame. Frames contain packets.
Packets carry the messages you wish to communicate. Networking professionals often talk about attenuated,
reflected, noisy, dispersed, and collided frames and packets.

Whenever a message has to be sent over a long distance, there are two problems to solve. The first problem is how
to express the message by encoding or modulation. The second problem is which method to use to transport the
message carrier.
Encoding means converting binary data into a form that can travel on a physical communications link. Modulation
means using the binary data to manipulate a wave.
Encoding means converting 1s and 0s (zeros) into something real and physical, such as:
 an electrical pulse on a wire
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 a light pulse on an optical fiber
 a pulse of electromagnetic waves into space
Two methods of accomplishing this are TTL encoding and Manchester encoding.
TTL (transistor-transistor logic) encoding is the simplest. It is characterized by a high signal and a low signal
(often +5 or +3.3 V for binary 1 and 0 [zero] V for binary 0 [zero]). In optical fibers, binary 1 might be a bright
LED or laser light, and binary 0 (zero), dark or no light. In wireless networks, binary 1 might mean a carrier wave
is present, and binary 0 (zero), no carrier at all.
Closely related to encoding is modulation, which specifically means taking a wave and changing, or modulating it
so that it carries information. To give you an idea of what modulation is, examine three forms of modifying, or
modulating, a carrier wave to encode bits:
 AM (amplitude modulation) - the amplitude, or height, of a carrier sine wave is varied to carry the
message
 FM (frequency modulation) - the frequency of the carrier wave is varied to carry the message
 PM (phase modulation) - the phase, or beginning and ending points of a given cycle, of the wave is
varied to carry the message

NETWORK ARCHITECTURES
Network architecture describes topologies, types of cables, protocols, access methods and other variables
consisting a network. In other words I is the overall structure and all components that makes a network functional
including hard ware and system software.
The most common architectures are:
 Ethernet
 Apple networks (localtalk and appletalk)
 Token Ring
 ARCnet

ETHERNET
The Ethernet is the most popular physical network architecture in use today. Ethernet uses an access method
called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection). This is a system where each computer
listens to the cable before sending anything through the network. If the network is clear, the computer will
transmit. If some other node is already transmitting on the cable, the computer will wait and try again when the
line is clear. Sometimes, two computers attempt to transmit at the same instant. When this happens a collision
occurs. Each computer then backs off and waits a random amount of time before attempting to retransmit. With
this access method, it is normal to have collisions. However, the delay caused by collisions and retransmit is very
small and does not normally affect the speed of transmission on the network.
The Ethernet protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree topologies. Data can be transmitted over twisted pair,
coaxial, or fiber optic cable at a speed of 10 Mbps.
The IEEE specification describes the four common Ethernet systems within the 802.3 standard:
o 10BaseT
o 10Base2
o 10Base5
o 10BaseF

The various implementation of the 802.3 standard are named using a special three part convention that is based
on:
a) The data rate (Mbps)
b) The signal mode (baseband )
c) An approximate maximum media distances in units of approximately 100 metes, designator type.
For example, 10BASE5 denotes an implementation that works at 10Mbps’ uses a baseband signal and has a
maximum media length of 500 meters

Baseband Vs Broadband Transmission

Baseband Broadband
 Transmission of analog or digital signals without  Modulate data before transmission.
any modulation.  Commonly referred to channel with
 Uses digital signals to transfer data. (restricted use) bandwidth greater than 4Khz (voice)
 Not suitable for video and voice.  Need modulation/demodulation devices
 Simple, inexpensive, reliable.  Greater bandwidth and coverage.

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 Limited to 1km distance.  More useful for backbones to support
 Common in LANs (e.g. Ethernet, Token ring). more channels.

10BASET
10baseT network system use UTP cabling they are physically wired as a star but the logical topology is a bus. Its
maximum length is 100M

10BASE2
10base2 uses thin coax cabling (RG58 or equivalent) and is also know as thin Ethernet and thinnet .Its maximum
length is 200M(practically 185M)

10BASE5
10Base5 uses thick coax cable (RG8 or equivalent) and is also known as thick or thicknet. Both the physical and
logical topologies are bus. Its maximum length is 500M

10BASEF
10BaseF uses fiber optic cable. The physical topology is a star although the logical topology is a bus. The
maximum segments length is 2000 meters. It is a common choice for backbones. However, newer technologies
such as fast Ethernet are superseding it.

Fast Ethernet
To allow for an increased speed of transmission, the Ethernet protocol has developed a new standard that supports
100 Mbps. This is commonly called Fast Ethernet. Fast Ethernet requires the use of different, more expensive
network concentrators/hubs and network interface cards. In addition, category 5 twisted pair or fiber optic cable is
necessary. Fast Ethernet is becoming common in schools that have been recently wired.

Gigabit Ethernet
The most recent development in the Ethernet standard is a protocol that has a transmission speed of 1 Gbps.
Gigabit Ethernet is primarily used for backbones on a network at this time. In the future, it will probably be used
for workstation and server connections also. It can be used with both fiber optic cabling and copper. The
1000BaseTX, the copper cable used for Gigabit Ethernet, is expected to become the formal standard in 1999.

LOCALTALK AND APPLETALK

LocalTalk is a network physical network architecture that was developed by Apple Computer, Inc. for Macintosh
computers. The method used by LocalTalk is called CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance). It is similar to CSMA/CD except that a computer signals its intent to transmit before it actually does
so. LocalTalk adapters and special twisted pair cable can be used to connect a series of computers through the
serial port. The Macintosh operating system allows the establishment of a peer-to-peer network without the need
for additional software. With the addition of the server version of AppleShare software, a client/server network
can be established.
The LocalTalk protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree topologies using twisted pair cable. A primary
disadvantage of LocalTalk is speed. Its speed of transmission is only 230 Kbps.

TOKEN RING
IBM developed the Token Ring physical network architecture in the mid-1980s. The access method used involves
token passing. In Token Ring, the computers are connected so that the signal travels around the network from one
computer to another in a logical ring. A single electronic token moves around the ring from one computer to the
next. If a computer does not have information to transmit, it simply passes the token on to the next workstation. If
a computer wishes to transmit and receives an empty token, it attaches data to the token. The token then proceeds
around the ring until it comes to the computer for which the data is meant. At this point, the data is captured by
the receiving computer. The Token Ring protocol requires a star-wired ring using twisted pair or fiber optic cable.
It can operate at transmission speeds of 4 Mbps or 16 Mbps. Due to the increasing popularity of Ethernet, the use
of Token Ring in school environments has decreased.

MEDIA ACCESS METHODS

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A network’s access method is a method of controlling how devices on the network access the communications
medium. There are three (3) main access methods common in LANs:

Contention based media access describes a way of getting data on to the network whereby systems ‘contend for’
or share the media. On a contention based network, systems can only transmit when the media is free and clear of
signals. This way, devices listen to the media, and if no other system is transmitting, they can go ahead and send
data. In cases where more than one system finds the network free and attempts to transmit, a data collision will
occur, and systems will need to retransmit. The best example of a contention based access method is Ethernet,
which uses a scheme called Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD).

Token Passing
A more orderly scheme for moving data between network systems is token passing. In token passing media
access environments, a special frame referred to as a token repeatedly circles the network, passed from system to
system. If a system has control of the token, it can transmit data. If it doesn’t, it must wait for the token to become
available again. The token moves around the network at incredibly high speeds. This type of access method
virtually eliminates collisions.
Examples of technologies that use token passing media access include Token Ring and Fiber Distributed Data
Interface (FDDI).

Polling
While contention and token passing methods are by far the most popular ways in which PCs access LAN media,
some technologies rely on a technique called polling. Polling based media access is a deterministic way of
allowing systems access to the network while also avoiding collisions. When used, a central device referred to as
the master polls systems to see if they have data to transmit. Some WLANs use polling based media access which
uses a scheme called Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA).

DATA TRANSMISSION
Encoding and Modulation Techniques
In communications and information processing, encoding is the process by which information from a source is
converted into symbols to be communicated. Decoding is the reverse process, converting these code symbols back
into information understandable by a receiver.

In telecommunications, modulation is the process of conveying a message signal, for example a digital bit stream
or an analog audio signal, inside another signal that can be physically transmitted.

Encoding and Modulation illustrated

Digital Signaling Versus Analog Signaling

Digital signaling
 Digital or analog data is encoded into a digital signal
 Encoding may be chosen to conserve bandwidth or to minimize error
Analog Signaling
 Digital or analog data modulates analog carrier signal
 The frequency of the carrier fc is chosen to be compatible with the transmission medium used
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 Modulation: the amplitude, frequency or phase of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with
the modulating data signal
 by using different carrier frequencies, multiple data signals (users) can share the same
transmission medium

Digital Signaling
Digital data, digital signal
 Simplest encoding scheme: assign one voltage level to binary one and another voltage level to
binary zero
 More complex encoding schemes: are used to improve performance (reduce transmission
bandwidth and minimize errors).
 Examples are NRZ-L, NRZI, Manchester, etc.
Analog data, Digital signal
 Analog data, such as voice and video
 Often digitized to be able to use digital transmission facility
 Example: Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), which involves sampling the analog data periodically
and quantizing the samples
Analog Signaling
Digital data, Analog Signal
 A modem converts digital data to an analog signal so that it can be transmitted over an analog
line
 The digital data modulates the amplitude, frequency, or phase of a carrier analog signal
 Examples: Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), Phase Shift Keying
(PSK)
Analog data, Analog Signal
 Analog data, such as voice and video modulate the amplitude, frequency, or phase of a carrier
signal to produce an analog signal in a different frequency band
 Examples: Amplitude Modulation (AM), Frequency Modulation (FM), Phase Modulation (PM)
Digital Data, Digital Signal
Digital signal
 discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses
 each pulse is a signal element
 binary data encoded into signal elements

Interpreting Signals
Need to know
 timing of bits: when they start and end
 signal levels: high or low
factors affecting signal interpretation
 Data rate: increase data rate increases Bit Error Rate (BER)
 Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR): increase SNR decrease BER
 Bandwidth: increase bandwidth increase data rate
 encoding scheme: mapping from data bits to signal elements

Comparison of Encoding Schemes

Signal spectrum
 Lack of high frequencies reduces required bandwidth,
 lack of dc component allows ac coupling via transformer, providing isolation,
 should concentrate power in the middle of the bandwidth
Clocking
 synchronizing transmitter and receiver with a sync mechanism based on suitable encoding
Error detection

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 useful if can be built in to signal encoding
Signal interference and noise immunity
Cost and complexity: increases when increases data rate

ENCODING SCHEMES

DESCRIPTIONS

Modulation Techniques

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(ASK-Amplitude Shift Keying , FSK-Frequency, PSK-Phase)

AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING

In ASK, the two binary values are represented by to different amplitudes of the carrier frequency
The resulting modulated signal for one bit time is
Susceptible to noise
Inefficient modulation technique
used for
 up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
 very high speeds over optical fiber
Example

BINARY FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING

The most common form of FSK is Binary FSK (BFSK)
Two binary values represented by two different frequencies ( f1 and f2 )
less susceptible to noise than ASK
used for
 up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
 high frequency radio (3 to 30MHz)
 even higher frequency on LANs using coaxial cable
Example
00110100010

PHASE SHIFT KEYING (PSK)

Phase of carrier signal is shifted to represent data
Binary PSK (BPSK): two phases represent two binary digits
Example00110100010

Reading Assignment-Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

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Transmission modes
A given transmission on a communications channel between two machines can occur in several different ways.
The transmission is characterised by:
 the direction of the exchanges
 the transmission mode: the number of bits sent simultaneously
 synchronisation between the transmitter and receiver

Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex connections

There are 3 different transmission modes characterised according to the direction of the exchanges:
 A simplex connection is a connection in which the data flows in only one direction, from the transmitter
to the receiver. This type of connection is useful if the data do not need to flow in both directions (for
example, from your computer to the printer or from the mouse to your computer...).

 A half-duplex connection (sometimes called an alternating connection or semi-duplex) is a connection

in which the data flows in one direction or the other, but not both at the same time. With this type of
connection, each end of the connection transmits in turn. This type of connection makes it possible to
have bidirectional communications using the full capacity of the line.

 A full-duplex connection is a connection in which the data flow in both directions simultaneously. Each
end of the line can thus transmit and receive at the same time, which means that the bandwidth is divided
in two for each direction of data transmission if the same transmission medium is used for both directions
of transmission.

Serial and parallel transmission

The transmission mode refers to the number of elementary units of information (bits) that can be simultaneously
translated by the communications channel. In fact, processors (and therefore computers in general) never process
(in the case of recent processors) a single bit at a time; generally they are able to process several (most of the time
it is 8: one byte), and for this reason the basic connections on a computer are parallel connections.
Parallel connection
Parallel connection means simultaneous transmission of N bits. These bits are sent simultaneously over N different
channels (a channel being, for example, a wire, a cable or any other physical medium). The parallel connection on
PC-type computers generally requires 10 wires.

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These channels may be:

 N physical lines: in which case each bit is sent on a physical line (which is why parallel cables are made
up of several wires in a ribbon cable)
 one physical line divided into several sub-channels by dividing up the bandwidth. In this case, each bit is
sent at a different frequency...
Since the conductive wires are close to each other in the ribbon cable, interference can occur (particularly at high
speeds) and degrade the signal quality...
Serial connection
In a serial connection, the data are sent one bit at a time over the transmission channel. However, since most
processors process data in parallel, the transmitter needs to transform incoming parallel data into serial data and
the receiver needs to do the opposite.

These operations are performed by a communications controller (normally a UART (Universal Asynchronous
Receiver Transmitter) chip). The communications controller works in the following manner:
 The parallel-serial transformation is performed using a shift register. The shift register, working
together with a clock, will shift the register (containing all of the data presented in parallel) by one
position to the left, and then transmit the most significant bit (the leftmost one) and so on:

 The serial-parallel transformation is done in almost the same way using a shift register. The shift
register shifts the register by one position to the left each time a bit is received, and then transmits the
entire register in parallel when it is full:

Synchronous and asynchronous transmission

Given the problems that arise with a parallel-type connection, serial connections are normally used. However,
since a single wire transports the information, the problem is how to synchronise the transmitter and receiver, in
other words, the receiver can not necessarily distinguish the characters (or more generally the bit sequences)
because the bits are sent one after the other. There are two types of transmission that address this problem:
 An asynchronous connection, in which each character is sent at irregular intervals in time (for example
a user sending characters entered at the keyboard in real time). So, for example, imagine that a single bit
is transmitted during a long period of silence... the receiver will not be able to know if this is 00010000,
10000000 or 00000100...
To remedy this problem, each character is preceded by some information indicating the start of character
transmission (the transmission start information is called a START bit) and ends by sending end-of-
transmission information (called STOP bit, there may even be several STOP bits).

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 In a synchronous connection, the transmitter and receiver are paced by the same clock. The receiver
continuously receives (even when no bits are transmitted) the information at the same rate the transmitter
send it. This is why the transmitter and receiver are paced at the same speed. In addition, supplementary
information is inserted to guarantee that there are no errors during transmission.
During synchronous transmission, the bits are sent successively with no separation between each character, so it is
necessary to insert synchronisation elements; this is called character-level synchronisation.
The main disadvantage of synchronous transmission is recognising the data at the receiver, as there may be
differences between the transmitter and receiver clocks. That is why each data transmission must be sustained
long enough for the receiver to distinguish it. As a result, the transmission speed can not be very high in a
synchronous link.

Synchronous Vs Asynchronous Communication

Asynchronous Synchronous
 Data is transferred one char at a time (at  Data is transmitted in blocks of characters.
random times).  Header and trailer mark the beginning and the
 Each char is surrounded by a start and stop bit. end of the block.
 Frequently used for terminal communications.  E.g. File transfers from disk.
 Hardware logic is simple.  More efficient for high speed communication.
 Problem : If start bit is missed then the whole  More difficult logic to implement.
char is lost.
 Rarely used in high speed communications.

ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION

Integrity of information is ensured in two steps:
– Detecting errors when they occur at the receiver during transmission
– Triggering retransmission or performing an error correction in the event that an error is detected
Parity Checking
• One of the simplest error-detection schemes
• It refers to the use of parity bits to check that data has been transmitted accurately
• There two types of parity: odd and even
• Parity checking has limitations
– It cannot detect an error when an even number of bits change in the same data unit
Parity Checking
(with parity bits shown in boxes)

Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)

• Operates on a group of bytes
• Create a cross-grid matrix pattern to pinpoint a bad bit
• Produces a Block Check Character (BCC) to provide extra error-detection capabilities for a block of data
• Advantage
– It is simple and improves the odds of detecting errors
– Provides error correction at the receiver, which simply inverts the bad bit
• Disadvantage
– It has significant overhead

Example of LRC Implementation

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Hamming Code
• Hamming Code is a error-detection-and-correction scheme for single-bit errors
• Generates several parity bits that are interspersed with data in a specific pattern
• One data bit affects more than one parity bit, so the bad bit can be detected
• Its error correction capability eliminates the need for retransmission
• It uses forward-error-correction
– Error corrected by the receiving device

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

– One of the most widely used, reliable, and efficient error-detection schemes
– Used in synchronous transmission where blocks of data can be several thousand bytes and
where single bit errors occur less frequently as compared with multiple or burst errors
– CRC uses a unique mathematical algorithm, which is known to both the transmitter and the
receiver
– The bit pattern (16 or 32 bits) that is used to verify the data is called a Frame Check Sequence
(FCS)

CRC Process Flowchart

TRANSMISSION M EDIA
Data transmission is the process of conveying data between two points by way of a communication medium. A
wide variety of media are available, but they fall into two classes: bounded and unbounded.
Bounded media confine the data to specific physical pathways. Common examples of bounded media are wire and
optical fiber cables. Cable TV uses bounded media.
Unbounded media transmit the data-carrying signal through space, independent of a cable. Broadcast radio and
television are examples of unbounded media.

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Bounded Media
By far the most common media employed for data transmission are defined as bounded -- the data signal is
confined in a specific transmission pathway. When practical, cable represents a low-cost and reliable means of
transmitting data between computing devices.
Practicality is a relative thing. Certainly cables are likely to be the logical choice within a building or even a
building complex. It may not be possible, however, to run a cable between two buildings on different sides of a
public road, and it is certainly a major undertaking when the buildings are located on different continents. Such
conditions may call for use of unbounded media.

You should be alert to several characteristics when examining cables:

1. Resistance to electrical magnetic interference (EMI).
2. Bandwidth, the range of frequencies that the cable can accommodate. LANs generally carry data rates of
1 to 100 megabits per second and require moderately high bandwidth.
3. Attenuation characteristics. Attenuation describes how cables reduce the strength of a signal with
distance. Resistance is one factor that contributes to signal attenuation.
4. Cost.
NOTE: Electrical magnetic interference, or EMI, can be a major headache for LAN technicians. Many electrical
devices generate magnetic fields that produce unwanted electrical currents in data cables. The noise that results
from these currents can degrade data signals, sometimes stopping communication altogether due to excessive
error rates. Electrical motors and fluorescent lights are common sources of EMI, and it can be a genuine challenge
to cable a network in environments such as factories that contain many electrical devices.

CABLE TYPES
Cables fall into two broad categories -- electrical conductors and fiber optic -- with various types of cables
available in each category. Prior to an examination of fiber optic cables, this section examines two types of
electrical cables: coaxial and twisted pair.
NOTE: Electrical cable types are frequently referred to as "copper" because that metal is the most frequently
used conductor. You may hear fiber optic cables called simply "fiber" or "glass".

Coaxial Cable

Parts of coaxial cable

The cable is called coaxial (or coax for short) because two conductors share a COmmon AXis. A typical coaxial
cable has the following components:
 Center conductor. This conductor usually consists of a fairly heavy, solid yet flexible wire; stranded
wires can also be used. Solid conductors are preferred for permanent wiring, but stranded conductors
make the cable more flexible and easier to connect to equipment.
 Insulation layer. Also called a dielectric layer, this layer provides electrical insulation and keeps the inner
and outer conductors in precise coaxial relationship.
 Outer conductor or shield. This layer shields the inner conductor from outside electrical interference.
The shield can consist of braided wires, metal foil, or a combination of both. Because of this shield, coax
is highly resistant to electrical magnetic interference (EMI).
 Jacket or sheath. A durable plastic or Teflon jacket coats the cable to prevent damage.

Coax has many desirable characteristics. It is highly resistant to EMI and can support high bandwidths. Some
types of coax have heavy shields and center conductors to enhance these characteristics and to extend the
distances that signals can be transmitted reliably.
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A wide variety of coax cable is available. You must use cable that exactly matches the requirements of a particular
type of network. Coax cables vary in a measurement known as the impedance (measured in a unit called the ohm),
which is an indication of the cable's resistance to current flow. The specifications of a given cabling standard
indicate the required impedance of the cable.
The two types of coaxial cabling are thick coaxial and thin coaxial.
Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin coaxial cable carrying
Ethernet signals. The 2 refer to the approximate maximum segment length being 200 meters. In actual fact the
maximum segment length is 185 meters. Thin coaxial cable is popular in school networks, especially linear bus
networks.
Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers to the specifications for thick coaxial cable
carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refer to the maximum segment length being 500 meters. Thick coaxial cable has
an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away from the center conductor. This makes thick
coaxial a great choice when running longer lengths in a linear bus network. One disadvantage of thick coaxial is
that it does not bend easily and is difficult to install.

Here are some common examples of coaxial cables used in LANs, along with their impedances, and the
LAN standards with which they are associated:
 RG-8 and RG-11 are 50 ohm cables required for thickwire Ethernet. (10Base5 - ThinkNet)
 RG-58 is a smaller 50 ohm cable required for use with thinwire Ethernet. (10Base2 - ThinNet)
 RG-59 is a 75 ohm cable most familiar when used to wire cable TV. RG-59 is also used to cable
broadband 802.3 Ethernet.
 RG-62 is a 93 ohm cable used for ARCnet. It is also commonly employed to wire terminals in an IBM
SNA network.
Some advantages of coaxial cable are as follows:
 Highly insensitive to EMI
 Supports high bandwidths
 Heavier types of coax are sturdy and can withstand harsh environments
 Represents a mature technology that is well understood and consistently applied among vendors
Coax also has some disadvantages including the following:
 Although fairly insensitive to EMI, coax remains vulnerable to EMI in harsh conditions such as factories.
 Coax can be bulky.
 Coax is among the most expensive types of wire cables.

Coaxial Cable Connectors

The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNC) connector
(See fig below). Different types of adapters are available for BNC connectors, including a T-connector, barrel
connector, and terminator. Connectors on the cable are the weakest points in any network. To help avoid problems
with your network, always use the BNC connectors that crimp, rather than screw, onto the cable.

BNC Connector

TWISTED PAIR

Two wires are twisted together to form the wire type known as twisted pair (TP). Cables can be constructed of
multiple pairs of cables contained by a common jacket.
The twists in the wire pairs are an important part of the electrical characteristics of TP cable. Twists reduce the
cable's sensitivity to outside EMI and the degree to which the cables radiate radio frequency signals. Remember
that the frequencies at which LANs operate fall into the range of radio signals. If TP cable is insufficiently

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twisted, it can function as an antenna and radiate significant amounts of radio signals that can interfere with local
broadcast reception equipment.

Until recently, twisted pair cable used in networks was most frequently surrounded by a braided shield that served
to reduce both EMI sensitivity and radio emissions. STP cable, however, is expensive and bulky, and
manufacturers of network equipment have devoted extensive research to enabling high-speed networks to work
with unshielded twisted pair (UTP). UTP is the cost leader among network cables. The 10Base-T & 100Base-TX
standards defines an Ethernet configuration that utilizes UTP. Recent work by IBM and other vendors also has
developed network equipment that can use UTP even for high speed 16 megabit per second Token Ring. In most
cases, UTP cable is implemented using modular telephone-type connectors such as the RJ-11 (2 pair) and RJ-45
(4 pair) connectors. Telephone modular connectors are inexpensive and easy to install, serving to further reduce
the cost of UTP cabling systems.

NOTE: UTP looks much like the wire used to wire voice telephones. In newer telephone installations, it may
indeed be possible to use wiring installed for the voice telephone system as cable in a network. UTP cable comes
in a variety of grades, ranging from level 1 (lowest quality) to level 5 (highest quality). When investigating the use
of UTP cabling, be sure to determine the wire quality required for your network.
When utilizing UTP cable, it is necessary to ensure that all components in the data network are data grade. Voice
grade components used in voice telephone systems are not of sufficiently high quality.
Shielded twisted pair cable (STP) is the standard cable specified for IBM Token Ring networks and for Apple's
LocalTalk.
Unshielded twisted pair cables (UTP) can be utilized for some configurations of Token Ring, Ethernet, and
ARCnet networks.

Here are some advantages of twisted pair wiring:

 Telephone cable standards are mature and well established. Materials are plentiful, and a wide variety of
cable installers are familiar with the installation requirements.
 It may be possible to use in-place telephone wiring if it is of sufficiently high quality.
 UTP represents the lowest cost cabling. The cost for STP is higher and is comparable to the cost of
coaxial cable.
Some disadvantages of twisted pair are as follows:
 STP can be expensive and difficult to work with.
 Compared to fiber optic cable, all TP cable is more sensitive to EMI. UTP especially may be unsuitable
for use in high-EMI environments.
 TP cables are regraded as being less suitable for high-speed transmissions than coax or fiber optic.
Technology advances, however, are pushing upward the data rates possible with TP. Cable segment
lengths are also more limited with TP.

UTP figure below

Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair

Type Use

Category 1 Voice Only (Telephone Wire)

Category 2 Data to 4 Mbps (Local Talk)

Category 3 Data to 10 Mbps (Ethernet)

Category 4 Data to 20 Mbps (16 Mbps Token Ring)

Category 5 Data to 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet)

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Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector-The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45
connector
Fiber Optic

Above: Figure of fiber Optic

Below: Parts of Fiber Optic

Fiber optic cables utilize light waves to transmit data through a thin glass or plastic fiber. The structure of a typical
fiber optic cable is shown in the diagram. The parts of the cable are as follows:
 The light conductor is a very fine fiber core. Glass is the most common material, allowing signals to be
transmitted for several kilometers without being refreshed. Plastic is used in some circumstances, but
plastic cables allow only short cable runs.
 The cladding is a glass layer that surrounds the optical fiber core. The optical characteristics of the
cladding reflect light back to the core, ensuring that little of the light signal is lost.
 A sheath or jacket protects the cable from damage. A single sheath can be used to bundle multiple
core/cladding fibers into a multi-fiber cable.
The light signals on fiber optic cables are generated either by light emitting diodes (LEDs) or by injection laser
diodes (ILDs), which are similar to LEDs but produce laser light. The purity of laser light is desirable, increasing
both data rates and transmission distance. Signals are received by photodiodes, solid state devices that detect
variations in light intensity.
The interface devices required to operate with fiber optic cable are more expensive than those required for copper
cable. The higher cost is the result of several factors, including cost of the components and tighter design
characteristics because fiber optic cables generally are operated at high data rates. The cost of fiber optic cable
installation, however, is trending downward.
Fiber optic cables have many desirable characteristics. Because the fibers are small in diameter, a cable of a given
size can contain more fibers than copper wire pairs. Because fiber optic cables use light pulses instead of electrical
signals, they offer very high bandwidth. Bandwiths of 100 megabits (million bits per second) are commonplace,
and bandwidths in the gigabit (billion bit) per second range are available.
Because the signal in a fiber optic cable consists of light pulses, the signal cannot be affected by electromagnetic
interference. Nor can the cables radiate radio frequency noise. Optical fibers are, therefore, suitable for use in the
noisiest and most sensitive environments. Because these cables radiate no electromagnetic energy, it is impossible
to intercept the data signal with electronic eavesdropping equipment. Fiber optic transmissions are extremely
secure.
Installation of fiber optic cable requires greater skill than is necessary to install most copper cables. Cables must
not be bent too sharply, and connectors must be installed by skilled technicians using special tools. However, new
connector technologies have simplified installation and reduced cost.

Advantages of fiber optic cable:

 Very high bandwidth.
 Immunity to EMI; fiber optic cables can be used in environments that make wire cables unusable.
 No radio frequency emissions; signals on fiber optic cables cannot interfere with nearby electronic
devices and cannot be detected by conventional electronic eavesdropping techniques.
Facts about fiber optic cables:
 Outer insulating jacket is made of Teflon or PVC.
 Kevlar fiber helps to strengthen the cable and prevent breakage.
 A plastic coating is used to cushion the fiber center.
 Center (core) is made of glass or plastic fibers.

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Fiber Optic Connector
The most common connector used with fiber optic cable is an ST connector. It is barrel shaped, similar to a BNC
connector. A newer connector, the SC, is becoming more popular. It has a squared face and is easier to connect in
a confined space.

Summary of Cable Characteristics

Cable Cable Installation EMI Data
Type Cost Cost Sensitivity Bandwidth
UTP Lowest Lowest Highest Lowest
STP Medium Moderate Low Moderate
Coax Medium Moderate Low High
Fiber Optic Highest Highest None Very high

WIRELESS TRANSMISSIONS
Wireless LANs use high frequency radio signals, infrared light beams, or lasers to communicate between the
workstations and the file server or hubs. Each workstation and file server on a wireless network has some sort of
transceiver/antenna to send and receive the data. Information is relayed between transceivers as if they were
physically connected. For longer distance, wireless communications can also take place through cellular telephone
technology, microwave transmission, or by satellite.

Electromagnetic Spectrum??

Types of wireless transmission

1. Radio wave
2. Infrared
3. Microwave

Radio wave
Radio offers superior characteristics as a wireless media but suffers from government regulation. Radio LAN
product manufacturers have isolated frequencies that are not licensed by the government and made use of these
for the development of LAN equipments. Radio transmitters are omni directional and can easily penetrate walls,
floors, ceiling and the like. Spread-spectrum technology is being employed by many vendors to manufacture
equipments with increased data transfer rates. The available slots in the radio spectrum are all used together.
Using this technology, speeds at up to 2 Mbps have been achieved. Radio, though limited by its speed, may be
the wireless transmission method of choice for many desktops because of its low cost and capabilities. Radio-
based LANs do have to contend with the interference that occurs daily in the workplace. Though radio offers
portability to any node within range, its unbounded nature makes it somewhat less secure.

Infrared
Infrared technology uses the invisible portion of the light spectrum with wavelengths just a little less than those of
red light. These frequencies are very high offering nice data transfer rates.
The two most common types of infrared communications are line-of-sight and scattered broadcast. Line-of-sight
communication means that there must be an unblocked direct line between the workstation and the transceiver. If
a person walks within the line-of-sight while there is a transmission, the information would need to be sent again.
This kind of obstruction can slow down the wireless network.
Scattered infrared communication is a broadcast of infrared transmissions sent out in multiple directions that
bounces off walls and ceilings until it eventually hits the receiver. Networking communications with laser are
virtually the same as line-of-sight infrared networks.

Microwave Transmission Systems

They make use of the lower gigahertz frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum. There are two types of
microwave data communication systems
 Terrestrial
 Satellite
Terrestrial microwave
They use directional parabolic antennae to send and receive signals. The signals are highly focused and the
physical path must be line of sight.
Satellite
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The only difference with terrestrial is that one antennae is on a satellite in geosynchronous orbit about 50,000
kilometer above the earth

Challenges/Disadvantages of wireless LANs

o They are very expensive
o Provide poor security
o Susceptible to interference from lights and electronic devices.
o Slower than LANs using cabling

NOTE: Another major hurdle for wireless LANs will be the standardization process. This is necessary if there is
ever any hope for interoperability in the marketplace between products from different vendors. The IEEE has
created a committee that will oversee this standardization. The standard will be called the 802.11 standard.
When running cable, it is best to follow a few simple rules:
 Always use more cable than you need. Leave plenty of slack.
 Test every part of a network as you install it. Even if it is brand new, it may have problems that will be
difficult to isolate later.
 Stay at least 3 feet away from fluorescent light boxes and other sources of electrical interference.
 If it is necessary to run cable across the floor, cover the cable with cable protectors.
 Label both ends of each cable.
 Use cable ties (not tape) to keep cables in the same location together

Network Adapter Cards/Network Interface Card

The component responsible for physically connecting the computer to the transmission media is known as either a
network card, network adapter card, network interface card (NIC) or transceiver. This device is responsible for
moving data from the computer to the network and also from the network to the computer. Network adapters
include the following elements:
 Expansion bus connector — the connection to the system board of the computer
 Media connector — the connection to the transmission media
 Buffer — used for storing data before processing
 Transceiver — responsible for converting the signal

FUNCTIONS OF A NIC
The primary function of a network card is to transmit data on to the network and receive data from the network.
For example, the following steps take place when a network card transmits data:
 The data arrives at the network card via the computer's expansion bus in parallel format. The data is
placed in the buffer (memory) where it can be stored if a bottleneck builds up because the network card is
unable to process the data quickly enough
 The data must be converted from parallel format to serial format for placement on the network. The
transceiver converts the data signal from the format used by the computer (e.g. +/- 5v electrical) to the
required format for the transmission media (e.g. electrical, light or radio)
 The media connector physically joins the network card to the transmission media to allow the data to
depart. The connector may change depending on the type of media in use. Network cards with a variety
of connectors/transceivers are known as 'combi-cards'
NOTE:
 Each NIC is uniquely identified by use of a MAC address-48 bit number represented in hexadecimal. The
first 24 bits represent the OUI and the next 24 represent the NIC number
 NIC are technology dependent. i.e. each card manufactured will be used in a specific determined
technology by the manufacturer. E.g. Ethernet Card, Token Ring card etc
 NIC operates at layer 2 of the OSI reference model and packages data into frames based on the
technology in use

STANDARDS
Standards ensure that the things we use every day work together reliably.As computer networks have grown in
size, importance, and popularity, a wide variety of standards have developed to make it easier for network
engineers to ensure that computers and networks will connect together and communicate reliably and efficiently.
There are two types of standards in the network industry:
 Defacto standards.
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 Dejure standards.
De facto standards arise in the industry by virtue of wide spread commercial and educational use. They are often
proprietary and may be unpublished and unavailable to outside vendors. Unpublished and unavailable standards
are known as closed system standards. Published and accessible standards are known as open standards; examples
of de facto standards such as IBM’s systems network architectures.
De jure standards are non-proprietary; no single company makes them or owns rights to them. They are developed
with the intent of providing for greater connectivity and interoperability by making specifications public so that
independent manufacturers can build to such specifications. Examples of non-proprietary de jure standards are
OSI reference model, TCP/IP protocol suite, the IEEE 802 standard. Examples of non-proprietary de jure
standards are OSI reference model, TCP/IP protocol suite and the IEEE 802 standards.

Standard Bodies
De facto standards arise because they are popular and useful. But who makes up these de jure standards? That's
the task of industry and government groups that have been established or are generally recognized as having the
responsibility for setting standards. These groups are made up of industry experts and play overlapping yet
complimentary roles in the networking world. Some of the national and international standards organizations
you're likely to read about or encounter are:
 The Consultative Committee for Telegraphy and Telephony (CCITT).
 The International Standards Organization (ISO).
 The Institute of Electronic and Electrical Engineers (IEEE).
 The American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
 The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and other related Internet standards bodies.
 The Electronics Industries Association (EIA) and the Telecommunications Industries Association (TIA).
 Various government organizations

Open and Closed Standards

The standards that are established by standards bodies are generally open standards, which means that anyone in
the industry can obtain and use the technical specifications for the standards in order to implement them or design
new products and software that use the standards. They are also non-proprietary, which means they aren't the
property of any particular institution. Developers and network engineers appreciate open standards; one of the
reasons for the exponential growth of the Internet is that it's based entirely on open, non-proprietary standards. No
one owns the Internet.
Other standards are proprietary, meaning that they were developed and are owned and controlled by a particular
company. The company makes money by charging fees for letting people use its standards and build new products
that meet its standards. These standards are also called closed. Apple Computer has historically relied on closed
standards in its computing products; if you wanted to use Macintosh computers, you had to get all your equipment
and accessories directly from Apple.

THE OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION (OSI) MODEL

To better understand how computer network works we will use a network model. This model will help to
understand and identify the various parts that make up the network and understand how the parts work together.
The OSI reference model is not a protocol in itself, but rather a conceptual architecture with which to build
communication systems around. It does not promote any one vendor’s product or technology. The model divides
the communication process into seven interdependent layers. Each layer is responsible for a specific function, and
when combined with other layers, enables data communications to take place. The grouping of these programs in
the OSI model is called the protocol stack. It is extremely important to understand what each layer defines, and
how the layers relate to other layers, and to the model as a whole. Before going further with your studies, make
sure you fully understand the OSI model and the functions of the seven layers.

Physical layer
The data units at this layer are called bits. This layer defines the mechanical and electrical definition of the
network medium and network hardware. This includes how data is merged onto the cable and retrieved from it.
An example of the Physical layer is RS-232.
The main network device found at the Physical layer is a repeater. The purpose of a repeater (as the name
suggests) is simply to receive the digital signal, reform it, and retransmit the signal. It should be easy to see that
this has the effect of increasing the maximum length of a network, which would have been reached due to signal
degradation if a repeater was not available. It should also be possible to anticipate the requirements of a repeater,
it is simply regenerating cleaner digital signal so doesn't have to understand anything about the information it is
transmitting, processing on the repeater is non-existent.
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 Computer Networks

Data link layer

The data link layer groups the bits that we see at Physical layer into Frames. Primarily responsible for error-free
delivery of data we see the DATA LINK layer as split into two, the Logical Link Control and Media Access
Control. Although this split may not be necessary for the exam it is important to be aware if you see reference to
the LLC that this is actually part of the data link layer
The main network device found at the data link layer is a bridge. This device works at a higher layer than the
repeater and therefore is a more complex device. It has some understanding of the data it receives and can make a
decision based on the frames it receives as to whether it needs to let the information pass, or can remove the
information from the wire. This means that the amount of traffic on the cable can be reduced and therefore the
usable bandwidth increased.

Network Layer
The unit of data at the network layer is called a packet. This layer is responsible for ROUTING. It examines
network addresses in the data instead of physical addresses seen in the Data Link layer. It makes a decision as to
where to route the packet based on information and calculations from other routers, or according to static entries
in the routing table.
The main device found at the Network layer is a router.

Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the reliable delivery of data. The mechanism for this is often a connection-
oriented delivery where both communicating devices go through a process where they come to expect data from
the other. Once the transfer of data is complete they go through a 'teardown' phase, which breaks the connection
between the machines. There is more overhead involved in this reliable delivery of data, but it ensures that errors
are recognized and recovered from
Some applications do not require this level of reliability and make use of connectionless delivery where the above
connection-building process is not performed. This in turn reduces the level of overhead involved. For example, a
file transfer over the Internet would probably make use of reliable connection oriented delivery, whereas real time
audio information (e.g. an Internet radio show) can transmit using connectionless delivery. If some information is
missed the first time, then being realtime audio it is lost forever (you don't want it 5 seconds late and out of
sequence).

Session Layer
This layer is about establishing connections, authenticating access, co-ordination and synchronization. The session
layer is responsible for managing dialog between two devices, for example the session layer determines whether
the communication will be simplex, half-duplex or duplex.
Presentation Layer
This layer is responsible for ensuring the data is in a format that is understood by both sender and recipient. This
layer is also responsible for data encryption and data compression.
Application Layer
The Application layer is probably the most easily misunderstood layer of the model. This layer deals with
providing the network services to the end user, but is not the software running on their machine (Word for
instance). Server messaging blocks (SMB s) exist at the application layer.

Each layer, with the exception of the physical layer, adds information to the data as it travels from the application
down to the physical layer. This extra information is called a header.

Layer Function

Allows user interaction and generation of data to be transmitted. Programs

7. Application communicate with other programs at this level so it includes file transfers and
transactions.

Manages the way data is formatted or encoded for transfer. It may place data in an
6. Presentation
ASCII or EBCDIC format.

Oversees dialogue between users. Establishes and oversees logical relationships set
5. Session
up between users.

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 Computer Networks

Maintains quality of communication. Acts as the traffic cop making sure flow is
4. Transport
orderly. Ensures message validity and integrity.

3. Network Establishes a communication route between devices on different local networks.

Puts messages together out of the stream of bits coming in and out of the wire or
2. Data Link
other media. It also governs data flow.

1. Physical The medium that carries data.

Note:
From the lower side we have physical, Datalink ,…
From the upper side we have Application, Presentation,…

Reading Assignment-IEEE 802 Standards (with particular reference to 802.11)

NOTE the following terms

Circuit Switching
Circuit switching is the most familiar technique used to build a communications network. It is used for ordinary
telephone calls. It allows communications equipment and circuits, to be shared among users. Each user has sole
access to a circuit (functionally equivalent to a pair of copper wires) during network use. Consider communication
between two points A and D in a network. The connection between A and D is provided using (shared) links
between two other pieces of equipment, B and C.

A connection between two systems A & D formed from 3 links

Network use is initiated by a connection phase, during which a circuit is set up between source and destination,
and terminated by a disconnect phase

Message Switching
Sometimes there is no need for a circuit to be established all the way from the source to the destination. Consider
a connection between the users (A and D) in the figure below (i.e. A and D) is represented by a series of links
(AB, BC, and CD).

A connection between two systems A & D formed from 3 links

For instance, when a telex (or email) message is sent from A to D, it first passes over a local connection (AB). It is
then passed at some later time to C (via link BC), and from there to the destination (via link CD). At each message
switch, the received message is stored, and a connection is subsequently made to deliver the message to the
neighboring message switch. Message switching is also known as store-and-forward switching since the messages
are stored at intermediate nodes en route to their destinations

Packet Switching
Packet switching is similar to message switching using short messages. Any message exceeding a network-
defined maximum length is broken up into shorter units, known as packets, for transmission; the packets, each
with an associated header, are then transmitted individually through the network. The fundamental difference in
packet communication is that the data is formed into packets with a pre-defined header format (i.e. PCI), and well-
known "idle" patterns which are used to occupy the link when there is no data to be communicated.
A packet network equipment discards the "idle" patterns between packets and processes the entire packet as one
piece of data. The equipment examines the packet header information (PCI) and then either removes the header
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 Computer Networks
(in an end system) or forwards the packet to another system. If the out-going link is not available, then the packet
is placed in a queue until the link becomes free. A packet network is formed by links which connect packet
network equipment.

NETWORK PROTOCOL SUITE

A Protocol suite (also referred to as protocol stack) is a hierarchical set of protocols that coordinates to affect a
communication process. Protocols are the agreed upon ways in which computers exchange information. They are
sets of basic steps that both parties must perform in the right order. For example the sending computer must do the
following: -
1. Break the data into packets
2. Addressing information to the packets identifying the destination computer
3. Deliver the data to the network card for transmission over the network
The receiving computer must -:
1. Accept the data from the network adapter
2. Remove the transmitting information that was added by the transmitting computer.
3. Reassemble the packets of data into the original message

Protocol suite can be perceived to as a software implementation of the OSI upper layer specification. Various set
of protocol implemented by different vendors exists. This includes TCP/IP, NETWARE IPX/SPX,NWLINK etc.

TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

As the world of networking evolves-so to the communication standards. The Internet has been one of the largest
and most profound influences in transforming the PC of the 90s; we turn to the World Wide Web for everything
—from banking, to shopping, world via e-mail. With the use of the Internet comes a renewed interest in the
protocol TCP/IP, the language of the Internet.

TCP/IP is not a single network protocol (remember that a protocol is the set of rules that two or more computers
agree on to facilitate communications), but a suite of protocols and applications. TCP/IP is extremely well suited
for LANs and WANs; it is quite versatile and a good choice for many configurations. At least for the foreseeable
future, TCP/IP will be the dominant network communications suite.

The original goal behind the TCP/IP communications standard was to create an easy method to establish
connections between many dispersed computers. Back in the mid-1960s, compute networks only existed in the
minds of a few scientists. It was the scientists’ dream to create a computer communication system that would
facilitate collaborative research across universities worldwide. In the late 1960s, the United States Defense
Department’s Advanced Research Project Agency funded a project to do just this.

When the concept of this connected network was first proposed, standards for computer to computer
communications did not exist. Therefore, it was necessary to develop a new protocol to handle the diversity of the
various computer languages. Because it was impossible to re-engineer existing systems to a new standard, some
compromises had to be made, especially in relation to security. Also, because the primary long distance links
would be voice grade telephone systems, the protocol had to be as efficient as possible in order to keep
retransmission requirements to a minimum. Due to the many demands for a fast, efficient low-overhead suite of
protocols, Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol, or simply TCP/IP, was developed. Since its
conception, TCP/IP has been improved and enhanced, and is now considered by many the protocol of choice for
today’s networks.
.

DISSECTION OF TCP/IP SUITE

Network Interface Layer

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 Computer Networks
At the base of the model is the network interface layer. This layer puts frames on the wire and pulls frames off the
wire.

Internet Layer Protocols

 IP
Provides connectionless packet delivery for all other protocols in the suite. Does not guarantee packet arrival or
correct packet sequence?
 ARP
Provides IP address mapping to the MAC sub layer address to acquire the physical MAC control address of the
destination. IP broadcasts a special ARP inquiry packet containing the IP address of the destination system. The
system that owns the IP address replies by sending its physical address to the requester. The MAC sublayer
communicates directly with the network adapter card and is responsible for delivering error-free data between two
computers on a network.
 ICMP
Provides special communication between hosts, allowing them to share status and error information. Higher-level
protocols use this information to recover from transmission problems. Network administrators use this
information to detect network trouble. The ping utility uses ICMP packets to determine whether a particular IP
device on a network is functional.
 ROUTING INFORMATION PROTOCOLS (RIP)
Internet RIP performs route discovery by using a distance vector method, calculating the number of hops that
must be crossed to route a packet via a particular path. Although it works well in localized networks, RIP presents
many weaknesses that limit its utility on wide area inter-networks.
 OPEN SHORTEST PATH FIRST (OSPF)
The OSPF protocol is a link state route discovery protocol that I designed to overcome the limitations of RIP. On
large inter-networks, OSPF can identify the inter-network topology and improve performance by implementing
load balancing and class of service routing.
 IGMP
Provides multicasting, which is a limited form of broadcasting, to communicate and manage information between
all member devices in a multicast group. IGMP informs neighboring multicast routers of the host group
memberships present on a particular network. Windows 2000 supports multicast capabilities, such as Windows
2000 Server NetShow Services, that allows developers to create multicast programs.

Transport layer protocols.

Transport layer protocols provide communication sessions between computers. The desired method of data
delivery determines the transport protocol. The two transport layer protocols are Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP
 TCP
Provides connection-oriented, reliable communications for applications that typically transfer large amounts of
data at one time or that require an acknowledgment for data received. TCP guarantees the delivery of packets,
ensures proper sequencing of data, and provides a checksum feature that validates both the packet header and its
data for accuracy.
TCP provides transport functions that ensure the total amount of bytes sent is received correctly at the other end.
TCP provides for reliable host-to-host communication and has mechanisms built-in to inform you if a
transmission fails (for example, if a router is down and no other routes to the destination exist). Reliable
transportation is a good thing. With TCP, you don’t need to worry about the data getting through; it is like sending
a registered letter in that you are sure that it reaches its intended recipient. However, there is a cost for reliable
transportation;
TCP has a lot of overhead that increases network traffic, and decreases performance of the network as a whole. It
is necessary for many forms of communications and not as necessary for others. The next section covers the
protocol used when reliability is not a primary issue.
TCP is used by a number of other programs and utilities contained within the TCP/IP suite. Specifically, file
transfers using FTP, terminal emulation using Telnet, and e-mail delivery using SMTP all use TCP as their
transportation methods.
Recall from the previous discussion of NetBIOS that its native trans-port protocol is NetBEUI, which is
nonroutable. However, NetBIOS can be combined with TCP/IP, which is routable. For NetBIOS to function over
TCP/IP, NetBIOS must use ports. For example, the NetBIOS name service that I discussed uses port 137 with the
UDP protocol (covered later).
TCP communication between two hosts is much like human communication via the telephone in that the
complexities between callers is not as important as a clear, uninterrupted connection. One of TCP’s

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 Computer Networks
responsibilities is to create an inter-face between the host-to-host layers and upper layer processes. The IP address
takes you to the host, but how do you get to the proper process running on that host?
To identify specifically where data is to be transmitted, a port number identifies each protocol. The port number is
appended to the IP address of the computer.
For example, if you download a file from the Internet using the FTP protocol, TCP establishes a connection
between your computer and the Internet computer using Port 21 [xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx/port 21]. A large number of
port numbers, often referred to as well-known ports, are reserved for specific protocols. The most commonly used
port numbers are:
PORT NUMBER USED BY IDENTIFIER DESCRIPTION
15 UDP NETSTAT Network Status
21 TCP, UDP FTP File Transfer Protocol
23 TCP, UDP TELNET Telnet
25 TCP, UDP SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
53 UDP DOMAIN Domain Name System
69 UDP TFTP Trivial File Transfer Protocol
80 TCP, UDP HTTP World Wide Web HTTP
110 TCP, UCP POP3 Post Office Protocol 3
119 TCP, UDP NNTP Network News Transfer Protocol
137 UDP NetBIOS-NS NetBIOS Name Service
220 TCP, UDP IMAP3 Interactive Mail Access Protocol 3

Port numbers are assigned by a group know as the InternetAssigned Number Authority, or IANA, and are
specified in an RFC document titled, Assigned Port Numbers, RFC 1700.
When the unique IP address and the port number are used to identify a specific connection between two hosts, a
socket is created. Sockets provide an application program interface (API) between processes and the TCP/IP suite.
Programmers can use these API to enable their programs to interface to the network. You may be familiar with a
Windows socket standard called WINSOCK, which is Microsoft’s API standard that enables programmers to write
applications directly to the services TCP provides.
 UDP
Provides connectionless communications and does not guarantee that packets will be delivered. Applications that
use UDPtypically transfer small amounts of data at one time. Reliable delivery is the responsibility of the
application.
Like TCP, UDP is a transportation mechanism, but unlike TCP, UDP is unreliable. This is not to say that UDP is
a lower-class mechanism, but simply that the data it transports is not of the nature that you need confirmation it
has been delivered. UDP uses a best effort delivery method, and does not inform the other protocols if a packet is
undeliverable. The primary use for UDP transmission is speed. Because error checking is omitted, there is very
little overhead associated with the UDP protocol. Among the services that use UDP are Trivial File Transport
Protocol (TFTP), Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP), Domain Name Services (DNS), and Network
File Systems (NFS). A good example of UDP is live video and audio services on the Internet. If a datagram is lost
during video or audio trans-mission, there simply isn’t enough real time to retransmit the dropped data and remain
live.

Application layer protocols

At the top of the model is the application layer, in which applications gain access to the network. There are many
standard TCP/IP utilities and services in the application layer, such as FTP, Telnet, Simple Network Management
Protocol (SNMP), DNS, and so on.
 FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL (FTP)
FTP is the standard method of sending files between computers over a TCP/IP-based network. Most commonly
found on the Internet, FTP is reliable and offers in the real world some basic security features. The FTP protocol
provides a command set that per-mits such things as connecting to a network using a user name and password, and
navigating the directory structure. FTP can be invoked from a command line environment, a graphical interface,
or even from a Web browser by preceding the server address with ftp:// (For example, you can enter
ftp://microsoft.com to access publicly available programs from Microsoft). Many FTP sites permit anyone to use
the login name anonymous to access and download files. The anonymous FTP directory is isolated from the rest
of the system and generally does not accept uploads from users. Many of these anonymous sites use your e-mail
name as the password so they have some indication of who is accessing the files.

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 Computer Networks
Unlike e-mail programs that require graphic and program files be attached, FTP is designed to handle files
directly and does not add the overhead of encoding and decoding the data. FTP services can be installed on most
Unix, Windows 95/98/2000, and NetWare systems. As mentioned above, Trivial File Transfer Protocol, or TFTP,
uses UDP as its transportation mechanism and does not have directory or password capabilities.
 HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL (HTT)
HTTP is the communication protocol that connects servers on the World Wide Web and transmits Hypertext
Markup Language (HTML) pages to a client browser (such as Netscape Navigator or Internet Explorer). Most
browsers assume the ad-dress you enter has HTTP connections; the browser automatically inserts the http://
portion for you. The HTTP protocol is undergoing many changes to make it more efficient and useful so there is
no need to discuss the protocol in much detail here.
 POST OFFICE PROTOCOL VERSION 3 (POP3)
Most client e-mail packages in use today use Post Office Protocol 3, or POP3, especially with the proliferation of
dial-up access. POP3 provides a message store that holds all incoming mail on a central server until the recipient
connects to the server and downloads it. POP3 is very simplistic, and offers little security beyond basic user name
and password. When a connection is established and verified, all pending messages and file attachments are
downloaded at the same time. This way, you can read your e-mail and view any file attachments without having to
re-main connected to the Internet.
 SIMPLE MAIL TRANSPORT PROTOCOL (SMTP)
Before e-mail reaches your central holding point and waits to be retrieved from a POP3 client, the servers that
transport the e-mail data around the Internet need a protocol. Simple Mail Transport Protoco, or SMTP, is just
such a standard. SMTP is a TCP/IP protocol that defines the message format, and the methods to store and
forward the mail. Servers use SMTP to route messages throughout the Internet to mail servers which then provide
message storage for incoming mail.
 SIMPLE NETWORK MANAGEMENT PROTOCOL (SNMP)
With the ever-increasing size and complexity of Network systems, a standardized
method of managing the multitude of components has become a necessity. In 1988, the Internet Engineering Task
Forced developed the Simple Network Management Protocol, or SNMP, to enable simple, but extensible network
management.
Devices enabled with the management client components monitor various network devices and gather information
about the components. These client components are known as management agents. A PC running special
management console software is also required to complete the SNMP process. The management agents are
programmed with certain thresholds, which are minimum or maximum acceptable values. When one of these
values falls outside the range of a threshold, the agent issues a trap, thus notifying the management console of the
problem. SNMP is based on a GET/SET paradigm. The Management Console can request information from an
agent (GET) or, if sufficient security is given, alter the value of a threshold (SET).

Advantages of TCP/IP
(a) Broad connection among all types of computers and servers.
(b) Direct access to the global Internet.
(c) Strong support for routing.
(d) Includes simple networks management protocol support (SNMP)
(e) It support for (DHCP) to dynamically assign client IP address.
(f) Support for the windows Internet Name service (WINS) to allow name browsing among Microsoft client
server s.
(g) It has support for most other Internet Protocol such as HTTP.
(h) It allows networking between organisation.

Disadvantages of TCP/IP
(a) Difficult to setup
(b) Relatively high overheads to support connecting and routing
(c) Slower speed than IPX and NETBEUI

NWLINK
This is Microsoft’s implementation of Novell’s IPX/SPX protocol stack. Used in Novell NetWare. Actually IPX
is the protocol. IPX is included with each Microsoft Windows NT to support connection to the Novell Network
servers. This makes migration between platforms very easily. It also makes need form a complete cut-over from
one networking standard to another very easily. NWlink does not allow file and print sharing and from NetWare
clients or servers. Rather this is performed by client servers for NetWare (CSNW) redirector which comes `with
Windows NT.

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 Computer Networks
Advantages
(a) Ease of setup
(b) Support for routing between networks
(c) Greater speed than for TCP/IP implementation
(d) Ease of connection to installed NetWare server and client s.
Disadvantages
(a) Slower than NetBEUI
(b) Doesn’t support NetWare management protocols
(c) It lacks an effective centralized network addressing scheme to ensure that the network don’t use the same
address numbers as where is with TCP/IP

NetBEUI
NetBEUI stands for NetBios Extendeduser interface. (Net Bios network Basic Input/output System). NetBEUI
was developed for work group of 20 -200 computers. IBM originally developed NetBEUI for departmental
LANS. It is extremely easy to configure requiring very little input from the administrator. NetBEUI acceptance is
limited to Microsoft and IBM personal computer networks and suffers from one major problem. NetBEUI is not
routable so all communication using this protocol is limited to the local network. Hence, NetBEUI does not scale
at all. However, NetBEUI is fast. These parameters make this protocol ideal for small LANs.
Advantages
a) High speed on small networks
b) If easy to setup and implement if largely self tuning (self tuning features)
Disadvantages
a) It cannot be slotted between networks (unsuitable for large network)
b) Very few management and maintenance tools for NetBEUI which makes it difficult to troubleshoot.
c) It offers very little class -plat form support.

IPX SPX (Internet packet exchange protocol /sequence packet protocol

IPX SPX is the network protocol used by Novell NetWare clients to connect to NetWare servers under Windows
98 and 2000. IPX SPX is very easy to install and configure. It can be used for both large and small network. It can
operate between both NetWare and ms network operating system, thus very attractive choice for multi-vendor
networks.

AppleTalk
AppleTalk is used to allow connection between Apple Macintosh computers. AppleTalk is a routable protocol.

ROUTING AND ADDRESSING

The network layer is responsible for navigating data through the network. The function of the network layer is to
find the best path for the data to take through the network. The network layer also defines the devices that
determine the destination of data as it moves through the network.

Identifiers
Protocols that support the network layer use a hierarchical addressing scheme that allows for unique addresses
across network boundaries. This is in addition to providing a method for finding a path for data to travel between
networks. In contrast, MAC addresses use a flat addressing scheme that makes it difficult to locate devices on
other networks.
Hierarchical addressing schemes enable information to traverse an internetwork using an efficient method to find
the destination. The telephone network is an example of hierarchical addressing. The telephone system uses an
area code that designates a geographical area for the first stop, or hop, of the call. The next three digits represent
the local exchange, or second hop. The final digits represent the individual destination telephone that is, of course,
the final hop.
Network devices need an addressing scheme that allows them to forward data packets through the internetwork,
the set of networks composed of multiple segments using the same type of addressing. There are several network
layer protocols with different addressing schemes that allow devices to forward data throughout an internetwork.

Segmentation and autonomous systems

There are two primary reasons why multiple networks are necessary. First, the growth in size of each network and
secondly, the growth in the number of networks.

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 Computer Networks
When a LAN, MAN, or WAN experiences growth, it may become necessary or desirable for the purpose of
network traffic control to break it up into smaller pieces called either network segments or just segments. This
results in the network becoming a group of networks, each requiring a separate network address.

Communication between separate networks

The Internet is a collection of networks that are tied together to facilitate the sharing of information.
Networks operate in much the same manner, with companies known as Internet service providers (ISPs) offering
services that tie together multiple networks.

Layer 3 network devices

Routers are internetworking devices which operate at OSI Layer 3, the network layer. They tie together, or
interconnect, networks. They pass data packets between networks based on Layer 3 information.
Routers make logical decisions regarding the best path for the delivery of data on an internetwork and then direct
packets to the appropriate output port and network. Routers take packets from LAN devices (for example,
workstations) and, based on Layer 3 information, forward them through the network. In fact, routing is sometimes
referred to as Layer 3 switching

Path determination
Path determination occurs at Layer 3, the network layer. It enables a router to evaluate the available paths to a
destination, and to establish the preferred handling of a packet. Routing services use network topology
information when evaluating network paths. Path determination is the process that the router uses to choose the
next hop in the path for the packet to travel to its destination. This process is also called routing the packet.
Routers can also make their decisions based on the traffic density and the speed of the link, the bandwidth. This is
similar to a driver choosing to use a faster path like a highway, or to use the less crowded back streets.

Network layer addressing

The network address helps the router identify a path within the network cloud. The router uses the network
address to identify the destination network of a packet within an internetwork.
In addition to the network address, network protocols use a form of host, or node, address. For other network layer
protocols, a network administrator assigns network host addresses according to some predetermined internetwork
addressing plan. For other network layer protocols, assigning host addresses is partially or completely dynamic or
automatic.
Addressing occurs at the network layer.

Layer 3 and computer mobility

A MAC address can be compared to a person's name and the network address to their mailing address. For
example, if a person were to move to another town their name would remain unchanged but their mailing address
would indicate a new location. Network devices (routers as well as individual computers) have both a MAC
address and an IP address. When you physically move a computer to a different network, the computer maintains
the same MAC address, but you must assign it a new network address.

Comparing flat and hierarchical add

The function of the network layer is to find the best path through the network. To accomplish this, it uses two
addressing methods, flat addressing and hierarchical addressing. A flat addressing scheme assigns a device the
next available address. There is no thought given to the structure of the addressing scheme. An example of a flat
addressing scheme would be serial numbers, social security numbers, or Universal Produce Codes (UPC). MAC
addresses function in the same manner. A vendor is given a block of addresses. The first half of each address is
for the vendor's code, the rest of the MAC address is a number that has been sequentially assigned.
The addressing scheme that you will use throughout this course is Internet Protocol (IP) addressing. IP addresses
also have a specific structure and are not randomly assigned.

Network layer datagram and fields (Assignment)

IP header source and destination fields

The IP header contains information that is necessary to route a packet through the network. Each source and
destination address field contains a 32 bit address. The source address field contains the IP address of the device
that sends the packet. The destination field contains the IP address of the device that receives the packet

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 Computer Networks
IP addresses as 32-bit binary numbers
An IP address is represented by a 32 bit binary number.

IP address component fields

The network number portion of an IP address identifies the network to which a device is attached. The host
portion of an IP address identifies the specific device on that network. Because IP addresses consist of four octets
separated by dots, one, two, or three of these octets may be used to identify the network number. Similarly, up to
three of these octets may be used to identify the host portion of an IP address

IP address classes
There are three classes of IP addresses that an organization can receive from the American Registry for Internet
Numbers (ARIN) or the organization ISP. They are Class A, B, and C. ARIN now reserves Class A addresses
for governments throughout the world (although a few large companies, such as Hewlett Packard, have received
one in the past) and Class B addresses for medium-sized companies. All other requestors are issued Class C
addresses.
ClassA
When written in a binary format, the first or furthest left bit of a Class A address is always 0. An example of a
Class A IP address is 124.95.44.15. The first octet, 124, identifies the network number assigned by ARIN. The
internal administrators of the network assign the remaining 24 bits. An easy way to recognize whether or not a
device is part of a Class A network is to look at the first octet of its IP address, which will range from 0-126. (127
does start with a 0 bit, but has been reserved for special purposes.)
All Class A IP addresses use only the first 8 bits to identify the network part of the address. The remaining three
octets (24 bits) can be used for the host portion of the address. Because there are 24 bits available for host
addresses, every network that uses a Class A IP address can have assigned up to 2 24 minus 2. That is, 16,777,214,
possible IP addresses to devices that are attached to its network.
ClassB
The first 2 bits of a Class B address are always 10 (one and zero). An example of a Class B IP address is
151.10.13.28. The first two octets identify the network number assigned by ARIN. The internal administrators of
the network assign the remaining 16 bits. An easy way to recognize whether or not a device is part of a Class B
network is to look at the first octet of its IP address. Class B IP addresses always have values ranging from 128 to
191 in their first octet.
All Class B IP addresses use the first 16 bits to identify the network part of the address. The two remaining octets
of the IP address can be used for the host portion of the address. Every network that uses a Class B IP address can
have assigned up to 216 minus 2, or 65,534, possible IP addresses to devices that are attached to its network.
ClassC
The first 3 bits of a Class C address are always 110 (one, one, and zero). An example of a Class C IP address is
201.110.213.28. The first three octets identify the network number assigned by ARIN. The internal administrators
of the network assign the remaining 8 bits. An easy way to recognize whether or not a device is part of a Class C
network is to look at the first octet of its IP address. Class C IP addresses always have values ranging from 192 to
223 in their first octet.
All Class C IP addresses use the first 24 bits to identify the network part of the address. Only the last octet of a
Class C IP address can be used for the host portion of the address. Every network that uses a Class C IP address
can have assigned up to 28 minus 2, or 254, possible IP addresses to devices that are attached to its network.
[Number conversion]

Purposes for network IDs and broadcast addresses

An IP address that ends with binary 0s (zeros) in all host bits is reserved for the network address, sometimes
called the wire address. Therefore, as a Class A network example, 113.0.0.0 is the IP address of the network
containing the host 113.1.2.3. A router uses a network's IP address when it forwards data on the Internet. As a
Class B network example, the IP address 176.10.0.0 is a network address.
The decimal numbers that fill the first two octets in a Class B network address are assigned as network numbers.
The last two octets contain 0s (zeros), because those 16 bits are for host numbers, used for devices that are
attached to the network. The IP address in the example (176.10.0.0) is reserved for the network address. No
device that is attached to it will ever use it as an address.
A broadcast occurs when a source sends out data to all devices on a network. To ensure that all of the devices on
the network pay attention to the broadcast, the sender must use a destination IP address that all of them can
recognize and will pick up. Broadcast IP addresses end with binary 1s in the entire host part of the address (the
host field).
Network ID

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It is important to understand the significance of the network portion of an IP address, the network ID. Hosts on a
network can only communicate directly with devices that have the same network ID. If they have different
network numbers, even though they may share the same physical segment, they usually cannot communicate with
each other. That is, unless there is another device that can make a connection between the networks.

Number of hosts for classes of IP addresses [Calculations]

Classical IP addressing
Network administrators sometimes need to divide networks, especially large ones, into smaller networks. These
smaller divisions are called subnetworks and provide addressing flexibility. Most of the time subnetworks are
simply referred to as subnets.
Similar to the host number portion of Class A, Class B, and Class C addresses, subnet addresses are assigned
locally, usually by the network administrator. Also, like other IP addresses each subnet address is unique.

Subnetwork
Subnet addresses include the Class A, Class B, or Class C network portion, plus a subnet field and a host field.
The subnet field and the host field are created from the original host portion for the entire network. The ability to
decide how to divide the original host portion into the new subnet and host fields provides addressing flexibility
for the network administrator.
To create a subnet address, a network administrator borrows bits from the host field and designates them as the
subnet field. The minimum number of bits that can be borrowed is 2. If only 1 bit was borrowed to create a
subnet, then there would only be a network number and the broadcast number. The maximum number of bits that
can be borrowed can be any number that leaves at least 2 bits remaining, for the host number. In this example of
a Class C IP address, bits have been borrowed from the host field that is intended for the subnet field

Purpose for subnetting

The primary reason for using subnets is to reduce the size of a broadcast domain. Broadcasts are sent to all hosts
on a network or subnetwork. When broadcast traffic begins to consume too much of the available bandwidth,
network administrators may choose to reduce the size of the broadcast domain.
Subnet mask
The subnet mask, whose formal term is an "extended network prefix", is not an address. The subnet mask
determines which part of an IP address is the network field and which part is the host field. A subnet mask is 32
bits long and has 4 octets, just like an IP address.
There are several steps to take in order to determine the subnet mask for a particular subnetwork IP address:
1. Express the subnetwork IP address in binary form.
2. Replace the network and subnet portion of the address with all 1s.
3. Replace the host portion of the address with all 0s (zeros).
4. Convert the binary expression back to dotted-decimal notation.

Performing the AND function and routing

Range of bits needed to create subnets
Address Size of Default Maximum Number
Class Host Field of Subnet Bits
A 24 22
B 16 14
C 8 6

The subnet field always follows immediately after the network number. That is, the borrowed bits must be the first
n bits of the default host field, where n is the desired size of the new subnet field.
The subnet mask is the tool used by the router to determine which bits are routing (network and subnet) bits and
which bits are host bits.
Previous standards did not allow for the use of subnets obtained by borrowing 1 bit. With only 1 subnet bit, the
subnet field can only have two values (that is, subnet 0 is part of the network address, and subnet 1 would be part
of the network broadcast address). Although many devices can now support subnets obtained by borrowing 1 bit,
it is still common practice to avoid doing this to insure compatibility with legacy devices. For our purposes here,
you will always borrow at least 2 bits.
Similarly, a 1 bit host field would allow only for host 0, which is part of the network address, and host 1, which is
part of the broadcast address, leaving 0 valid host addresses.

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Determining subnet mask size
Subnet masks use the same format as IP addresses. They are 32 bits long and divided into four octets, written in
dotted decimal format. Subnet masks contain all 1s in the desired subnet bit positions as well as the network bit
positions, which are determined by the address class. They contain all 0s (zeros) in the remaining bit positions,
designating them as the host portion of an address.
By default, if no bits are borrowed, the subnet mask for a Class B network would be 255.255.0.0, which is the
dotted decimal equivalent of 1s in the 16 bits corresponding to the Class B network number.
If 8 bits were to be borrowed for the subnet field, the subnet mask would include 8 additional 1 bits, and would
become 255.255.255.0.
For example, if the subnet mask 255.255.255.0 was associated with the Class B address 130.5.2.144 (8 bits
borrowed for subnetting), the router would know to route this packet to subnet 130.5.2.0 rather than to just
network 130.5.0.0
Another example is the Class C address 197.15.22.131, with a subnet mask of 255.255.255.224. With a value of
224 in the final octet (11100000 in binary), the 24 bit Class C network portion has been extended by 3 bits, to
make the total 27 bits. The 131 in the last octet now presents the third usable host address in the subnet
197.15.22.128. The routers in the Internet that do not know the subnet mask will only worry about routing to the
Class C network 197.15.22.0, while the routers inside that network, knowing the subnet mask, will be looking at
27 bits to make a routing decision.

Computing subnet mask and IP address (Exercise)

Computing hosts per subnetwork (Exercise)

Private addresses
There are certain addresses in each class of IP address that are not assigned. These addresses are called private
addresses. Private addresses might be used by hosts that use network address translation (NAT), or a proxy server,
to connect to a public network. They also might be used by hosts that do not connect to the Internet at all.
Many applications require connectivity within only one network and do not need external connectivity. In large
networks, TCP/IP is often used, even when network layer connectivity outside the network is not needed. Banks
are good examples. They may use TCP/IP to connect to automatic teller machines (ATMs). These machines do
not connect to the public network, so private addresses are ideal for them. Private addresses can also be used on a
network where there are not enough public addresses available.
The private addresses can be used together with a network address translation (NAT) server. Either a NAT server
or a proxy server can provide connectivity to all hosts in a network that has relatively few public addresses
available. By agreement, any traffic with a destination address within one of the private address ranges will NOT
be routed on the Internet.

Class A: 10.0.0.0-10.255.255.255
Class B: 172.16.0.0-172.31.255.255
Class C: 192.168.0.0-192.168.255.255

Reading Assignment: Routing Protocols

UTP CABLE MANAGEMENT AND TERMINATION

Deals with routing cables along a neat and orderly path and assure minimum bend radius is maintained. This
simplifies cable additions and modification to wiring system. Cable baskets and ladder racks can be used.
Different types of conduits can be used to run cable inside walls, ceilings, floors or to shield from external
conditions

Standards and codes

These establish the guidelines used by cabling specialist-the most common are TIA/EIA. These are in regard to:
a) Standardized media and layout description for both backbone and horizontal cabling
b) Standard connection interfaces for physical connection of equipment
c) Consistent and uniform design that follows a system plan and basic design principles

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Safety
This deals with the general safety consideration but with special emphasis to electricity safety. Electricity is
dangerous to a human being because high voltage has the capacity to cause shock. High voltage is caused by
electric fault with can be caused by an error, accident, lightening etc
Grounding is a basic requirement to protect a human being from electric shock.
Ground wire provides direct path to earth for excess voltage. Grounding equipment conducts stray voltage to earth
without harming the equipment. If the ground wire doesn’t exist (faulty) the excess voltage may use any other
alternative path such as a human being who is in contact-results to shock.
Bonding allows various wiring fixtures to interconnect with the grounding systems
For personal safety observe laid down rules and be aware of safety gadgets such as fire extinguishers, emergency
exit doors

Tools
a) stripping and cutting tools-cuts cable jacket and wire insulation
b) Termination tools-cuts and terminates specific types of cables
c) Diagnostic tools-there are quite a variety and are used for varying needs such as providing access to
individual wires, locating metal pipes, locating wooden studs joints etc
d) Installation support tools-These are mainly for managing wires such as simplifying retrieval, support as
work progresses etc
e) TDR- used to pinpoint flaws and problems in underground and aerial wire, cabling, and fiber optics. A
device for measuring the length of cables by "bouncing" a signal off the far end.
f) Crimping tool- Used to insert a conductor in the tubular portion of a connector and squeeze the tube until
it grips the conductor and creates a strong mechanical and electrical connection.

Installation process
a) Rough in phase-deals with all cables installed in ceiling, walls, floor ducts and riser
b) Trim-out phase-cable management and termination of wires
c) Finish phase-cable testing, trouble shooting and certification
d) Customer support phase-the customer conducts a walk through of network and is presented with formal
test results and other documentation

A raceway is a channel that contains cables in an installation. This includes a common electrical conduits,
duct systems, plastic/metal mounted raceways.

Terminating copper media

The two colour codes are T568A and T568B
T568A T568B
1. White/Green 1. White/Orange
2. Green 2. Orange
3. White/Orange 3. White/Green
4. Blue 4. Blue
5. White/Blue 5. White/Blue
6. Orange 6. Green
7. White/Brown 7. White/Brown
8. Brown 8. Brown

Pair 1/2 trasmits while pair 3/6 receives

There are three types of cables that can be terminated using T568A/B

Straight through
Prepared by arranging both ends as either T568A or T568B

T568A T568A

T568B T568B

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Rollover
Prepared by arranging one end as T568A then reversing the order of T568A at the other end

T568A Reversed T568A

T568B Reversed T568B

Crossover

T568A T568B

Cable labeling
Cables should be labeled on both ends to avoid confusion. Each hardware termination unit should have a
unique identifier

Wiring faults
a) Opens-occurs when wires in a cable fails to make a continuous path from end to end
b) Shorts-occurs when wires in a cable come in contact
c) Split pairs-occurs when pairs are mixed among pairs
d) Wire mapping errors-occurs when wires in a multi-pair cable do not terminate at the appropriate points
in the connector at the far end
e) Reversal-connecting a pin e.g. 1 to a position of e.g. 5 and 6 to 1

SETTING A SIMPLE NETWORK

The room/lab onto which the network is to be established should have the components already in place as
indicated in the network map. Such devices include computers with NICs as well as loaded with software,
switches/hubs, and router.
To setup the network you should already have in place terminated straight through UTP cables that will be used to
connect clients to switch(Client-data outlets-switch) to server/router.
Review use of straight through, crossover, rollover cables

The following two diagrams are some of the possible configuration in simple networks

Client

Server/
Client Switch Router

Client

Data Outlet
Client
Server/
Switch Router
Client

Client

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All cables in above are UTP straight through cables. The cables can be terminated on the site or bought ready for
use from the dealer.

The decision on the IP address may be made by the network technician installing the network or by the
management of the organization. If the IP addresses are supplied by the management, the technician will establish
the IP addresses are valid and are in the same network/subnet before assigning them to the clients.

The technician proceeds and attaches the cables to the NICs of the clients then to the switch, then a single cable
from switch to the server/router. A simple network may not require the router if communication will be entirely
internal.

Creating a workgroup for the clients

Right click My computer then select properties-Specify a unique computer name and a workgroup for the clients
(the clients will be in a common group)

CONFIGURING THE TCP/IP STACK

When configuring a TCP/IP stack, you will be asked to provide several pieces of information that will tell the
stack how your machine will operate in its environment. Most of this information will be the same on all machines
in the same environment. Following, is an explanation and description of all of the information you should need to
properly configure a TCP/IP stack here at ICTP.
 IP Address
 Domain Name
 Broadcast Address
 Network Mask
 Default Gateway
 Domain Name Server

IP Address
When configuring a TCP/IP stack, you will always be asked to provide the unique IP address for the computer
that you are using.
Domain Name
When configuring a TCP/IP stack, you will sometimes be asked to provide the domain name for the machine that
you are configuring. In most cases, this will not be the fully qualified domain name, instead it would be the
shorter name, like ictp.trieste.it.
Broadcast Address
It is often necessary for a computer to send some information to all of the machines located within its subnet,
rather than to a specific machine. Information sent in this manner is said to have been broadcast. When
configuring a TCP/IP stack you will often have to specify a broadcast address.
Network Mask
When configuring a TCP/IP stack you will be asked to specify a network mask (also referred to as the netmask).
Simply put, the network mask is used to specify which part of your IP address is the subnet. Here at ICTP, the
standard network mask is 255.255.252.0 for subnets 16 to 19 and 255.255.255.0 for subnet 28.
Default Gateway
When configuring TCP/IP you will be asked to specify a default gateway. This information is used to tell your
computer where to send packets when they are destined for an off-campus address. The standard default gateway
address at ICTP is 140.105.xx.1 , where xx depends of which is the subnet that your machine is located on (At
AGH it's 28). For example if your machine is 140.105.28.160 then the proper address for the gateway is
140.105.28.1.
Domain Name Server
When configuring TCP/IP you will be asked to specify one or more addresses for a name server. These are the
addresses of the machines on campus providing the mapping between IP addresses and registered machine names.
The primary name server address at ICTP is 140.105.16.50. The secondary address is 140.105.16.62. If possible,
enter both addresses.

In Brief (depends with OS)

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Right click My Network places-select properties-create a LAN connection- Right click the LAN connection and
select properties-Install protocol (TCP/IP), Install service (File and print sharing) and client (for Microsoft)

Select TCP/IP then properties; assign IP address, subnet mask and the default gateway (Server IP address
connected to LAN or router Interface IP address connected to LAN). The default gateway will be common for all
the clients.

Once the above process has been done for all the clients, and everything else is ok, the network clients should now
be able to communicate with each other.

To test connectivity
1. Use the ping command
C:\> ping [IP address]
e.g. C:\> ping 192.168.15.200
The above IP address belongs to one of the clients in our network. If connectivity exists, You get a reply
else you get destination unreachable message.

2. You can also share folder (Right click a folder and select properties then enable sharing).Attempt to
access the contents of the folder from another client in the network

NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM (NOS)

A network operating system (NOS) is software that controls a network and its message (e.g. packet) traffic and
queues, controls access by multiple users to network resources such as files, and provides for certain
administrative functions, including security.
The upper 5 layers of the OSI Reference Model provide the foundation upon which many network operating
systems are based.
Network operating system features may include:
 basic support for hardware ports
 security features such as authentication, authorization, login restrictions, and access control
 name services and directory services
 file, print, data storage, backup and replication services
 remote access
 system management
 network administration and auditing tools with graphic interfaces
 clustering capabilities
 fault tolerance and high availability
Popular network operating systems include Windows, Mac, Linux, NetWare, and OS/2.

NETWORK SECURITY
Network security-is the process by which digital information asset are protected. The goals of network security
are to maintain integrity, protect confidentiality, and ensure availability.

Security threats
A threat- any activity that poses a danger to your information.
Vulnerability- weakness in a system, such as misconfigured hardware or software, poor design or end user
carelessness.
Threats exploit vulnerabilities in order to gain unauthorized access to a network.
Security risks cannot be completely eliminated or prevented but with effective risk management and assessment,
the risks can be minimized to an acceptable level.
What is acceptable depends on how much risk the individual or organization is milling to assume. The risk is
worth assuming if the benefits of implanting the risk reducing safeguards for exceed the costs
A threat may be internal or external

TYPES OF SECURITY THREATS

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Viruses
program that runs and spreads by modifying other programs or files. They are designed to replicate themselves
and infect computers when triggered by a specific event.

Causes
A virus cannot start by itself, it needs to be activated. Once activated it may do nothing more than replicate itself
and spread.
The effect of some viruses is minimal and only inconvenience, while others are more destructive and cause major
problems such as deleting files or slowing down entire system.
A more serious virus may be programmed to delete or corrupt specific files before spreading.
Virus can be transmitted via email attachments, downloads files, instant messages or via diskettes, CD or USB
devices.

Possible solutions
Preventing your comp or practice safe computing
This can be avoided by not purchasing unlicensed software from vendors and avoiding free or pirated copies from
public sources or floppy disks exchange

Social Engineering
It is the equivalent of hacking vulnerabilities in computer systems to gain access-except that it occurs in the world
of people. Social engineering exploits truth in the real world between people to gain information that attackers can
then use to gain access to computer systems.

Impact on organization
Goals of social engineering techniques include fraud, network intrusion, identity theft or desire to disrupt a system
or network. Targets for social engineering techniques tend to be larger organizations where it is common for
employees who have never actually met to have communications, and those who have information desired by
hackers/attackers: Industrial/military secrets, personal information about targeted individuals & resources such as
long distance or network access.
Social engineering techniques are often used when the attacker cannot find a way to penetrate the victims using
other means. For example, when a perimeter security and encryption foil an attacker’s effort to penetrate the
network, social engineering might be the only avenue left, a slip of words is all the attacker needs to gain access o
your well defended systems.

Prevention measures
1. Take care of trash or other discarded items-for all types of sensitive information on paper, use a paper shredder
or a locked recycle box instead of a trash can.
 Ensure that all magnetic media is bulk erased before being discarded.
 Keep trash dumpsters in secured areas so that no one has access to their contents
2. Ensure that all system users have periodic training about network security.
 Make employees aware of social/engineering attack.
 Ensure that people know what to do in the event they spot a social engineering attack.
 Inform users about your organizations password policy (e.g. like; never give out your password to
any body at all)
3. Give recognition to people who have avoided making mistakes or caught red mistakes in a situation that might
have been a social-engineering attack.
4. Ensure that people know what to do in the event that they spot a social-engineering attack.

Worms
Worm is a process that uses a spawn mechanism to clobber system performance. The worm spawns copies of
itself, using up systems resources and perhaps looking out system use by all other processes.
A worm uses the network to send copies of it to any connected hosts. Worms can run independently and spread
quickly.

Causes
Worms do not necessarily require activation or human intervention. Self –spreading network worms can have a
mush grater impact than a single virus and can infect large part of the internet quickly.
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Impact on the organization

In the worst case, a network can be entirely brought down by worms.

Prevention
1. System administrators should keep abreast of current security issues affecting users, desktop computers
and ensure that the required security patches are installed.
2. To protect against worm attacks that are propagated via email, a comprehensive antivirus system should
be implemented. Also make sure that users have their e-mail set so that it does not preview a message
when selected.
3. Network and host based intrusion detection system (IDS) are also critical components needed to secure a
network against remote attacks such as code red

Trojan Horses
This is a non-self replicating program that is written to appear like a legitimate program, when opened/run it is an
attack tool.
Because most Trojan horses install themselves silently, users often don’t realize they have been infected until they
receive an e-mail from someone saying that an e-mail they have received from the user was infected with a
Trojan. In the meantime the attacker might have already collected password files or uploaded additional tools to
use the victims’ computers for system attacks.

Prevention
Implement a clear organization policy regarding e-mail attachments and train users regarding the policy.
Install antivirus programs on each client & maintain current signature files

Denial Of Service
DOS attacks are aggressive attacks on an individual computer or group of computers with the intention to deny
services to intended users. Dos attacks can target end user systems, servers, routers and network links

Impact on the organization

In general, DOS attacks seek to:
- flood a network or system with traffic to prevent legitimate traffic network from
flowing.
- disrupt connections between a client and a server to prevent access to a service.

There are several types of Dos attacks, the common ones are:
i) SYN (synchronous) flooding
-A flood of packets are sent to a server requesting a client connection. The packet contains invalid source IP
address. The server becomes occupied trying to respond to these fake requests and therefore cannot respond to
legitimate ones.
ii) Ping of death
A packet that is greater in size than the maximum allowed by IP (65535 bytes) is sent to a device. This can cause
the receiving system to crash.
iii) Distributed Denial of Services (DDOS)
Is a more sophisticated and potentially damaging form of the DoS attack designed to saturate and overwhelm
network links with useless data?
DDOS operates on a much larger scale than dos attacks. Typically they target several nodes simultaneously.
iv) Brute force
It’s another type of attack that may result in denial of services. With brute force attacks, a fast computer is used to
try to guess password s or to decipher as encryption code.
The attacker tries a large number of possibilities in rapid succession to gain access or crack the code. Brute force
attacks can cause a denial of service due to excessive traffic to a specific resource or by locking out user accounts.

Preventive measures
1. Use network-based intrusion detection system that can detect SYN floods and notify administrators
2. Incase the size of the server’s half open connection queue.
3. Decrease the queue’s time –out period limiting the number of half-open connections from a single IP.

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4. In the case of ping of death, most manufacturers have now provided patches that make systems invulnerable to
the ping of death and other types IP fragmentation attacks.
5. For DDOS, install the latest security patches from your software venders to all clients & services.
6. Install activists software on all services, both internal and external, to protect the network from email worms.
7. Firewalls and routers filter packets coming into the network for a broadcast address.
This can help to prevent your network from being susceptible to the attack

Man-In-The Middle
Man –in-the middle refers to a class of attacks in which the attacker places himself between two communicating
host and listens in on their session. The key to this concept is that both hosts think that they are communicating
with the other, when they are in fact communicating with the attacker.

HOST A ATTACKER HOST B

Think its communicating Sits between the two hosts and thinks its
With host B is able to monitor & modify communicating
their transmissions with host A

Man –in the middle attacks have a variety of applications

Web spoofing this is an attack in which the assailant arranges his web server between his victims web browser.IP
address spoofing gain access to a victim by generating TCP/IP packets
Spoofing is pretending to be someone else by imitating or impersonating that person. When you present
credentials (e.g. username/password, host name, or IP(address) that are not yours in order to gain access to a
network, then you are spoofing the system.
Types of spoofing:
- 1 IP address spoofing.
- 2 ARP poisoning
- 3 web spoofing
- 4 DNS spoofing
IP address spoofing
The attacker uses source address of a trusted host and uses this deception to bypass filters on routers and firewalls
and gain access to network resources.

ARP poisoning
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) poisoning is a technique used to corrupt a host’s ARP table, allowing the
hacker to redirect to the attacking machine. The attack can only be carried out when the attacker is connected to
the same local network on the target machine.

WEB spoofing
A web poisoning attack convinces its victims that they are visiting a real and legitimate site, when they are infact
visiting a web page that has either been created or modified by the attacker for duping the victim. The attacker can
then modify or monitor any data passing between the victim and the web server.

DNS spoofing
It manipulates the DNS server to re direct users to an attacker’s server. The DNS server resolves internet
DOMAIN NAMES e.g. www.security.net to IP address 203.123.12.10 taking the burden off the user to
remember a series of numbers. DNS spoofing can alter the cache so that www.security.net, which normally
translates to an IP address of 203.123.12.10, is reduced to 186.120.0.40.

How DNS spoofing is accomplished

-The attacker compromises the victim organization’s web server and changes host name to the ip address
mapping. When users request the host name, they are directed to the hackers’ server, rather than the authentic one.

Preventive measures
1. To preventive IP spoofing, disable source routing in all internal routers. Also filter out packets entering the
local network from the internet that have a souse address of the local network.

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2. To stop ARP poisoning, use network switches that have MAC binding features. Switches with MAC binding
store the first MAC address that appears on a port and do not allow the mapping to be changed without
authentication
3. To prevent DNS spoofing, ensure that your DNS software is the latest version, with the most resent security
patches installed.
4. Enable auditing on all DNS cache against pollution.
5. Display anti-IP address spoofing measures

Password
A password is a secret combination of key strokes that, when combined with your username, authenticates you to
the computer or network system. In terms of authentication, it is something we own or a part of who we are, such
as key card or a fingerprint.
Because we are required to many different passwords, we tend to prefer short, easy-to-remember passwords
because longer passwords are more difficult to remember.

Password Vulnerabilities
The problems with passwords are related to the difficult of keeping a password secret. Passwords can be
compromised by being guessed, accidentally exposed, or illegally transferred from an authorized user to an
unauthorized one.
The failure of password security due to exposure can result from visual or electronic monitoring. An intruder can
look over the shoulder of a user (shoulder surfing) the user is logging in and can thus learn the password easily by
watching the keyboard.
Exposure is a particularly severe problem if the password is written down where it can be read or lost.
Another method of password security failure is the result of human nature. Most computers installation has the
rule that users are not allowed to share accounts but it is not uncommon to passwords being shared. This rule (of
not sharing passwords) is sometimes implemented for accounting reasons but often it is used in aid of security.

Preventive measures
1. Specify a minimum length for passwords
2. Setting the password to require use of at least; one number, one uppercase letter, one lowercase letter or one
symbol combined with password length is a recommended method of security professionals.
3. Implementing an account lockout policy. The account lockout policy will disable an account for a specific
amount of time after certain number of failed logical logon attempts.

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