UNIT-I

Computer Networks
A computer network is a cluster of computers over a shared communication path that works
to share resources from one computer to another, provided by or located on the network
nodes. In this article, we will discuss computer networks and their types.

USES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

1. Business Applications
 to distribute information throughout the company (resource sharing). sharing
physical resources such as printers, and tape backup systems, is sharing
information
 client-server model. It is widely used and forms the basis of much network
usage.
 communication medium among employees.email (electronic mail), which
employees generally use for a great deal of daily communication.
 Telephone calls between employees may be carried by the computer network
instead of by the phone company. This technology is called IP
telephony or
Voice over IP (VoIP) when Internet technology is used.
 Desktop sharing lets remote workers see and interact with a graphical
computer screen
 doing business electronically, especially with customers and suppliers. This
new model is called e-commerce (electronic commerce) and it has grown rapidly in
recent years.
2 Home Applications
 peer-to-peer communication
 person-to-person communication
 electronic commerce
 entertainment.(game playing,)

3 Mobile Users
 Text messaging or texting
 Smart phones,
 GPS (Global Positioning System)
 m-commerce
 NFC (Near Field Communication)
4 Social Issues
With the good comes the bad, as this new-found freedom brings with it
many unsolved social, political, and ethical issues.
Social networks, message boards, content sharing sites, and a
host of other applications allow people to share their views with like-
minded individuals. As long as the subjects are restricted to technical
topics or hobbies like gardening, not too many problems will arise.
The trouble comes with topics that people actually care about, like
politics, religion, or sex. Views that are publicly posted may be deeply
offensive to some people. Worse yet, they may not be politically correct.
Furthermore, opinions need not be limited to text; high-resolution color
photographs and video clips are easily shared over computer networks.
Some people take a live-and-let-live view, but others feel that posting
certain material (e.g., verbal attacks on particular countries or religions,
pornography, etc.) is simply unacceptable and that such content must
be censored. Different countries have different and conflicting laws in
this area. Thus, the debate rages.
Computer networks make it very easy to communicate. They also
make it easy for the people who run the network to snoop on the traffic.
This sets up conflicts over issues such as employee rights versus
employer rights. Many people read and write email at work. Many
employers have claimed the right to read and possibly censor employee
messages, including messages sent from a home computer outside
working hours. Not all employees agree with this, especially the latter
part.
Another conflict is centered around government versus citizen’s rights.
A new twist with mobile devices is location privacy. As part of the
process of providing service to your mobile device the network
operators learn where you are at different times of day. This allows
them to track your movements. They may know which nightclub you
frequent and which medical center you visit.

Phishing ATTACK: Phishing is a type of social engineering attack

often used to steal user data, including login credentials and credit
card numbers. It occurs when an attacker, masquerading as a trusted
entity, dupes a victim into opening an email, instant message, or text
message.
BOTNET ATTACK: Botnets can be used to perform
distributed denial-of-service attack (DDoS attack), steal data,
send spam, and allows the attacker to access the device and
its connection.
The effectiveness of a data communications system depends
on four fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy,
timeliness, and jitter.
I. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct
destination. Data must be received by the intended device or
user and only by that device or user.
2 Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately.
Data that have been altered in transmission and left
uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data
delivered late are useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery
means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order that they are
produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-
time transmission.
4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the
uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us
assume that video packets are sent every 30 ms. If some of the packets arrive
with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video
is the result.
A data communications system has five components
I. Message. The message is the information (data) to
be communicated. Popular forms of information include text,
numbers, pictures, audio, and video. 2 Sender. The sender
is the device that sends the data message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and
so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can
be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path
by which a message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of
transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic
cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It
represents an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a
protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a
 person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.

What is a Computer Network?

A computer network is a system that connects many independent computers to
share information (data) and resources. The integration of computers and other
different devices allows users to communicate more easily. A computer network
is a collection of two or more computer systems that are linked together. A
network connection can be established using either cable or wireless
media. Hardware and software are used to connect computers and tools in any
network.
Uses of Computer Networks
 Communicating using email, video, instant messaging, etc.
 Sharing devices such as printers, scanners, etc.
 Sharing files.
 Sharing software and operating programs on remote systems.
 Allowing network users to easily access and maintain information.
Types of Computer Networks
There are mainly five types of Computer Networks
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
3. Campus Area Network (CAN)
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
5. Wide Area Network (WAN)
Types of Computer Networks
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
PAN is the most basic type of computer network. It is a type of network
designed to connect devices within a short range, typically around one person.
It allows your personal devices, like smartphones, tablets, laptops, and
wearables, to communicate and share data with each other. PAN offers a
network range of 1 to 100 meters from person to device providing
communication. Its transmission speed is very high with very easy maintenance
and very low cost. This uses Bluetooth, IrDA, and Zigbee as technology.
Examples of PAN are USB, computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA, etc.
 Personal Area Network (PAN)
Types of PAN
 Wireless Personal Area Networks: Wireless Personal Area Networks are created
by simply utilising wireless technologies such as WiFi and Bluetooth. It is a low-
range network.
 Wired Personal Area Network: A wired personal area network is constructed
using a USB.
Advantages of PAN
 PAN is relatively flexible and provides high efficiency for short network ranges.
 It needs easy setup and relatively low cost.
 It does not require frequent installations and maintenance
 It is easy and portable.
 Needs fewer technical skills to use.
Disadvantages of PAN
 Low network coverage area/range.
 Limited to relatively low data rates.
 Devices are not compatible with each other.
 Inbuilt WPAN devices are a little bit costly.
Applications of PAN
 Home and Offices
 Organizations and the Business sector
 Medical and Hospital
 School and College Education
 Military and Defense
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN is the most frequently used network. A LAN is a computer network that
connects computers through a common communication path, contained within
a limited area, that is, locally. A LAN encompasses two or more computers
connected over a server. The two important technologies involved in this
network are Ethernet and Wi-fi. It ranges up to 2km & transmission speed is
very high with easy maintenance and low cost. Examples of LAN are networking
in a home, school, library, laboratory, college, office, etc.

Local Area Network (LAN)

 Advantages of a LAN
 Privacy: LAN is a private network, thus no outside regulatory body controls it,
giving it a privacy.
 High Speed: LAN offers a much higher speed(around 100 mbps) and data transfer
rate comparatively to WAN.
 Supports different transmission mediums: LAN support a variety of
communications transmission medium such as an Ethernet cable (thin cable,
thick cable, and twisted pair), fiber and wireless transmission.
 Inexpensive and Simple: A LAN usually has low cost, installation, expansion and
maintenance and LAN installation is relatively easy to use, good scalability.
Disadvantages of LAN
 The initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is high because there is
special software required to make a server.
 Communication devices like an ethernet cable, switches, hubs, routers, cables
are costly.
 LAN administrator can see and check personal data files as well
as Internet history of each and every LAN user. Hence, the privacy of the users
are violated
 LANs are restricted in size and cover only a limited area
 Since all the data is stored in a single server computer, if it can be accessed by
an unauthorized user, can cause a serious data security threat.
3. Campus Area Network (CAN)
CAN is bigger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN. This is a type of computer
network that is usually used in places like a school or colleges. This network
covers a limited geographical area that is, it spreads across several buildings
within the campus. CAN mainly use Ethernet technology with a range from 1km
to 5km. Its transmission speed is very high with a moderate maintenance cost
and moderate cost. Examples of CAN are networks that cover schools, colleges,
buildings, etc.
 Campus Area Network (CAN)
Advantages of CAN
 Speed: Communication within a CAN takes place over Local Area Network (LAN)
so data transfer rate between systems is little bit fast than Internet.
 Security: Network administrators of campus take care of network by continuous
monitoring, tracking and limiting access. To protect network from unauthorized
access firewall is placed between network and internet.
 Cost effective: With a little effort and maintenance, network works well by
providing fast data transfer rate with multi-departmental network access. It can be
enabled wirelessly, where wiring and cabling costs can be managed. So to work
with in a campus using CAN is cost-effective in view of performance
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. This is the type of
computer network that connects computers over a geographical distance
through a shared communication path over a city, town, or metropolitan area.
This network mainly uses FDDI, CDDI, and ATM as the technology with a range
from 5km to 50km. Its transmission speed is average. It is difficult to maintain
 and it comes with a high cost. Examples of MAN are networking in towns, cities,
a single large city, a large area within multiple buildings, etc.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Advantages of MAN
 MAN offers high-speed connectivity in which the speed ranges from 10-100 Mbps.
 The security level in MAN is high and strict as compared to WAN.
 It support to transmit data in both directions concurrently because of dual bus
architecture.
 MAN can serve multiple users at a time with the same high-speed internet to all
the users.
 MAN allows for centralized management and control of the network, making it
easier to monitor and manage network resources and security.
Disadvantages of MAN
 The architecture of MAN is quite complicated hence, it is hard to design and
maintain.
 This network is highly expensive because it required the high cost to set up fiber
optics.
 It provides less fault tolerance.
 The Data transfer rate in MAN is low when compare to LANs.
5. Wide Area Network (WAN)
 WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a large
geographical distance through a shared communication path. It is not
restrained to a single location but extends over many locations. WAN can also
be defined as a group of local area networks that communicate with each other
with a range above 50km. Here we use Leased-Line & Dial-up technology. Its
transmission speed is very low and it comes with very high maintenance and
very high cost. The most common example of WAN is the Internet.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Advantages of WAN
 It covers large geographical area which enhances the reach of organisation to
transmit data quickly and cheaply.
 The data can be stored in centralised manner because of remote access to data
provided by WAN.
 The travel charges that are needed to cover the geographical area of work can be
minimised.
 WAN enables a user or organisation to connect with the world very easily and
allows to exchange data and do business at global level.
Disadvantages of WAN
 Traffic congestion in Wide Area Network is very high.
 The fault tolerance ability of WAN is very less.
 Noise and error are present in large amount due to multiple connection point.
 The data transfer rate is slow in comparison to LAN because of large distances
and high number of connected system within the network.
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Other Types of Computer Networks

 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
 Storage Area Network (SAN)
 System-Area Network (SAN)
 Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)
 Enterprise Private Network (EPN)
 Virtual Private Network (VPN)
 Home Area Network (HAN)
1. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
WLAN is a type of computer network that acts as a local area network but
makes use of wireless network technology like Wi-Fi. This network doesn’t
allow devices to communicate over physical cables like in LAN but allows
devices to communicate wirelessly. The most common example of WLAN is Wi-
Fi.
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
There are several computer networks available; more information is provided
below.
2. Storage Area Network (SAN)
SAN is a type of computer network that is high-speed and connects groups of
storage devices to several servers. This network does not depend on LAN or
WAN. Instead, a SAN moves the storage resources from the network to its high-
powered network. A SAN provides access to block-level data storage. Examples
of SAN are a network of disks accessed by a network of servers.
Storage Area Network (SAN)
3. Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)
A POLAN is a type of computer network that is an alternative to a LAN. POLAN
uses optical splitters to split an optical signal from a single strand of single-
mode optical fiber to multiple signals to distribute users and devices. In short,
POLAN is a point to multipoint LAN architecture.
Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)
4. Enterprise Private Network (EPN)
EPN is a type of computer network mostly used by businesses that want a
secure connection over various locations to share computer resources.

Enterprise Private Network (EPN)

5. Virtual Private Network (VPN)
A VPN is a type of computer network that extends a private network across the
internet and lets the user send and receive data as if they were connected to a
private network even though they are not. Through a virtual point-to-point
connection users can access a private network remotely. VPN protects you from
malicious sources by operating as a medium that gives you a protected network
connection.

Virtual Private Network (VPN)

6. Home Area Network (HAN)
Many of the houses might have more than a computer. To interconnect those
computers and with other peripheral devices, a network should be established
similar to the local area network (LAN) within that home. Such a type of network
that allows a user to interconnect multiple computers and other digital devices
within the home is referred to as Home Area Network (HAN). HAN encourages
sharing of resources, files, and programs within the network. It supports both
wired and wireless communication.
 Home Area Network (HAN)
Internetwork
An internet network is defined as two or more computer network LANs, WANs,
or computer network segments that are connected by devices and configured
with a local addressing system. The method is known as internetworking. There
are two types of Internetwork.
 Intranet: An internal network within an organization that enables employees to
share data, collaborate, and access resources. Intranets are not accessible to the
public and use private IP addresses.
 Extranet: Extranets extend the intranet to authorized external users, such as
business partners or clients. They provide controlled access to specific
resources while maintaining security.
Advantages of Computer Network
 Central Storage of Data: Files are stored on a central storage database which
helps to easily access and available to everyone.
 Connectivity: A single connection can be routed to connect multiple computing
devices.
 Sharing of Files: Files and data can be easily shared among multiple devices
which helps in easily communicating among the organization.
 Security through Authorization: Computer Networking provides additional
security and protection of information in the system.
 Disadvantages of Computer Network
 Virus and Malware: A virus is a program that can infect other programs by
modifying them. Viruses and Malware can corrupt the whole network.
 High Cost of Setup: The initial setup of Computer Networking is expensive
because it consists of a lot of wires and cables along with the device.
 loss of Information: In case of a System Failure, might lead to some loss of data.
 Management of Network: Management of a Network is somehow complex for a
person, it requires training for its proper use.
Conclusion
In conclusion, computer networks are essential components that connect
various computer devices in order to efficiently share data and resources. PAN,
LAN, CAN, MAN, and WAN networks serve a wide range of applications and
purposes, each with its own set of advantages and drawbacks. Understanding
these networks and their applications improves connectivity, data exchange,
and resource utilization in a variety of applications from personal use to global
communications.

What is Network Topology?

Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other. There are two types of topology: physical and
logical topology.
Types of Network Topology
Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network.
There are six types of network topology which are Bus Topology, Ring
Topology, Tree Topology, Star Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid Topology.
 1) Bus Topology

o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected
through a single cable known as a backbone cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly
connected to the backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over
the network. All the stations available in the network will receive the message
whether it has been addressed or not.
o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other
topologies.
o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message
is broadcast to all the stations.
o The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access).
CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data
integrity is maintained, i.e., the packets do not get lost. There are two alternative
ways of handling the problems that occur when two nodes send the messages
simultaneously.
o CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method used to detect the
collision. Once the collision is detected, the sender will stop transmitting the
data. Therefore, it works on "recovery after the collision".
o CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used to avoid
the collision by checking whether the transmission media is busy or not. If busy,
then the sender waits until the media becomes idle. This technique effectively
reduces the possibility of the collision. It does not work on "recovery after the
collision".
Advantages of Bus topology:
o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable
without passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-
based networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and
troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware components are easily
available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.
Disadvantages of Bus topology:
o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of
cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the
cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the
communication for all the nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the
signals of both the nodes collide with each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down
the network.
o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues.
Repeaters are used to regenerate the signal.
 2) Ring Topology

o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit
to the next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having
no termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed
from one node to another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Working of Token passing
o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to computer
until it reaches the destination.
o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
o The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination
address matches. Once the token received by the destination device, then it
sends the acknowledgment to the sender.
o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.
Advantages of Ring topology:
o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without
bringing the network down.
o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation and
monitoring are available.
o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the
installation cost is very low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not
dependent on the single host computer.
Disadvantages of Ring topology:
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the
cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the
communication for all the nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down
the network.
o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes.
Adding new devices increases the communication delay.

3) Star Topology
o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected
to the central hub, switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached
to the server are known as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star
topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
Advantages of Star topology
o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as
compared to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to inspect the
kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all the stations are connected to the
centralized network. Therefore, the network administrator has to go to the single
station to troubleshoot the problem.
o Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in
the star topology. Any changes made in the star topology are automatically
accommodated.
o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own
cable, therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
o Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-
effective.
o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the
open ports on the hub.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive
coaxial cable.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet
100BaseT is one of the most popular Star topology networks.
Disadvantages of Star topology
o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the
connected nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of
routing is required.

4) Tree topology

o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected
with each other in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes
are the descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus,
it forms a parent-child hierarchy.
Advantages of Tree topology
o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide
broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances without being
attenuated.
o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore,
we can say that tree topology is easily expandable.
o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments
known as star networks which can be easily managed and maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree
topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Disadvantages of Tree topology
o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult
to troubleshoot the problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus
cable will damage the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to
reconfigure.

5) Mesh topology
o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are
interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a
central point of communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication
failures are a critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;
Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.
Mesh topology is divided into two categories:
o Fully connected mesh topology
o Partially connected mesh topology
o Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all
the computers available in the network.
o Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain computers
are connected to those computers with which they communicate frequently.
Advantages of Mesh topology:
Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown
will not affect the communication between connected computers.
Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.
Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the
communication between other devices.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology
o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a
router and more transmission media than other topologies.
o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to
maintain and manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the
communication link failure goes undetected.
o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the
efficiency of the network.

6) Hybrid Topology
o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.
o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer
the data.
o When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid
topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other will not result in
Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI
bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two
topologies will result in Hybrid topology.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning
of the rest of the network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices
without affecting the functionality of the existing network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the
requirements of the organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way
that the strength of the network is maximized and weakness of the network is
minimized.
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology
 o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the
Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid
network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these
hubs are different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network
requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.

Computer Network Types

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer
to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly

of four types:

o LAN(Local Area Network)

o PAN(Personal Area Network)
o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network)

 o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small
area such as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network
adapters, and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.

PAN(Personal Area Network)

o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically
within a range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal
use is known as Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the
Personal Area Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are
the laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.
There are two types of Personal Area Network:

o Wired Personal Area Network

o Wireless Personal Area Network
Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply
using wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.

Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.

Examples Of Personal Area Network:

o Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a
person. For example, a mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person
establishes a network connection and then creates a connection with another
device to share the information.
o Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also
known as a home network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices
such as printers, computer, television but they are not connected to the internet.
o Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and
to a corporate network using a VPN
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by
interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange
line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3,
ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.

WAN(Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area
such as states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
 o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.

Examples Of Wide Area Network:

o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.
o Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the
customers in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices.
This network is made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom
company.

Advantages Of Wide Area Network:

Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area.

Suppose if the branch of our office is in a different city then we can connect with
them through WAN. The internet provides a leased line through which we can
connect with another branch.
o Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do
not need to buy the emails, files or back up servers.
 o Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the
programmers get the updated files within seconds.
o Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web
application like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate with
friends.
o Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the
software and other resources like a hard drive, RAM.
o Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
o High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the
high bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn
increases the productivity of our company.

Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:

The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN and
MAN network as all the technologies are combined together that creates the
security problem.
o Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet
which can be changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used.
Some people can inject the virus in our system so antivirus is needed to protect
from such a virus.
o High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves
the purchasing of routers, switches.
o Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is
difficult.

Internetwork
o An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN or
computer network segments are connected using devices, and they are configured
by a local addressing scheme. This process is known as internetworking.
o An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or government
computer networks can also be defined as internetworking.
o An internetworking uses the internet protocol.
o The reference model used for internetworking is Open System
Interconnection(OSI).

Types Of Internetwork:
1. Extranet: An extranet is a communication network based on the internet protocol such
as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. It is used for information
sharing. The access to the extranet is restricted to only those users who have login
credentials. An extranet is the lowest level of internetworking. It can be categorized
as MAN, WAN or other computer networks. An extranet cannot have a single LAN, atleast it
must have one connection to the external network.
2. Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol such
as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. An intranet belongs to an
organization which is only accessible by the organization's employee or members. The
main aim of the intranet is to share the information and resources among the organization
employees. An intranet provides the facility to work in groups and for teleconferences.

Intranet advantages:
o Communication: It provides a cheap and easy communication. An employee of
the organization can communicate with another employee through email, chat.
o Time-saving: Information on the intranet is shared in real time, so it is time-
saving.
o Collaboration: Collaboration is one of the most important advantage of the
intranet. The information is distributed among the employees of the organization
and can only be accessed by the authorized user.
o Platform independency: It is a neutral architecture as the computer can be
connected to another device with different architecture.
o Cost effective: People can see the data and documents by using the browser and
distributes the duplicate copies over the intranet. This leads to a reduction in the
cost.

What is a network topology?

A network topology is the physical and logical arrangement of nodes and connections in a network.
Nodes usually include devices such as switches, routers and software with switch and router
features. Network topologies are often represented as a graph.

Network topologies describe the arrangement of networks and the relative location of traffic flows.
Administrators can use network topology diagrams to determine the best placements for
each node and the optimal path for traffic flow. With a well-defined and planned-out network
topology, an organization can more easily locate faults and fix issues, improving its data transfer
efficiency.

Network geometry can be defined as the physical topology and the logical topology. Network topology
diagrams are shown with devices depicted as network nodes and the connections between them as
lines. The type of network topology differs depending on how the network needs to be arranged.

Why is network topology important?

Network topology plays a major role in how a network functions. Namely, the topology has a direct
effect on network functionality. Choosing the right topology can help increase performance, as a
properly chosen and maintained network topology increases energy efficiency and data transfer
rates.

A well-defined network topology makes it easier for network admins to locate faults, troubleshoot
issues and to allocate network resources. Diagrams are an important reference point in helping to
diagnose network issues, as they can represent physical and logical layouts.

What are the types of network topologies?

What is Network Topology?

Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected
to each other. There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology.

Types of Network Topology

Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network. There are six
types of network topology which are Bus Topology, Ring Topology, Tree Topology, Star
Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid Topology.

1) Bus Topology
 o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected
through a single cable known as a backbone cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly
connected to the backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over
the network. All the stations available in the network will receive the message
whether it has been addressed or not.
o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other
topologies.
o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message
is broadcast to all the stations.
o The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access).
CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data integrity is
maintained, i.e., the packets do not get lost. There are two alternative ways of handling the
problems that occur when two nodes send the messages simultaneously.

o CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method used to detect

the collision. Once the collision is detected, the sender will stop transmitting the
data. Therefore, it works on "recovery after the collision".
o CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used to avoid
the collision by checking whether the transmission media is busy or not. If busy,
then the sender waits until the media becomes idle. This technique effectively
reduces the possibility of the collision. It does not work on "recovery after the
collision".

Advantages of Bus topology:

o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable
without passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
 o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-
based networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and
troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware components are easily
available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of
cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine
the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the
communication for all the nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the
signals of both the nodes collide with each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down
the network.
o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues.
Repeaters are used to regenerate the signal.

2) Ring Topology

o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to
the next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having
no termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
 o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed
from one node to another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Working of Token passing

o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to computer
until it reaches the destination.
o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
o The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination address
matches. Once the token received by the destination device, then it sends the
acknowledgment to the sender.
o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.

Advantages of Ring topology:

o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without
bringing the network down.
o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation
and monitoring are available.
o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the
installation cost is very low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not
dependent on the single host computer.

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine
the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the
communication for all the nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down
the network.
o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes.
Adding new devices increases the communication delay.

3) Star Topology
 o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected
to the central hub, switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to
the server are known as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star
topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.

Advantages of Star topology

o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as
compared to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to inspect the
kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all the stations are connected to the
centralized network. Therefore, the network administrator has to go to the single
station to troubleshoot the problem.
o Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in
the star topology. Any changes made in the star topology are automatically
accommodated.
 o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own
cable, therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
o Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-
effective.
o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the
open ports on the hub.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive
coaxial cable.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet
100BaseT is one of the most popular Star topology networks.

Disadvantages of Star topology

o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the
connected nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of
routing is required.

4) Tree topology

o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected
with each other in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes
are the descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it
forms a parent-child hierarchy.

Advantages of Tree topology

o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide
broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances without being
attenuated.
o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network.
Therefore, we can say that tree topology is easily expandable.
 o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments
known as star networks which can be easily managed and maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree
topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

Disadvantages of Tree topology

o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes
difficult to troubleshoot the problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus
cable will damage the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to
reconfigure.

5) Mesh topology

o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are

interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
 o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central
point of communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication
failures are a critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;
Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.

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Mesh topology is divided into two categories:

o Fully connected mesh topology

o Partially connected mesh topology

o Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all
the computers available in the network.
o Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain computers
are connected to those computers with which they communicate frequently.

Advantages of Mesh topology:

Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not
affect the communication between connected computers.

Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.

Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication
between other devices.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

 o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a
router and more transmission media than other topologies.
o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to
maintain and manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the
communication link failure goes undetected.
o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the
efficiency of the network.

6) Hybrid Topology

o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.

o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the
data.
o When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid
topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other will not result in
Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI
bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two
topologies will result in Hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning
of the rest of the network.
 o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices
without affecting the functionality of the existing network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the
requirements of the organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way
that the strength of the network is maximized and weakness of the network is
minimized.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the
Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these
hubs are different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network
requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.

Network Protocols
Network Protocols are a set of rules governing exchange of information
in an easy, reliable and secure way. Before we discuss the most common
protocols used to transmit and receive data over a network, we need to
understand how a network is logically organized or designed. The most
popular model used to establish open communication between two
systems is the Open Systems Interface (OSI) model proposed by ISO.

OSI Model

OSI model is not a network architecture because it does not specify the
exact services and protocols for each layer. It simply tells what each
layer should do by defining its input and output data. It is up to network
architects to implement the layers according to their needs and
resources available.

These are the seven layers of the OSI model −

 Physical layer −It is the first layer that physically connects the two
systems that need to communicate. It transmits data in bits and manages
simplex or duplex transmission by modem. It also manages Network
Interface Card’s hardware interface to the network, like cabling, cable
terminators, topography, voltage levels, etc.
 Data link layer − It is the firmware layer of Network Interface Card. It
assembles datagrams into frames and adds start and stop flags to each
frame. It also resolves problems caused by damaged, lost or duplicate
frames.
 Network layer − It is concerned with routing, switching and controlling
flow of information between the workstations. It also breaks down
transport layer datagrams into smaller datagrams.
 Transport layer − Till the session layer, file is in its own form. Transport
layer breaks it down into data frames, provides error checking at network
segment level and prevents a fast host from overrunning a slower one.
Transport layer isolates the upper layers from network hardware.
 Session layer − This layer is responsible for establishing a session
between two workstations that want to exchange data.
 Presentation layer − This layer is concerned with correct representation
of data, i.e. syntax and semantics of information. It controls file level
security and is also responsible for converting data to network standards.
 Application layer − It is the topmost layer of the network that is
responsible for sending application requests by the user to the lower
levels. Typical applications include file transfer, E-mail, remote logon,
data entry, etc.

It is not necessary for every network to have all the layers. For example,
network layer is not there in broadcast networks.

When a system wants to share data with another workstation or send a

request over the network, it is received by the application layer. Data
then proceeds to lower layers after processing till it reaches the physical
layer.

At the physical layer, the data is actually transferred and received by the
physical layer of the destination workstation. There, the data proceeds to
upper layers after processing till it reaches application layer.
At the application layer, data or request is shared with the workstation.
So each layer has opposite functions for source and destination
workstations. For example, data link layer of the source workstation adds
start and stop flags to the frames but the same layer of the destination
workstation will remove the start and stop flags from the frames.

Let us now see some of the protocols used by different layers to

accomplish user requests.

TCP/IP

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. TCP/IP

is a set of layered protocols used for communication over the Internet.
The communication model of this suite is client-server model. A computer
that sends a request is the client and a computer to which the request is
sent is the server.
 TCP/IP has four layers −

 Application layer − Application layer protocols like HTTP and FTP are
used.
 Transport layer − Data is transmitted in form of datagrams using the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). TCP is responsible for breaking up
data at the client side and then reassembling it on the server side.
 Network layer − Network layer connection is established using Internet
Protocol (IP) at the network layer. Every machine connected to the
Internet is assigned an address called IP address by the protocol to easily
identify source and destination machines.
 Data link layer − Actual data transmission in bits occurs at the data link
layer using the destination address provided by network layer.

TCP/IP is widely used in many communication networks other than the

Internet.

FTP

As we have seen, the need for network came up primarily to facilitate

sharing of files between researchers. And to this day, file transfer
remains one of the most used facilities.The protocol that handles these
requests is File Transfer Protocol or FTP.

Using FTP to transfer files is helpful in these ways −

 Easily transfers files between two different networks

 Can resume file transfer sessions even if connection is dropped, if
protocol is configure appropriately
 Enables collaboration between geographically separated teams

PPP
 Point to Point Protocol or PPP is a data link layer protocol that enables
transmission of TCP/IP traffic over serial connection, like telephone line.

To do this, PPP defines these three things −

 A framing method to clearly define end of one frame and start of another,
incorporating errors detection as well.
 Link control protocol (LCP) for bringing communication lines up,
authenticating and bringing them down when no longer needed.
 Network control protocol (NCP) for each network layer protocol
supported by other networks.

Using PPP, home users can avail Internet connection over telephone
lines.

Mobile Communication Protocols

Any device that does not need to remain at one place to carry out its
functions is a mobile device. So laptops, smartphones and personal
digital assistants are some examples of mobile devices. Due to their
portable nature, mobile devices connect to networks wirelessly. Mobile
devices typically use radio waves to communicate with other devices and
networks. Here we will discuss the protocols used to carry out mobile
communication.

Mobile communication protocols use multiplexing to send information.

Multiplexing is a method to combine multiple digital or analog signals
into one signal over the data channel. This ensures optimum utilization of
expensive resource and time. At the destination these signals are de-
multiplexed to recover individual signals.
 These are the types of multiplexing options available to communication
channels −

 FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) − Here each user is assigned a

different frequency from the complete spectrum. All the frequencies can
then simultaneously travel on the data channel.
 TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) − A single radio frequency is divided
into multiple slots and each slot is assigned to a different user. So
multiple users can be supported simultaneously.
 CDMA (Code Division Multiplexing) − Here several users share the same
frequency spectrum simultaneously. They are differentiated by assigning
unique codes to them. The receiver has the unique key to identify the
individual calls.

GSM

GSM stands for Global System for Mobile communications. GSM is one of
the most widely used digital wireless telephony system. It was developed
in Europe in 1980s and is now international standard in Europe, Australia,
Asia and Africa. Any GSM handset with a SIM (Subscriber Identity
Module) card can be used in any country that uses this standard. Every
SIM card has a unique identification number. It has memory to store
applications and data like phone numbers, processor to carry out its
functions and software to send and receive messages

GSM technology uses TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) to support up

to eight calls simultaneously. It also uses encryption to make the data
more secure.

The frequencies used by the international standard is 900 MHz to 1800

MHz However, GSM phones used in the US use 1900 MHz frequency and
hence are not compatible with the international system.

CDMA

CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It was first used by the
British military during World War II. After the war its use spread to
civilian areas due to high service quality. As each user gets the entire
spectrum all the time, voice quality is very high. Also, it is automatically
encrypted and hence provides high security against signal interception
and eavesdropping.

WLL

WLL stands for Wireless in Local Loop. It is a wireless local telephone

service that can be provided in homes or offices. The subscribers connect
to their local exchange instead of the central exchange wirelessly. Using
wireless link eliminates last mile or first mile construction of network
connection, thereby reducing cost and set up time. As data is transferred
over very short range, it is more secure than wired networks.

WLL system consists of user handsets and a base station. The base
station is connected to the central exchange as well as an antenna. The
antenna transmits to and receives calls from users through terrestrial
microwave links. Each base station can support multiple handsets
depending on its capacity.

GPRS

GPRS stands for General Packet Radio Services. It is a packet based

wireless communication technology that charges users based on the
volume of data they send rather than the time duration for which they
are using the service. This is possible because GPRS sends data over the
network in packets and its throughput depends on network traffic. As
traffic increases, service quality may go down due to congestion, hence it
is logical to charge the users as per data volume transmitted.

GPRS is the mobile communication protocol used by second (2G) and

third generation (3G) of mobile telephony. It pledges a speed of 56 kbps
 to 114 kbps, however the actual speed may vary depending on network
load.

Types Of Network Protocols: From

TCP/IP To More Advanced Options
We are living in the times where the internet has become an integral part of our
lives. It is one of the largest and popular networks with an interconnection of
billions of devices worldwide. We use the internet for a variety of activities such
as email, online banking, video conferencing, social media, to name a few.

Computer networking is the backbone of modern communication that links

devices and systems across the globe. At its core, a computer network enables
multiple devices to communicate and share resources, such as files, printers, or
internet access. These networks operate through various hardware components
(routers, switches, and cables). Local Area Networks (LANs) typically connect
devices within a limited space (home or office), while Wide Area Networks (WANs)
cover larger geographic areas. Wireless technologies, such as Wi-Fi help in
connecting devices without the need for physical cables.

In order for computer networks and the internet to function seamlessly, we have a
bunch of Network Protocols. These protocols define a set of rules and standards
that devices must follow to communicate effectively. The TCP/IP is one of the
most widely used protocols which defines how data is transmitted across
networks. Other key protocols include the HTTP for web browsing, SMTP for email
delivery, SNMP for network management, and many more.

In this beginner’s guide, let us take a closer look at different types of network
protocols. We will begin with the basics of OSI Model and how protocols interact at
different layers. Then we will move on to different types of Network Protocols in
each layer of the OSI Model. As a bonus, we will take a brief overview of types of
Network Protocols based on functionality.

What Are Networking Protocols?

Network protocols are a set of rules and conventions that define how different
devices communicate over a network. These rules dictate how data should be
formatted, transmitted, received, processed, and acknowledged across devices
such as computers, servers, routers, and switches, regardless of the type,
manufacturer, or operating system.

Without these standardized rules, devices with varying hardware and software
cannot interpret each other’s signals and would struggle to communicate
effectively.

When data flows between two points or devices, network protocols manage the
flow by breaking it into manageable packets before transmitting. This not only
impacts the direction and order of data transmission but also validates the
accuracy of the transferred data (to minimize errors).

In this way, protocols help optimize data transmission and make actions like
downloading a file or streaming video fast and efficient. Without them, network
traffic would be chaotic and vulnerable to interruptions.

Protocols like Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) are
the pillars of internet communication. TCP breaks data into packets while IP
addresses each packet and directs it to the correct destination. Without these
protocols, the internet as we know it would not function.
Many protocols incorporate encryption techniques to protect data from
unauthorized access. This is very important when we transmit sensitive data
(personal or financial information) through the internet. Protocols like HTTPS and
SSL/TLS, for example, make web browsing more secure.

Network protocols come in different types and we can classify them in three ways:

 The layer they belong to in the OSI model

 By their function
 Their specific use cases

A Brief Overview Of The OSI Model

The OSI (Open System Interconnect) Model is a conceptual framework that

standardizes network communication. It divides the communication process into
seven distinct layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session,
Presentation, and Application.

Each layer has a specific function and they interact through different network
protocols. In this model, each layer provides a service to the layer above it and
relies only on the layer below it.

This layered structure simplifies the complexity as each layer focuses on a

specific aspect of the communication. Data flows from the top application layer
down to the physical layer during transmission.

At each step, the corresponding layer adds headers and information specific to its
function (IP addresses or error-checking codes). Upon receiving the data, the
layers at the destination process it in reverse order. They strip away the added
information until it reaches the application layer.
Types Of Network Protocols Based On OSI
Model
Physical Layer Protocols

The Physical Layer is the foundation for all network communication as it deals
with the physical connection between devices. Instead of protocols, the physical
layer defines the hardware specifications for how data transmits over physical
mediums like cables, fiber optics, or wireless signals. This layer manages how bits
(1’s and 0’s) are converted into electrical or radio signals that travel across a
network.

 Ethernet: One of the key protocols/standards at this layer is Ethernet (IEEE

802.3). It is widely used for wired network connections. Ethernet specifies
how data gets transferred over physical cables and defines both the format
of data frames and error-checking mechanisms. Ethernet operates at speeds
of up to 400 Gbps.
 USB: Universal Serial Bus (USB) provides standards for data transfer and
power delivery between devices. USB technology supports speeds up to 40
Gbps with USB 4.0.
 Wi-Fi: The IEEE 802.11 standard (or more commonly known as Wi-Fi) is
associated with wireless communication and supports data transmission
through the air (radio waves) rather than physical cables. The Wi-Fi 6
standard, which is gradually becoming popular, has theoretical speeds of up
to 9.6 Gbps.

Data Link Layer Protocols

The Data Link Layer is responsible for node-to-node data transfer. It focuses on
data framing, addressing, and error detection. It acts as an intermediary, passing
data between the physical layer and the network layer, while also managing
access to the shared physical medium.

 MAC: Media Access Control or MAC defines how devices identify themselves
on a network. Every device/network interface has a unique MAC address.
The network uses this MAC address to know where to send or receive data.
 PPP: The Point-to-Point Protocol provides communication between two
routers in a direct connection (for internet dial-up access).
 Ethernet: Ethernet can belong to both the data link layer and the physical
layer, depending on its configuration.
 ARP: Address Resolution Protocol maps IP addresses to MAC addresses so
that devices can find each other on a local network. This function is very
important in delivering data between routers and devices.

Network Layer Protocols

The Network Layer handles packet forwarding, routing, and addressing. This layer
breaks large amounts of data into smaller packets, assigns addresses, and directs
those packets to their final destinations across multiple networks.

 IP: One of the widely-used protocols, the Internet Protocol (IP), is the heart
of this layer. It provides the mechanism for addressing and routing packets.
It determines the path that data takes from source to destination. IPv4, the
most widely used version, uses a 32-bit addressing system and offers
around 4.3 billion unique IP addresses. However, the exhaustion of IPv4
addresses led to the development of IPv6, which uses a 128-bit system and
provides an almost limitless number of unique addresses, 340 undecillion, to
be precise. IPv6 adoption has seen a quick rise in the recent past.
 ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol plays a huge role in network
diagnostics (ping and traceroute commands, for example) and error
 handling. It operates alongside IP and communicates error messages and
operational information. When a packet fails to reach its destination, ICMP
notifies the sender through an error message.
 IGMP: The Internet Group Management Protocol manages membership in
multicast groups. Multicasting allows a single packet to reach multiple
destinations simultaneously (streaming media and online gaming).

Transport Layer Protocols

The Transport Layer provides either a reliable or an unreliable data transfer

between devices. It handles tasks like flow control, error detection, and
retransmission of lost data.

 TCP: The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is one of the most widely used
transport layer protocols. It provides a reliable, ordered, and error-checked
delivery of data. TCP is ideal for applications where accurate data transfer is
necessary (web browsing, email, and file downloads). The internet is built on
the combination of TCP and IP protocols.
 UDP: In contrast, the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a lightweight and
connectionless alternative to TCP. It is suitable for time-sensitive
applications like video streaming and online gaming, where small data
losses can be tolerated for better performance.
 SCTP: Another important protocol is Stream Control Transmission Protocol
(SCTP). It supports multiple data streams within a single connection to
reduce the risk of congestion and packet loss.

Session Layer Protocols

The Session Layer manages the dialog between two communicating devices. It
coordinates the opening, maintaining, and closing of communication sessions.
  RPC: Remote Procedure Call allows one computer to execute a procedure or
function on another system. This protocol simplifies complex operations by
abstracting remote communication.
 NetBIOS: Network Basic Input Output System or NetBIOS, on the other
hand, provides services like name resolution and session management on
local area networks, particularly in older Windows-based systems.
 PPTP: The Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol enables secure communication
through virtual private networks (VPNs). It creates encrypted tunnels for
data transfer between endpoints.

Presentation Layer Protocols

The Presentation Layer focuses on data translation, encryption, and compression.

This layer acts as a translator between the data format used by the network and
the application so that the data received by the application layer is in a readable
format.

 SSL/TLS: One of the primary protocols at this layer is SSL/TLS (Secure

Sockets Layer/Transport Layer Security). It encrypts data to provide secure
transmission and protect sensitive information from eavesdropping.
 MIME: The Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions handles encoding of
different media types, such as images, audio, and text, for email
transmission.
 XDR: Another key protocol is XDR (External Data Representation). It defines
a standard for data serialization so that data can be transferred between
different computer architectures.

Application Layer Protocols

The Application Layer sits at the top of the OSI model. It directly interacts with the
end-user and manages application-specific data exchanges. It also provides the
interface that allows users to interact with network services.

 HTTP/HTTPS: The Hypertext Transfer Protocol or HTTP is the driving force

behind all the web communication, while HTTPS adds a layer of security with
encryption. It operates on a request-response model. When you enter a URL,
the browser sends an HTTP request to the server. The server then responds
with the requested content.
 FTP: File Transfer Protocol provides file transfers between devices (usually a
client and a server). This protocol operates in two modes: active and
passive. In active mode, the client opens a port and waits for the server to
connect. In passive mode, the server opens a port, allowing the client to
connect. You must be cautious as FTP does not encrypt data during
transmission. For this reason, many opt for secure alternatives like FTPS or
SFTP.
 SMTP: The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol handles email transmission
between two devices. This protocol works primarily for sending emails from
clients to servers. SMTP typically works alongside other protocols like IMAP
or POP3, which handle the retrieval of emails.
 DNS: Domain Name System converts domain names into IP addresses. This
allows users to navigate the web using human-readable addresses (URLs)
instead of IP addresses of the server of a website.
 SNMP: The Simple Network Management Protocol supports network
management, where administrators can monitor and control network
devices like routers, switches, and servers.

Types Of Network Protocols Based On

Functionality
Communication Protocols

Communication protocols manage how devices interact and exchange information

over a network. These protocols focus on organizing data transfer for a reliable
communication and consistent data flow across different platforms. Some of the
well-known communication protocols are:

 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
 IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)
 POP (Post Office Protocol)
 IRC (Internet Relay Chat)

Security Protocols

The need to protect data as it travels across networks is at an all-time high and
security protocols help with this. These protocols offer encryption, authentication,
and confidentiality measures to safeguard information from unauthorized access.
Here is a small list of security protocols:

 SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer/Transport Layer Security)

 SSH (Secure Shell)
 IPsec (Internet Protocol Security)

Network Management Protocols

Irrespective of the type of network, you should be able to monitor and control the
performance, reliability, and overall health of network devices. This is where
network management protocols come into play. The two popular protocols in this
category are:
  SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
 ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)

Routing Protocols

The job of routing protocols is to determine the best path for data to travel across
interconnected networks. By analyzing network topology, these protocols direct
data packets to their destination through the most efficient route. Example of
routing protocols are:

 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)

 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)
 RIP (Routing Information Protocol)

File Transfer Protocols

As the name suggests, file transfer protocols help in the movement of files
between devices. They provide different methods for secure and efficient data
exchange.

 FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

 SFTP (SSH File Transfer Protocol)
 TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol)

Conclusion
Network protocols are fundamental for a structured and reliable communication
across all types of networks. These protocols define the rules on how devices
interact, transmitting data across various network layers. Without such protocols,
communication would lack the consistency and structure required for modern
digital activities.
Despite the variety of existing protocols, the rise of 5G, IoT, and AI-driven
networks will demand significant changes in protocol design. With 5G expected to
reach over 1.5 billion connections by 2025, networks must handle higher speeds,
increased data volumes, and more complex device interactions. Protocols that
support low-latency communication and tight security will become key.
Difference Between Connection-oriented and Connection-less Services
In computer networks, communication between devices occurs using two types of
services: connection-oriented and connectionless. These services define how data is
transferred between a source and a destination. Connection-oriented services establish a
dedicated connection before data transfer, ensuring reliability. In contrast, connectionless
services do not establish a connection, sending data without acknowledgment or error
correction.
What is a Connection-Oriented Service?
Connection-oriented services involve setting up a dedicated path between the source and
destination before data transfer begins. These services ensure that data is delivered in the
correct sequence and without errors. In a connection-oriented service, the Handshake method
is used to establish the connection between sender and receiver. Before data transmission
starts, connection-oriented services create a dedicated communication channel between the
sender and the recipient. As the connection is kept open until all data is successfully
transferred, this guarantees dependable data delivery. One example is TCP (Transmission
Control Protocol), which ensures error-free and accurate data packet delivery.
Examples of Connection-Oriented Services
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) in the TCP/IP suite.
 Telephone calls in traditional telecommunication systems.

Key Features of Connection-Oriented Services

 Dedicated Connection : A logical or physical connection is established before data
transfer.
 Reliable Transmission : Data is transmitted with error checking, acknowledgments, and
retransmissions in case of errors.
 Sequencing : Data packets arrive at the destination in the correct order.
  Higher Overhead : Establishing and maintaining a connection involves additional
overhead.
Advantages of Connection-Oriented Services
 Reliable Data Transfer : Ensures that all data reaches its destination without errors.
 Data Sequencing : Packets are delivered in the correct order.
 Error Correction : Mechanisms are in place to detect and correct errors during
transmission.
 Guaranteed Delivery : Retransmissions occur if data is lost.
Disadvantages of Connection-Oriented Services
 Higher Latency : Establishing a connection adds latency before data transfer begins.
 More Overhead : Requires more resources for maintaining the connection,
acknowledgments, and retransmissions.
 Less Efficient for Small Transfers : For short messages, the overhead of connection setup
can outweigh the benefits.
What is Connection-Less Service?
Connectionless services send data without establishing a dedicated connection between the
source and destination. Each data packet is treated independently, and there is no guarantee
of delivery or sequencing. Connection-less Service does not give a guarantee of reliability. In
this, Packets do not follow the same path to reach their destination. Connectionless Services
deliver individual data packets without first making a connection. Since each packet is sent
separately, delivery, order, and mistake correction cannot be guaranteed. As a result, the
service is quicker but less dependable. UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is one example, which is
frequently used for streaming where dependability is not as important as speed.
Examples of Connectionless Services
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol) in the TCP/IP suite.
 Postal services (analogous to sending letters without confirmation of receipt).
Key Features of Connectionless Services
 No Connection Setup : Data is sent directly without establishing a prior connection.
 Independent Packets : Each packet is treated individually and may take different routes
to the destination.
 Faster Transmission : No time is spent establishing or tearing down a connection.
 Unreliable : No acknowledgment, retransmission, or error correction is performed.
Advantages of Connectionless Services
 Low Latency : Data is transmitted immediately without waiting for a connection to be
established.
 Efficient for Small Transfers : Ideal for small, time-sensitive messages like DNS lookups
or VoIP.
 Scalable : Suitable for systems with many simultaneous users, as no connection needs to
be maintained.
Disadvantages of Connectionless Services
 Unreliable : Data packets may be lost, duplicated, or arrive out of order.
 No Error Handling : No built-in mechanisms for retransmissions or error correction.
 Unsuitable for Large Transfers : Not ideal for applications requiring reliable and ordered
delivery.
Difference Between Connection-oriented and Connectionless Services
Connection-oriented services, like TCP, ensure reliable data transfer, while connection-less
services, like UDP, offer faster, less secure communication.

Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service

Connection-oriented service is related to the Connection-less service is related to the

telephone system. postal system.

Connection-oriented service is preferred by Connection-less Service is preferred by

long and steady communication. bursty communication.

Connection-less Service is not

Connection-oriented Service is necessary.
compulsory.

Connection-oriented Service is feasible. Connection-less Service is not feasible.

In connection-oriented Service, Congestion is In connection-less Service, Congestion is

not possible. possible.

Connection-oriented Service gives the Connection-less Service does not give a

guarantee of reliability. guarantee of reliability.

Includes error detection, correction, and No error handling; errors are not
retransmission. corrected.

In connection-oriented Service, Packets follow In connection-less Service, Packets do not

the same route. follow the same route.

Ensures data is delivered in the correct order. Data may arrive out of order or not at all.

Less scalable due to the need for maintaining Highly scalable for large networks with
connections. many users.
Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service

Higher overhead due to connection setup and Lower overhead as no connection is

maintenance. required.

Connection-oriented services require a Connection-less Service requires a

bandwidth of a high range. bandwidth of low range.

Ex: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) Ex: UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

Connection-less Service does not require

Connection-oriented requires authentication.
authentication.

Conclusion
Both connection-oriented and connectionless services are essential for modern networking,
each suited to different applications:
 Connection-Oriented Services: Prioritize reliability, sequencing, and error correction,
making them ideal for applications like file transfers, email, and telecommunication.
 Connectionless Services: Focus on speed and efficiency, perfect for time-sensitive
applications like DNS lookups, VoIP, and online gaming.
The choice of service depends on the specific requirements of the application, such as
reliability, speed, and data size.

Let us understand the differences between the above given two services:

Connection-Oriented Services Connection Less Services

Connection-Oriented services are designed on the Connectionless services are based on

basis of the Telephone System. the Postal System.

In this type of service, a prior connection needs to In this type of service, no prior
be established. connection is needed.
 Connection-Oriented Services Connection Less Services

As these services are best efforts services

These services Ensure the reliable transfer of data.
but reliability is not guaranteed in these.

There are chances of occurrence of

There is no possibility of congestion.
congestion using these services.

In this, authentication is not

In this authentication is required before
required before transmitting the data
transmitting the data packets to the receiver.
packets to the receiver.

These services are suitable for long and These services are suitable
steady transmissions. for bursty transmissions.

In this connection is established through the

There is no such signaling concept exists.
process of signaling

In this type of service, data packets travel

In this type of service, data packets travel towards
towards their destination node in
their destination node in a sequential manner.
a random manner.

Retransmission of lost data bits is possible. In this, it is not possible.

Delay is more while transferring the information.

Due to the absence of the connection
But after the establishment of connection, these
establishment phase, there is no delay.
services offer fast delivery of information.

Types of Transmission Media

Last Updated : 08 Feb, 2025



 

Transmission media refers to the physical medium through which data is transmitted from one
device to another within a network. These medium can be wired or wireless. The choice of
medium depends on factors like distance, speed, and interference. In this article, we will
discuss the transmission media. In this article we will see types of transmission media in detail.
What is Transmission Media in Computer Networks?
A transmission medium is a physical path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the
channel through which data is sent from one device to another. Transmission Media is broadly
classified into the following types:

Types of Transmission Media

1. Guided Media

Guided Media is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being transmitted are directed and
confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.

Features:

 High Speed
  Secure

 Used for comparatively shorter distances

There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

Twisted Pair Cable

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally, several such pairs are
bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two
types:

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one another. This
type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical shield for this purpose. It
is used for telephonic applications.

Unshielded Twisted Pair

Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair

 Least expensive

 Easy to install

 High-speed capacity

Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair

 Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP

 Short distance transmission due to attenuation

Shielded Twisted Pair

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid covering or a
foil shield) to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of
telephone lines.

Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair

 Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP

  Eliminates crosstalk

 Comparatively faster

Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair

 Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture

 More expensive

 Bulky

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon and 2 parallel
conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover. The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes:
Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges).
Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.

Advantages of Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial cables has high bandwidth .

 It is easy to install.

 Coaxial cables are more reliable and durable.

 Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic inference.

 Coaxial cables support multiple channels

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial cables are expensive.

 The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk.

 As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.

  There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and attaching a “t-joint” by hackers, this compromises the
security of the data.

Optical Fiber Cable

Optical Fibre Cable uses the concept total internal reflection of light through a core made up of glass. The core is
surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the coating. It is used for the transmission of large volumes
of data. The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexer) supports two
modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.

Advantages of Optical Fibre Cable

 Increased capacity and bandwidth

 Lightweight

 Less signal attenuation

 Immunity to electromagnetic interference

 Resistance to corrosive materials

Disadvantages of Optical Fibre Cable

 Difficult to install and maintain

 High cost

Applications of Optical Fibre Cable

 Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.

 Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.

 For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet cables.

 Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in designing the interior and exterior of
automobiles.

Stripline

Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line medium invented by Robert M. Barrett of the Air
Force Cambridge Research Centre in the 1950s. Stripline is the earliest form of the planar transmission line. It uses a
conducting material to transmit high-frequency waves it is also called a waveguide. This conducting material is
sandwiched between two layers of the ground plane which are usually shorted to provide EMI immunity.

Microstripline
A microstripline is a type of transmission media used to carry high-frequency signals, commonly found in microwave
and radio frequency circuits. It consists of a flat, narrow conducting strip (usually made of metal) placed on top of a
dielectric material (an insulating layer), with a metal ground plane on the other side.

2. Unguided Media

It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media . No physical medium is required for the
transmission of electromagnetic signals.

Features of Unguided Media

 The signal is broadcasted through air

 Less Secure

 Used for larger distances

There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:

Radio Waves

Radio waves are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and receiving antennas need not
be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.

Types of Radio Waves:

 Short Wave: AM Radio

 VHF (Very High Frequency): FM Radio/TV

 UHF (Ultra High Frequency): TV

Radio Wave Components:

 Transmitter: Responsible for encoding the signal.

 Receiver: Responsible for decoding the signal.

Radiowave

Microwaves

It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly aligned with each other.
The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz –
300GHz. Micro waves are majorly used for mobile phone communication and television distribution.

Advanges:

 Cheaper than using cables

  Freedom from land acquisition

 Ease of communication in difficult terrains

 Communication over oceans

Disadvanges:

 Insecure communication.

 Out-of-phase signal.

 Susceptible to weather conditions.

 Bandwidth is limited.

 High cost of design, implementation, and maintenance.

Infrared

Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate through obstacles. This
prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse,
keyboard, printer, etc.

Difference Between Radio Waves, Micro Waves, and Infrared Waves

Basis Radiowave Microwave Infrared wave

These are
These are omni-directional in These are unidirectional in
unidirectional in
nature. nature.
Direction nature.

At low frequency, they can At low frequency, they can

They cannot penetrate
penetrate through solid objects penetrate through solid objects
through any solid
and walls but high frequency and walls. at high frequency,
object and walls.
Penetration they bounce off the obstacle. they cannot penetrate.

Frequency range: 1 GHz to 300 Frequency range: 300

Frequency range: 3 KHz to 1GHz.
Frequency range GHz. GHz to 400 GHz.

These offers high

These offers poor security. These offers medium security.
Security security.

Attenuation Attenuation is high. Attenuation is variable. Attenuation is low.

Some frequencies in the radio- Some frequencies in the There is no need of

Government waves require government microwaves require government government license to
License license to use these. license to use these. use these waves.

Setup and usage Cost is

Setup and usage Cost is high. Usage Cost is very less.
Usage Cost moderate.

These are not used in

These are used in long distance These are used in long distance
long distance
communication. communication.
Communication communication.

Causes of Transmission Impairment

Transmission impairment refers to the loss or distortion of signals during data transmission, leading to errors or
reduced quality in communication. Common causes include signal distortion, attenuation, and noise all of which can
affect the clarity and reliability of transmitted data.
Transmission Impairment

 Attenuation: It means loss of energy. The strength of signal decreases with increasing distance which causes
loss of energy in overcoming resistance of medium. This is also known as attenuated signal. Amplifiers are
used to amplify the attenuated signal which gives the original signal back and compensate for this loss.

 Distortion: It means changes in the form or shape of the signal. This is generally seen in composite signals
made up with different frequencies. Each frequency component has its own propagation speed travelling
through a medium. And thats why it delay in arriving at the final destination Every component arrive at
different time which leads to distortion. Therefore, they have different phases at receiver end from what they
had at senders end.

 Noise: The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is called noise. There are several
types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk noise, thermal noise and impulse noise which may corrupt the
signal.

Factors Considered for Designing the Transmission Media

 Bandwidth: Assuming all other conditions remain constant, the greater a medium’s bandwidth, the faster a
signal’s data transmission rate.

 Transmission Impairment : Transmission Impairment occurs when the received signal differs from the
transmitted signal. Signal quality will be impacted as a result of transmission impairment.

 Interference: Interference is defined as the process of disturbing a signal as it travels over a communication
medium with the addition of an undesired signal.

Applications of Transmission Media in Computer Networks

Transmission media in computer networks are used to connect devices and transfer data. Here are some common
applications:

Transmission Media Application

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Local Area Networks (LAN), telephones

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Industrial networks, environments with high interference

Optical Fiber Cable Long-distance communication, internet backbones

Transmission Media Application

Coaxial Cable Cable TV, broadband internet, CCTV

Stripline Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs), microwave circuits

Microstripline Antennas, satellite communication, RF circuits

Radio Wireless communication, AM/FM radio, mobile phones

Infrared Remote controls, short-range communication

Microwave Satellite communication, radar, long-distance links

Conclusion

In conclusion, transmission media are fundamental ways for data transmission in networks, and they are classified as
directed (wired) or unguided (wireless). Guided media, such as twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, and optical fibers,
provide secure, fast, and dependable data transmission over short distances. Unguided media, such as radio waves,
microwaves, and infrared, provide wireless communication at various distances, with security and attenuation trade-
offs. The choice of transmission media is determined by bandwidth, transmission impairment, and interference.

Frequently Asked Questions on Transmission Media – FAQ’s

What are three options for signal transmission on a network?

There are three common ways to send signals over a network:

1. Electrical signals: Data is sent as electrical pulses through copper wires.

2. Optical signals: Electrical signals are changed into light pulses to carry data.

3. Wireless signals: Data is sent through the air using infrared, microwaves, or radio waves.

Which transmission medium transmits data fastest?

Fiber optic cables transmit data fastest.

What refers to the various types of media used to carry the signal between computers?

Transmission media are the physical ways data travels from one device to another in a network. These paths can be
either wired, like cables, or wireless, using signals through the air.

Why is optical fiber cable preferred for long-distance communication?

Optical fibre connections use light to transmit data, providing high bandwidth, minimal signal attenuation, immunity
to electromagnetic interference. These characteristics make them excellent for long-distance and high-volume data
transmission.
Understanding Network Models: OSI and TCP/IP
Introduction
In the world of networking, two models play a vital role in describing the communication and
data transfer processes between hosts: the OSI/ISO model and the TCP/IP model. These
models provide a framework for understanding how information flows through a network and
enable efficient data transmission. In this article, we will explore the fundamental concepts of
these models and their significance in networking.

The OSI Model

The OSI model, also known as the OSI/ISO layer model, serves as a reference model to
describe and define communication between systems. It consists of seven individual layers,
each with its defined set of tasks. The term “OSI” refers to the Open System Interconnection
model, which was published by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO). While often referred to as the ISO/OSI
layer model, it provides a comprehensive understanding of network communication.
The TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a generic term encompassing a
suite of network protocols responsible for exchanging and transporting data packets over the
Internet. TCP/IP is the foundation of the internet, providing reliable and efficient
communication. It is important to note that TCP/IP refers not only to the TCP and IP protocols
but encompasses an entire family of protocols. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) and
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) are part of this protocol family, enabling various network
functionalities.
Comparing OSI/ISO and TCP/IP
While both models are instrumental in understanding network communication, they serve
different purposes. TCP/IP primarily enables hosts to connect to the internet, utilizing the
Transmission Control Protocol for application-level data transmission. It provides flexibility in
adhering to communication rules, as long as the general principles are followed. On the other
hand, the OSI model acts as a gateway between the network and end users, offering a
comprehensive reference model with strict protocols and limitations.
Packet Transfers
In a layered system, devices within each layer exchange data in a specific format known as a
Protocol Data Unit (PDU). For instance, when we browse a website on a computer, the data is
passed through different layers, with each layer performing its designated functions. The PDUs
are then transferred through the physical network layer to the intended destination, where
they are processed and utilized by the receiving software. This encapsulation and
decapsulation process ensures the reliable and efficient transmission of data.
The Importance for Pentesters
For pentesters, understanding both the OSI and TCP/IP models is crucial. TCP/IP allows for a
quick grasp of the overall connection establishment, while the OSI model provides a detailed
breakdown of the network communication process. Pentesters can leverage this knowledge to
analyze network traffic, identify vulnerabilities, and assess security risks. Familiarity with these
models is essential for effective network penetration testing.
Conclusion
The OSI/ISO and TCP/IP models serve as fundamental frameworks for understanding network
communication and data transfer. While the OSI model provides a comprehensive reference
for communication between systems, TCP/IP forms the backbone of the internet. Pentesters
can utilize their knowledge of these models to analyze network traffic and enhance security
measures. By delving into the intricacies of these models, professionals can gain a deeper
understanding of how data flows through networks and develop more effective strategies for
securing and optimizing network communication.

internet of things (IoT)

By
  Kinza Yasar, Technical Writer

 Alexander S. Gillis, Technical Writer and Editor

What is the internet of things (IoT)?

The internet of things, or IoT, is a network of interrelated devices that connect and exchange data with other IoT devices
and the cloud. IoT devices are typically embedded with technology such as sensors and software and can include
mechanical and digital machines and consumer objects.

These devices encompass everything from everyday household items to complex industrial tools. Increasingly,
organizations in a variety of industries are using IoT to operate more efficiently, deliver enhanced customer service,
improve decision-making and increase the value of the business.

With IoT, data is transferable over a network without requiring human-to-human or human-to-computer interactions.

A thing in the internet of things can be a person with a heart monitor implant, a farm animal with a biochip transponder,
an automobile that has built-in sensors to alert the driver when tire pressure is low, or any other natural or man-made
object that can be assigned an Internet Protocol address and can transfer data over a network.

How does IoT work?

IoT systems function by gathering data from sensors embedded in IoT devices, which is then transmitted through an IoT
gateway for analysis by an application or back-end system.

This article is part of

Ultimate IoT implementation guide for businesses

 Which also includes:

 7 top IoT trends to watch in 2025 and beyond

 AI and IoT: How do the internet of things and AI work together?

 Top 12 most commonly used IoT protocols and standards

Download1

Download this entire guide for FREE now!

 An IoT system collects
data from sensors installed in IoT devices and transfers that data through an IoT gateway so it can be analyzed by an
application or back-end system.

The following four elements are incorporated into an IoT ecosystem for it to function:

Sensors or devices

An IoT ecosystem consists of web-enabled smart devices that use embedded systems, such as processors, sensors and
communication hardware to collect, send and act on data acquired from their environments.

Connectivity

IoT devices can communicate with one another through a network over the internet. These devices share sensor data by
connecting to an IoT gateway, which acts as a central hub where IoT devices can send data. Before the data is shared, it
can also be sent to an edge device where it is analyzed locally.

Data analysis

Only the relevant data is used to identify patterns, offer recommendations and identify potential issues before they
escalate. Analyzing data locally reduces the volume of data sent to the cloud, which minimizes bandwidth consumption.

Sometimes, these devices communicate with other related devices and act on the information they get from one
another. The devices do most of the work without human intervention, although people can interact with the devices.
For example, they can set them up, give them instructions or access the data. The connectivity, networking and
communication protocols used with these web-enabled devices largely depend on the specific IoT applications
deployed.

IoT can also use artificial intelligence and machine learning to make data collection processes easier and more dynamic.

Graphical user interface

A graphical user interface (UI) is typically used to manage IoT devices. For example, a website or a mobile app can be
used as an UI to manage, control and register smart devices.
 Consumer, enterprise and
industrial IoT devices include smart TVs and smart sensors outfitted for conference rooms and assembly line machines.

Why is IoT important?

IoT helps people live and work smarter. Consumers, for example, can use IoT-embedded devices -- such as cars,
smartwatches or thermostats -- to improve their lives. For example, when a person arrives home, their car could
communicate with the garage to open the door; their thermostat could adjust to a preset temperature; and their
lighting could be set to a lower intensity and color.

In addition to offering smart devices to automate homes, IoT is essential to business. It provides organizations with a
real-time look into how their systems work, delivering insights into everything from the performance of machines
to supply chain and logistics operations.

IoT enables machines to complete tedious tasks without human intervention. Companies can automate processes,
reduce labor costs, cut down on waste and improve service delivery. IoT helps make it less expensive to manufacture
and deliver goods and offers transparency into customer transactions.

IoT continues to advance as more businesses realize the potential of connected devices to keep them competitive.

What are the benefits of IoT to organizations

IoT offers several benefits to organizations. It encourages companies to rethink how they approach their businesses and
gives them the tools to improve their business strategies.

Some benefits of IoT are industry-specific while others are applicable across multiple industries. Generally, industrial
internet of things (IIoT) is most abundant in manufacturing, transportation and utility organizations that use sensors and
other IoT devices; however, it also has use cases for organizations within the agriculture, infrastructure and home
automation industries, leading some organizations toward digital transformation.

Examples of consumer and enterprise IoT applications

Common example of IoT applications include the following:

 Agriculture. IoT can benefit farmers by making their jobs easier. For example, sensors can collect data on
rainfall, humidity, temperature and soil content and IoT can help automate farming techniques. Additionally, IoT
devices can be used to oversee the health of livestock, monitor equipment and streamline supply chain
management.

 Construction. IoT can help monitor operations surrounding infrastructure. Sensors, for example, can monitor
events or changes within structural buildings, bridges and other infrastructure that could potentially
compromise safety. This provides benefits such as improved incident management and response, reduced
operations costs and improved service quality.

 Home automation. A home automation business can use IoT to monitor and manipulate mechanical and
electrical systems in a building. Homeowners can also remotely control and automate their home environment
by using IoT devices, including smart thermostats, lighting systems, security cameras and voice assistants such as
Alexa and Siri for increased comfort and energy efficiency.

 Smart buildings and cities. Smart cities can help citizens reduce waste and energy consumption. They can
reduce energy costs using sensors that detect how many occupants are in a room and turning the air conditioner
on if sensors detect a conference room is full or lowering the heat if everyone in the office has gone home.

 Urban consumption systems. IoT technologies can also be used to monitor and manage urban consumption
such as traffic lights, parking meters, waste management systems and public transportation networks.

 Healthcare monitoring. IoT devices such as remote patient monitoring systems, smart medical devices and
medication trackers let healthcare providers monitor patients' health status, manage chronic conditions and
provide timely interventions. IoT gives providers the ability to monitor patients more closely by analyzing the
generated data. Hospitals also often use IoT systems to complete tasks such as inventory management for both
pharmaceuticals and medical instruments.

 Retail. IoT sensors and beacons in retail stores can track customer movement, analyze shopping patterns,
manage inventory levels and personalize marketing messages. This enhances the shopping experience for
customers and optimizes store operations.

 Transportation. IoT devices help the transportation industry by monitoring vehicle performance, optimizing
routes and tracking shipments. For example, the fuel efficiency of connected cars can be monitored to reduce
fuel costs and improve sustainability. IoT devices can also monitor the condition of cargo so it reaches its
destination in optimal condition.

 Wearable devices. Wearable devices with sensors and software can collect and analyze user data, sending
messages to other technologies about the users to make their lives easier and more comfortable. Wearable
devices are also used for public safety -- for example, by improving first responders' response times during
emergencies by providing optimized routes to a location or by tracking construction workers' or firefighters' vital
signs at life-threatening sites.

 Energy management. IoT-enabled smart grids, smart meters and energy management systems let utility
companies and consumers monitor and optimize energy usage, manage demand-response programs and
integrate renewable energy sources more efficiently. For example, the data collected by the IoT devices and
sensors helps identify patterns, peak usage times and areas of inefficiency.
 IIoT infrastructure
components include the IoT or edge gateway, sensors, actuators and edge nodes.

What are the pros and cons of IoT?

Some of the advantages of IoT devices include the following:

 Easy accessibility. IoT provides easy access to information from anywhere at any time on any device. For
example, IoT enhances the accessibility of information by providing real-time data and insights, intuitive
interfaces and proactive alerts.

 Improves communication. IoT improves communication between connected electronic devices. It achieves this
by enabling efficient data exchange, extending network reach, conserving energy and prioritizing critical
communications. For example, if a motion sensor in a smart home ecosystem detects activity at the front door,
it triggers a communication alert with the smart lighting system to turn on the outdoor lights.

 Saves time and money. IoT enables the transfer of data packets over a connected network, which can save time
and money. Predictive maintenance in industrial settings is another good example of this. IoT sensors installed
on machinery continuously monitor parameters such as temperature, vibration and operating conditions in real-
time. Data gathered from these sensors is analyzed using machine learning algorithms to detect patterns that
show potential flaws or degradation in performance which helps in saving both time and money.

 Optimizes supply chain. IoT data can be used to optimize supply chain and inventory management processes,
enabling manufacturers to reduce costs and enhance customer satisfaction. By tracking goods and materials in
real-time, manufacturers can keep track of low stock, reduce excess inventory and streamline logistics
operations.

 Improves efficiency. IoT analyzes data at the edge, reducing the amount of data that needs to be sent to the
cloud. Edge computing enables physical devices to communicate more efficiently by processing data locally and
exchanging only relevant information with other devices or cloud services.

 Provides automation. IoT automates tasks to improve the quality of a business's services and reduces the need
for human intervention. For example, in agriculture, IoT-enabled irrigation systems can automatically adjust
watering schedules based on soil moisture levels, weather forecasts and crop requirements.
  Improves customer experience. IoT enables the development of personalized products and services tailored to
individual preferences and needs. Smart home devices, wearable technology and personalized
recommendations in retail are examples of how IoT enhances the customer experience.

 Provides flexibility. IoT options can be scaled according to changing needs of a business. Whether it's adding
new devices, expanding operations or integrating with existing systems, IoT provides the flexibility to scale and
evolve with business requirements.

 Enables better business decisions. IoT generates vast amounts of data that can be analyzed to gain valuable
insights into operations, consumer behavior and market trends. By harnessing and analyzing big data, businesses
can make data-driven decisions, optimize processes and identify new revenue opportunities.

 Offers environmental sustainability. IoT enables efficient use of resources and reduces the negative
environmental effects through initiatives such as smart energy management, waste reduction and sustainable
agriculture practices. By optimizing resource utilization and minimizing waste, IoT contributes to environmental
sustainability.

Along with its various advantages, IoT comes with some potential drawbacks including the following:

 Security concerns. IoT increases the attack surface as the number of connected devices grows. As more
information is shared between devices, the potential for a hacker to steal confidential information increases.

 Complex management. Device management becomes more challenging as the number of IoT devices increases.
Organizations might eventually have to deal with a massive number of IoT devices, and collecting and managing
the data from all those devices could be difficult.

 Corruption of connected devices. IoT has the potential to corrupt other devices connected to the internet if
there's a bug in the system.

 Compatibility issues. IoT increases compatibility issues between devices, as there's no international standard of
compatibility for IoT, which causes platform fragmentation. Platform fragmentation refers to the proliferation of
diverse and incompatible IoT platforms, protocols and standards, which can hinder interoperability and
integration between different devices and systems. For example, many IoT vendors develop proprietary
platforms and protocols that are tailored to their specific products and ecosystems. This results in a lack of
standardization and interoperability, as devices from different manufacturers use incompatible technologies.

 Job displacements. Due to decreased human intervention in various tasks, IoT can result in job displacement for
low-skilled workers. For example, automated inventory tasks and the use of ATMs have reduced the need for
manual labor, leading to job losses and job insecurity for those currently employed in such roles.

 Regulatory and legal hurdles. With the proliferation of IoT devices, legal hurdles are also increasing. Businesses
must adhere to diverse data protection, privacy and cybersecurity regulations, which can differ from one
country to another.
 IoT security best practices
also ensure IoT privacy.

IoT standards and frameworks

Notable organizations involved in the development of IoT standards include the following:

 International Electrotechnical Commission.

 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).

 Industrial Internet Consortium.

 Open Connectivity Foundation.

 Thread Group.

 Connectivity Standards Alliance.

Some examples of IoT standards include the following:

 IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks (6LoWPAN) is an open standard defined by the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF). This standard lets any low-power radio communicate with the internet, including
804.15.4, Bluetooth Low Energy and Z-Wave for home automation. In addition to home automation, this
standard is also used in industrial monitoring and agriculture.

 Zigbee is a low-power, low-data rate wireless network used mainly in home and industrial settings. ZigBee is
based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard. The ZigBee Alliance created Dotdot, the universal language for IoT that
enables smart objects to work securely on any network and understand each other.

 Data Distribution Service (DDS) was developed by the Object Management Group and is an IIoT standard for
real-time, scalable and high-performance machine-to-machine (M2M) communication.

IoT standards often use specific protocols for device communication. A chosen protocol dictates how IoT device data is
transmitted and received. Some example IoT protocols include the following:

 Constrained Application Protocol. CoAP is a protocol designed by the IETF that specifies how low-power,
compute-constrained devices can operate in IoT.

 Advanced Message Queuing Protocol. The AMQP is an open source published standard for asynchronous
messaging by wire. AMQP enables encrypted and interoperable messaging between organizations and
applications. The protocol is used in client-server messaging and in IoT device management.
  Long-Range Wide Area Network (LoRaWAN). This protocol for WANs is designed to support huge IoT networks,
such as smart cities, with millions of low-power devices.

 MQ Telemetry Transport. MQTT is a lightweight protocol used for remote control and remote monitoring
applications. It's suitable for devices with limited resources.

There are several steps to

IoT device management, including provisioning, authentication and configuration.

IoT frameworks include the following:

 Amazon Web Services (AWS) IoT is a cloud computing platform for IoT released by Amazon. This framework is
designed to enable smart devices to easily connect and securely interact with the AWS cloud and other
connected devices.

 Arm Mbed IoT is an open source platform to develop apps for IoT based on Arm microcontrollers. The goal of
this IoT platform is to provide a scalable, connected and secure environment for IoT devices by integrating Mbed
tools and services.

 Microsoft Azure IoT Suite platform is a set of services that let users interact with and receive data from their IoT
devices, as well as perform various operations over data -- such as multidimensional analysis, transformation
and aggregation -- and visualize those operations in a way that's suitable for business.

IoT security and privacy issues

IoT connects billions of devices to the internet and involves the use of billions of data points, all of which must be
secured. Due to its expanded attack surface, IoT security and IoT privacy are cited as major concerns.

One of the most notorious IoT attacks happened in 2016. The Mirai botnet infiltrated domain name server provider Dyn,
resulting in major system outages for an extended period of time. Attackers gained access to the network by exploiting
poorly secured IoT devices. This is one of the largest distributed denial-of-service attacks ever seen and Mirai is still
being developed today.

Because IoT devices are closely connected, a hacker can exploit one vulnerability to manipulate all the data, rendering it
unusable. Manufacturers that don't update their devices regularly -- or at all -- leave them vulnerable to cybercriminals.
Additionally, connected devices often ask users to input their personal information, including name, age, address, phone
number and even social media accounts -- information that's invaluable to hackers.

Hackers aren't the only threat to IoT; privacy is another major concern. For example, companies that make and
distribute consumer IoT devices could use those devices to obtain and sell user personal data. To ensure the safe and
responsible use of IoT devices, organizations must provide education and awareness about security systems and best
practices.

What technologies have made IoT possible?

Many technological advancements have accelerated IoT. A few key advancements include the following:
  Sensors and actuators. Environmental changes such as temperature, humidity, light, motion or pressure is
detected by sensors, while actuators cause physical changes such as opening a valve or turning on a motor.

 Connectivity and network protocols. The availability of a host of network protocols for the internet has made it
easy to connect sensors to the cloud and to other devices, facilitating efficient data transfer. IoT employs a range
of connectivity technologies, including WiFi, Bluetooth, cellular, Zigbee and LoRaWAN.

 Low cost and low power sensor technology. More manufacturers now have access to IoT technology due to the
availability of dependable and reasonably priced sensors. These sensors make it possible to gather data from the
real world, which is then transferred to and analyzed in the digital domain.

 AI and NLP. Due to the developments in neural networks, IoT devices now feature natural language processing,
which makes them appealing and useful for a wide range of uses, such as conversational AI assistants and digital
personal assistants.

 Microservices and wireless technologies. IoT has evolved from the convergence of wireless technologies,
microelectromechanical systems and microservices. All these advancements have facilitated seamless
connectivity and data exchange between devices and the cloud.

What is the history and future outlook of IoT?

Kevin Ashton, co-founder of the Auto-ID Center at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), first mentioned the
internet of things in a presentation he made in 1999 to Procter & Gamble (P&G). Wanting to bring radio frequency ID to
the attention of P&G's senior management, Ashton called his presentation "Internet of Things" to incorporate the cool
new trend of 1999: the internet. MIT professor Neil Gershenfeld's book, When Things Start to Think, also appeared in
1999. Although the book didn't use the exact term, it provided a clear vision of where IoT was headed.

IoT has evolved from the convergence of wireless technologies, microelectromechanical systems, microservices and the
internet. This convergence helped tear down the silos between operational technology and information technology,
enabling unstructured machine-generated data to be analyzed for insights to drive improvements.

Although Ashton was the first to mention IoT, the idea of connected devices has been around since the 1970s, under the
monikers embedded internet and pervasive computing.

The first internet appliance, for example, was a Coke machine at Carnegie Mellon University in the early 1980s. Using the
web, programmers could check the status of the machine and determine whether there would be a cold drink awaiting
them, should they decide to make the trip to the machine.

IoT evolved from M2M communication with machines connecting via a network without human interaction. M2M refers
to connecting a device to the cloud, managing it and collecting data.

Taking M2M to the next level, IoT is a sensor network of billions of smart devices that connect people, computer
systems and other applications to collect and share data. As its foundation, M2M offers the connectivity that enables
IoT.

IoT is also a natural extension of supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA), a category of software application
programs for process control, the gathering of data in real time from remote locations to control equipment and
conditions. SCADA systems include hardware and software components. The hardware gathers and feeds data into a
desktop computer that has SCADA software installed, where it's then processed and presented in a timely manner. Late-
generation SCADA systems developed into first-generation IoT systems.

The concept of the IoT ecosystem, however, didn't come into its own until 2010 when, in part, the government of China
said it would make IoT a strategic priority in its five-year plan.

The following are some key milestones and current and future outlooks of IoT:
  Between 2010 and 2019, IoT evolved with broader consumer use. People increasingly used internet-connected
devices, such as smartphones and smart TVs, which were all connected to one network and could communicate
with each other.

 In 2020, the number of IoT devices continued to grow along with cellular IoT, which worked on 2G, 3G, 4G
and 5G, as well as LoRaWAN and long-term evolution (LTE-M ) for machines.

 In 2023, billions of internet-connected devices collected and shared data for consumer and industry use. IoT has
been an important aspect in the creation of digital twins -- which is a virtual representation of a real-world entity
or process. The physical connections between the entity and its twin are most often IoT sensors, and a well-
configured IoT implementation is often a prerequisite for digital twins.

 According to Forbes, in 2024, the IoT healthcare market is predicted to grow to around $150 billion with an
expected valuation of $289 billion by 2028. Likewise, IoT in healthcare has expanded its use of wearables and in-
home sensors that can remotely monitor a patient's health.

 By 2035, autonomous cars are expected to yield revenue between $300 billion and $400 billion. As IoT advances,
there's a move from a single-device model to a modular, microservices approach. Connectivity technologies such
as 5G, Wi-Fi 6, LPWAN and satellites are enhancing IoT adoption, while wearable devices such as smartwatches,
earbuds and AR/VR headsets are increasingly evolving.

Learn about more current and potential future trends in IoT.

This was last updated in June 2024

Continue Reading About internet of things (IoT)

 How IoT helps environmental, social and governance goals

 IoT basics and fundamentals: A guide for beginners

 An overview of IoT sensor types and challenges

 Top IoT applications and examples in business

 Ultimate IoT implementation guide for businesses

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Synthetic data is information that's artificially manufactured rather than generated by real-world
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