Generalized hypergeometric function

In mathematics, a generalized hypergeometric series is a power series in which the ratio of

successive coefficients indexed by n is a rational function of n. The series, if convergent, defines
a generalized hypergeometric function, which may then be defined over a wider domain of the
argument by analytic continuation. The generalized hypergeometric series is sometimes just
called the hypergeometric series, though this term also sometimes just refers to the Gaussian
hypergeometric series. Generalized hypergeometric functions include the (Gaussian)
hypergeometric function and the confluent hypergeometric function as special cases, which in
turn have many particular special functions as special cases, such as elementary functions,
Bessel functions, and the classical orthogonal polynomials.

Plot of the generalized

hypergeometric function pFq(a b z)
with a=(2,4,6,8) and b=(2,3,5,7,11) in
the complex plane from -2-2i to 2+2i
created with Mathematica 13.1
function ComplexPlot3D

Notation

A hypergeometric series is formally defined as a power series

in which the ratio of successive coefficients is a rational function of n. That is,

where A(n) and B(n) are polynomials in n.

For example, in the case of the series for the exponential function,
we have:

So this satisfies the definition with A(n) = 1 and B(n) = n + 1.

It is customary to factor out the leading term, so β0 is assumed to be 1. The polynomials can be
factored into linear factors of the form (aj + n) and (bk + n) respectively, where the aj and bk are
complex numbers.

For historical reasons, it is assumed that (1 + n) is a factor of B. If this is not already the case
then both A and B can be multiplied by this factor; the factor cancels so the terms are unchanged
and there is no loss of generality.

The ratio between consecutive coefficients now has the form

where c and d are the leading coefficients of A and B. The series then has the form

or, by scaling z by the appropriate factor and rearranging,

This has the form of an exponential generating function. This series is usually denoted by

or

Using the rising factorial or Pochhammer symbol

this can be written

(Note that this use of the Pochhammer symbol is not standard; however it is the standard usage
in this context.)

Terminology

When all the terms of the series are defined and it has a non-zero radius of convergence, then the
series defines an analytic function. Such a function, and its analytic continuations, is called the
hypergeometric function.

The case when the radius of convergence is 0 yields many interesting series in mathematics, for
example the incomplete gamma function has the asymptotic expansion

which could be written za−1e−z 2F0(1−a,1;;−z−1). However, the use of the term hypergeometric
series is usually restricted to the case where the series defines an actual analytic function.

The ordinary hypergeometric series should not be confused with the basic hypergeometric
series, which, despite its name, is a rather more complicated and recondite series. The "basic"
series is the q-analog of the ordinary hypergeometric series. There are several such
generalizations of the ordinary hypergeometric series, including the ones coming from zonal
spherical functions on Riemannian symmetric spaces.

The series without the factor of n! in the denominator (summed over all integers n, including
negative) is called the bilateral hypergeometric series.

Convergence conditions

There are certain values of the aj and bk for which the numerator or the denominator of the
coefficients is 0.

If any aj is a non-positive integer (0, −1, −2, etc.) then the series only has a finite number of
terms and is, in fact, a polynomial of degree −aj.

If any bk is a non-positive integer (excepting the previous case with bk < aj) then the
denominators become 0 and the series is undefined.

Excluding these cases, the ratio test can be applied to determine the radius of convergence.

If p < q + 1 then the ratio of coefficients tends to zero. This implies that the series converges
for any finite value of z and thus defines an entire function of z. An example is the power series
for the exponential function.
 If p = q + 1 then the ratio of coefficients tends to one. This implies that the series converges for
|z| < 1 and diverges for |z| > 1. Whether it converges for |z| = 1 is more difficult to determine.
Analytic continuation can be employed for larger values of z.

If p > q + 1 then the ratio of coefficients grows without bound. This implies that, besides z = 0,
the series diverges. This is then a divergent or asymptotic series, or it can be interpreted as a
symbolic shorthand for a differential equation that the sum satisfies formally.

The question of convergence for p=q+1 when z is on the unit circle is more difficult. It can be
shown that the series converges absolutely at z = 1 if

Further, if p=q+1, and z is real, then the following convergence result holds

Quigley et al. (2013):

Basic properties

It is immediate from the definition that the order of the parameters aj, or the order of the
parameters bk can be changed without changing the value of the function. Also, if any of the
parameters aj is equal to any of the parameters bk, then the matching parameters can be
"cancelled out", with certain exceptions when the parameters are non-positive integers. For
example,

This cancelling is a special case of a reduction formula that may be applied whenever a
parameter on the top row differs from one on the bottom row by a non-negative integer.[1][2]

Euler's integral transform

The following basic identity is very useful as it relates the higher-order hypergeometric functions
in terms of integrals over the lower order ones[3]
Differentiation

The generalized hypergeometric function satisfies

and

Additionally,

Combining these gives a differential equation satisfied by w = pFq:

Contiguous function and related identities

Take the following operator:

From the differentiation formulas given above, the linear space spanned by

contains each of

Since the space has dimension 2, any three of these p+q+2 functions are linearly dependent: [4][5]
These dependencies can be written out to generate a large number of identities involving .

For example, in the simplest non-trivial case,

So

This, and other important examples,

can be used to generate continued fraction expressions known as Gauss's continued fraction.

Similarly, by applying the differentiation formulas twice, there are such functions

contained in

which has dimension three so any four are linearly dependent. This generates more identities
and the process can be continued. The identities thus generated can be combined with each
other to produce new ones in a different way.

A function obtained by adding ±1 to exactly one of the parameters aj, bk in

is called contiguous to
Using the technique outlined above, an identity relating and its two contiguous
functions can be given, six identities relating and any two of its four contiguous
functions, and fifteen identities relating and any two of its six contiguous
functions have been found. (The first one was derived in the previous paragraph. The last fifteen
were given by Gauss in his 1812 paper.)

Identities

A number of other hypergeometric function identities were discovered in the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries. A 20th century contribution to the methodology of proving these identities is
the Egorychev method.

Saalschütz's theorem

Saalschütz's theorem[6] (Saalschütz 1890) is

For extension of this theorem, see a research paper by Rakha & Rathie.

Dixon's identity

Dixon's identity,[7] first proved by Dixon (1902), gives the sum of a well-poised 3F2 at 1:

For generalization of Dixon's identity, see a paper by Lavoie, et al.

Dougall's formula

Dougall's formula (Dougall 1907) gives the sum of a very well-poised series that is terminating
and 2-balanced.
Terminating means that m is a non-negative integer and 2-balanced means that

Many of the other formulas for special values of hypergeometric functions can be derived from
this as special or limiting cases.

Generalization of Kummer's transformations and identities for 2F2

Identity 1.

where

Identity 2.

which links Bessel functions to 2F2; this reduces to Kummer's second formula for b = 2a:

Identity 3.

Identity 4.

which is a finite sum if b-d is a non-negative integer.

Kummer's relation

Kummer's relation is
Clausen's formula

Clausen's formula

was used by de Branges to prove the Bieberbach conjecture.

Special cases

Many of the special functions in mathematics are special cases of the confluent hypergeometric
function or the hypergeometric function; see the corresponding articles for examples.

The series 0F0

As noted earlier, . The differential equation for this function is , which

has solutions where k is a constant.

The series 0F1

The functions of the form are called confluent hypergeometric limit functions and
are closely related to Bessel functions.

The relationship is:

The differential equation for this function is

or

When a is not a positive integer, the substitution

gives a linearly independent solution

so the general solution is

where k, l are constants. (If a is a positive integer, the independent solution is given by the
appropriate Bessel function of the second kind.)

A special case is:

The series 1F0

An important case is:

The differential equation for this function is

or

which has solutions

where k is a constant.

is the geometric series with ratio z and coefficient 1.

is also useful.

The series 1F1

The functions of the form are called confluent hypergeometric functions of the
first kind, also written . The incomplete gamma function is a special case.

The differential equation for this function is

or

When b is not a positive integer, the substitution

gives a linearly independent solution

so the general solution is

where k, l are constants.

When a is a non-positive integer, −n, is a polynomial. Up to constant factors,

these are the Laguerre polynomials. This implies Hermite polynomials can be expressed in terms
of 1F1 as well.

The series 1F2

Relations to other functions are known for certain parameter combinations only.

The function is the antiderivative of the cardinal sine. With modified

values of and , one obtains the antiderivative of .[8]

The Lommel function is

.[9]

The series 2F0

The confluent hypergeometric function of the second kind can be written as:[10]
The series 2F1

Historically, the most important are the functions of the form . These are
sometimes called Gauss's hypergeometric functions, classical standard hypergeometric or often
simply hypergeometric functions. The term Generalized hypergeometric function is used for the
functions pFq if there is risk of confusion. This function was first studied in detail by Carl Friedrich
Gauss, who explored the conditions for its convergence.

The differential equation for this function is

or

It is known as the hypergeometric differential equation. When c is not a positive integer, the
substitution

gives a linearly independent solution

so the general solution for |z| < 1 is

where k, l are constants. Different solutions can be derived for other values of z. In fact there are
24 solutions, known as the Kummer solutions, derivable using various identities, valid in different
regions of the complex plane.

When a is a non-positive integer, −n,

is a polynomial. Up to constant factors and scaling, these are the Jacobi polynomials. Several
other classes of orthogonal polynomials, up to constant factors, are special cases of Jacobi
polynomials, so these can be expressed using 2F1 as well. This includes Legendre polynomials
and Chebyshev polynomials.

A wide range of integrals of elementary functions can be expressed using the hypergeometric
function, e.g.:
The series 3F0

The Mott polynomials can be written as:[11]

The series 3F2

The function

is the dilogarithm[12]

The function

is a Hahn polynomial.

The series 4F3

The function

is a Wilson polynomial.

All roots of a quintic equation can be expressed in terms of radicals and the Bring radical, which
is the real solution to . The Bring radical can be written as:[13]

The series q+1Fq

The functions

for and are the Polylogarithm.

For each integer n≥2, the roots of the polynomial xn−x+t can be expressed as a sum of at most
N−1 hypergeometric functions of type n+1Fn, which can always be reduced by eliminating at least
one pair of a and b parameters.[13]

Generalizations

The generalized hypergeometric function is linked to the Meijer G-function and the MacRobert E-
function. Hypergeometric series were generalised to several variables, for example by Paul Emile
Appell and Joseph Kampé de Fériet; but a comparable general theory took long to emerge. Many
identities were found, some quite remarkable. A generalization, the q-series analogues, called the
basic hypergeometric series, were given by Eduard Heine in the late nineteenth century. Here, the
ratios considered of successive terms, instead of a rational function of n, are a rational function
of qn. Another generalization, the elliptic hypergeometric series, are those series where the ratio
of terms is an elliptic function (a doubly periodic meromorphic function) of n.

During the twentieth century this was a fruitful area of combinatorial mathematics, with
numerous connections to other fields. There are a number of new definitions of general
hypergeometric functions, by Aomoto, Israel Gelfand and others; and applications for example to
the combinatorics of arranging a number of hyperplanes in complex N-space (see arrangement
of hyperplanes).

Special hypergeometric functions occur as zonal spherical functions on Riemannian symmetric

spaces and semi-simple Lie groups. Their importance and role can be understood through the
following example: the hypergeometric series 2F1 has the Legendre polynomials as a special
case, and when considered in the form of spherical harmonics, these polynomials reflect, in a
certain sense, the symmetry properties of the two-sphere or, equivalently, the rotations given by
the Lie group SO(3). In tensor product decompositions of concrete representations of this group
Clebsch–Gordan coefficients are met, which can be written as 3F2 hypergeometric series.

Bilateral hypergeometric series are a generalization of hypergeometric functions where one

sums over all integers, not just the positive ones.

Fox–Wright functions are a generalization of generalized hypergeometric functions where the

Pochhammer symbols in the series expression are generalised to gamma functions of linear
expressions in the index n.

See also

Appell series

Humbert series

Kampé de Fériet function

Lauricella hypergeometric series

Notes

1. Prudnikov, A. P.; Brychkov, Yu. A.; Marichev, O. I. (1990). Integrals & Series Volume 3: More
Special Functions. Gordon and Breach. p. 439.

2. Karlsson, Per W. (1970). "Hypergeometric functions with integral parameter differences" (htt
ps://backend.orbit.dtu.dk/ws/files/3645014/Per.pdf) (PDF). J. Math. Phys. 12 (2): 270–
271. doi:10.1063/1.1665587 (https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1665587) .

3. (Slater 1966, Equation (4.1.2))

4. Gottschalk, J. E.; Maslen, E. N. (1988). "Reduction formulae for generalised hypergeometric

functions of one variable". J. Phys. A: Math. Gen. 21 (9): 1983–1998.
Bibcode:1988JPhA...21.1983G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988JPhA...21.1983
G) . doi:10.1088/0305-4470/21/9/015 (https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0305-4470%2F21%2F
9%2F015) .

5. Rainville, D. (1945). "The contiguous function relations for pFq with application to Bateman's
J and Rice's H" (https://doi.org/10.1090%2FS0002-9904-1945-08425-0) . Bull. Amer. Math.
Soc. 51 (10): 714–723. doi:10.1090/S0002-9904-1945-08425-0 (https://doi.org/10.1090%2
FS0002-9904-1945-08425-0) .

6. See (Slater 1966, Section 2.3.1) or (Bailey 1935, Section 2.2) for a proof.

7. See (Bailey 1935, Section 3.1) for a detailed proof. An alternative proof is in (Slater 1966,
Section 2.3.3)

8. Victor Nijimbere, Ural Math J vol 3(1) and https://arxiv.org/abs/1703.01907 (2017)

9. Watson's "Treatise on the Theory of Bessel functions" (1966), Section 10.7, Equation (10)

10. "DLMF: §13.6 Relations to Other Functions ‣ Kummer Functions ‣ Chapter 13 Confluent
Hypergeometric Functions" (https://dlmf.nist.gov/13.6) . dlmf.nist.gov.

11. See Erdélyi et al. 1955.

12. Candan, Cagatay. "A Simple Proof of F(1,1,1;2,2;x)=dilog(1-x)/x" (http://www.eee.metu.edu.t

r/~ccandan/pub_dir/hyper_rel.pdf) (PDF).

13. Glasser, M. Lawrence (1994). "The quadratic formula made hard: A less radical approach to
solving equations". arXiv:math.CA/9411224 (https://arxiv.org/abs/math.CA/9411224) .

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External links

The book "A = B" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060129095451/http://www.cis.upenn.edu/~

wilf/AeqB.html) , this book is freely downloadable from the internet.

MathWorld
Weisstein, Eric W. "Generalized Hypergeometric Function" (https://mathworld.wolfram.co
m/GeneralizedHypergeometricFunction.html) . MathWorld.

Weisstein, Eric W. "Hypergeometric Function" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Hypergeo

metricFunction.html) . MathWorld.

Weisstein, Eric W. "Confluent Hypergeometric Function of the First Kind" (https://mathworl

d.wolfram.com/ConfluentHypergeometricFunctionoftheFirstKind.html) . MathWorld.

Weisstein, Eric W. "Confluent Hypergeometric Limit Function" (https://mathworld.wolfram.

com/ConfluentHypergeometricLimitFunction.html) . MathWorld.