Q - Optimum Working Frequency (OWF)

- The frequency, which is being used mostly for a particular transmission and which has been
predicted to be used over a particular period of time, over a path, is termed as Optimum Working
Frequency (OWF).
Q - Skip zone:
- An area in radio communication beyond the skip distance where signals from a transmitter are not
reliably received due to the interaction of ground and skywave propagation, resulting in a gap in
coverage.
Q - skip distance
- Skip distance is the minimum distance between the earth’s surface and the radio signal’s
transmission point. For flat earth, skip distance is given as:
- Where,
- DSKIP: skip distance
- h: height at which reflection happens
- fMUF: maximum usable frequency
- fc: critical frequency
Propagation of Radio Waves
- Radio waves can propagate through air, water, various solid objects, vacuum and etc. The ability of
radio waves to propagate through various materials depends on the wavelength and the frequency
of the radio waves.
 Modes of Radio Wave Propagation
- There are three main modes of propagation of radio waves: ground wave, sky wave, and space
wave.
Q - Ground-Wave Propagation (Surface wave):
- A part of wave travels along or near the
surface of the earth
- Useful at low frequencies.
- Useful for communication at VLF,LF and
MF.
- Vertically polarized because lesser energy is
absorbed in it.
- As the wave travels, level becomes lesser
due to attenuation.

Q - Space-Wave or tropospheric wave

Propagation:
- The EM waves that propagates from the
transmitter to the receiver in the earth's
troposphere is called space or
tropospheric wave.
- Troposphere is the region of the
atmosphere with in 16 km above the
surface of the earth.
- Useful above the frequency of 30MHz.
- Used for FM, TV and radar applications.

Q - Sky Wave Propagation

Diagram

- When the transmitting

antenna sends an
electromagnetic wave
at an angle (equal to
or greater than the
critical angle), the
earth’s atmosphere’s
ionisation causes it to
be reflected back
toward the planet’s
surface. As a result,
the receiving antenna
is able to receive the signals that are reflected.

- It should be emphasised that for electromagnetic waves to reflect through the

air layer, the field must be sufficiently strong. This is because it’s likely that the
lower part of the ionosphere won’t reflect a high-frequency wave.
 Q - Types of Antenna
 An antenna is a specialized transducer that converts radio-frequency (RF) fields
into alternating current (AC) or vice-versa.
 An antenna is a device for sending or receiving electromagnetic waves

Q - First Null Beam Width

A - The angular span between the first pattern nulls adjacent to the main lobe,
is called as the First Null Beam Width.
Q – Reciprocity theorm
-An antenna can be used as both transmitting antenna and receiving antenna.
While using so, we may come across a question whether the properties of the
antenna might change as its operating mode is changed.
-Fortunately we need not worry a bout that
-The propaties of antenna being unchangeable is called as the property of
reciprocity
-Propelties under reciprocity are
o Equality of Directional patterns.
o Equality of Directivities.
o Equality of Effective lengths.
o Equality of Antenna impedances.
Q – Antenna Field Zone
A - When a high frequency current flows in an antenna, it generates a high
frequency electromagnetic field in the surrounding space. The detailed
structure of this field is usually quite complex and strongly depends on the
antenna shape. Close to the antenna, except in some simple academic cases,
there is very little we can say about the electric and magnetic fields without
involving complex numerical
calculations. But the good news
is that, as we move away from
the antenna, the field tends to
look like spherical waves. And
the greater the distance, the
better the resemblance with
spherical waves. Spherical
waves are very handy because
many calculations can be
performed with simple
equations.
:- So, as shown in the above
diagram, the surrounding space
of an antenna is usually
subdivided (classified) into three regions: the reactive near-field region, the
radiating near-field (Fresnell) region and the far-field (Fraunhofer) region. These
regions are useful to identify the field structure to know which simplification
can be applied, but there is no precise boundary nor abrupt change in the field
configuration.
Reactive near-field region
- It's a region immediately surrounding the antenna where the reactive field
predominates. The electric and magnetic fields are not necessarily in phase to
each other and the angular field distribution is highly dependent upon the
distance and direction from the antenna. Here, only numerical methods (or a lot
of calculus) can determine the structure of the field. Not all this field radiates; I
imagine this region like a volume the antenna needs to "prepare" the field that
will actually radiate.
Radiating near-field (Fresnel) region
- It's a region surrounding the reactive near-field region described above. Here,
the radiation fields predominates, the electric and magnetic fields are in phase,
but the angular field distribution is still dependent upon the distance from the
antenna. This means that almost all the field in this region radiates, but since
we are still close, the contribution of the different parts of the antenna make a
complex field structure. In other words, we are still too close to the antenna to
ignore its shape. Even if the field structure is simpler, it still requires numerical
methods (or a lot of calculus) to determine the exact structure.
Far-field (Fraunhofer) region
- It's a region surrounding the reactive and radiating near-field regions
described above. It extends to infinity and represents the vast majority of the
space the wave usually travels. Here, all the field radiates, the angular field
distribution is essentially independent of the distance from the antenna and
can be approximated with spherical wave-fronts. Since we are very far from the
antenna, its size and shape are not important anymore and we can
approximate it as a point source. The electric and magnetic fields are in phase,
perpendicular to each other and perpendicular also to the direction of
propagation. This greatly simplifies the math and allows using simple
calculators like the ones presented in these pages.
Q - gain of an antenna and antenna efficency relate g and d
-The gain (G) of an antenna and its efficiency (η) are related by the directivity (D) of the antenna.
-G=D×η
- where:
o G is the gain of the antenna, typically expressed in decibels (dB).
o D is the directivity of the antenna, also typically expressed in decibels.
o η is the efficiency of the antenna, usually expressed as a percentage or decimal value.
-This equation shows that the gain of an antenna is the product of its directivity and efficiency.
Directivity quantifies the antenna's ability to concentrate radiation in a particular direction,
while efficiency represents how effectively the antenna converts input power into radiated
energy.
Q - Beam Area
A - Beam area is the solid angle through which all the power radiated by the antenna
would stream if P (θ, Ø) maintained its maximum value over Ω A and was zero
elsewhere.
The radiated beam of the antenna comes out from an angle at the antenna, known as
solid angle, where the power radiation intensity is maximum. This solid beam
angle is termed as the beam area. It is represented by ΩA.
Power radiated=P(θ,Φ)ΩAwatts

Mathematical Expression

dΩ=sinθ dθ dΦ watts

 ΩA is the solid beam angle.

 θ is the function of angular
position.
 Φ is the function of radial
distance.

Q – Directivity
A - The ratio of maximum radiation intensity of the subject antenna to the radiation
intensity of an isotropic or reference antenna, radiating the same total power is called
the directivity.
 Broadside Array
- Radiation pattern: Max radiation perpendicular to array, nulls in end-fire directions.
- Directivity: Generally higher compared to end-fire arrays.
- Spacing: Typically half-wavelength or less between elements.
- Applications: Radar, phased arrays, communication systems.
- Beam Steering: Adjust phase/amplitude for steering perpendicular to array.
End-Fire Array
- Radiation pattern: Max radiation along array axis, nulls in broadside directions.
- Directivity: May be lower compared to broadside arrays.
- Spacing: Typically less than half-wavelength between elements.
- Applications: Point-to-point communication, radio astronomy, beamforming.
- Beam Steering: Adjust phase/amplitude for steering along array axis.t
Short Dipole:
- Radiation pattern: Bidirectional perpendicular to the dipole axis.
- Radiation resistance: Around 73 ohms.
- Directivity: Relatively low.
- Polarization: Linear, aligned with dipole axis.
- Bandwidth: Broad.
- Size: Shorter than a quarter-wavelength.
Small Loop Antenna:
- Radiation pattern: Doughnut-shaped perpendicular to the loop plane.
- Radiation resistance: Very low, often less than 1 ohm.
- Directivity: Can be higher than a short dipole, especially for small loops.
- Polarization: Linear, perpendicular to loop plane.
- Bandwidth: Can be narrow.
- Size: Typically smaller than a dipole, especially for higher frequencies.
short electric dipole (Hertzian)
- A short electric dipole, also known as a Hertzian dipole, is a theoretical antenna model used
to analyze the radiation behavior of an electrically short antenna. It's often employed as a
simplified representation of a practical antenna, particularly when the antenna's physical
size is much smaller than the wavelength of the electromagnetic waves it radiates or
receives.
-Necessary assumptions for the Hertzian dipole model include:
o Electrically Short: The length of the dipole (l) is much smaller than the wavelength (λ) of the
electromagnetic wave it radiates or receives. Mathematically, this is expressed as l≪λ.
o Uniform Current Distribution: The current along the dipole is assumed to be uniform,
meaning that the current magnitude and phase are constant along the entire length of the
dipole.
o Negligible Capacitive Effects: Capacitive effects, which arise due to the finite size of the
conductors and the electric field between them, are typically neglected in the Hertzian
dipole model.
o Negligible Radiation from Feeding Points: Radiation from the feeding points (where the
dipole is connected to a transmission line or source) is often assumed to be negligible
compared to the radiation from the dipole itself. This assumption simplifies the analysis by
focusing on the radiation properties of the dipole.