Griffith Graduate Attributes

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit

(D) Socially Responsible and Engaged in their

Communities
1. Ethical awareness (professional and personal) and academic
integrity

2. Capacity to apply disciplinary knowledge to solving real life

problems in relevant communities

3. Understanding of social and civic responsibilities, human rights

and sustainability

4. Understanding the value of further learning and professional

development
Table of contents

Purpose of this toolkit ......................................................................................... 3

Why your students need problem solving skills .................................................. 5

What employers, graduates and students say about problem solving

skills ................................................................................................................... 7

Teaching tips – How to develop your students’ problem solving skills ............... 9

Assessing students’ problem solving skills ....................................................... 19

Principles of effective problem solving ............................................................. 24

Where to go for help ......................................................................................... 26

Additional resources ......................................................................................... 27

Appendix A- Student handouts ......................................................................... 28

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit 2nd Edition

Authorial Attribution:
1st Edition: Crebert, G., Patrick, C.-J., & Cragnolini, V. (2004).
2nd Edition: Crebert, G., Patrick, C.-J., Cragnolini, V., Smith, C., Worsfold, K., & Webb, F. (2011). Problem
Solving Skills Toolkit. (Retrieved from the World Wide Web 4th April, 2011)
http://www.griffith.edu.au/gihe/resources-support/graduate-attributes
NOTE: The URLs listed in this toolkit were current at the time of retrieval. However, please note these may
change with time as websites update.

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 2

Purpose of this toolkit
The Toolkits developed by members of the Griffith Graduate Project are intended
primarily for academic staff. They offer an overview of some of the main issues related
to developing students’ graduate skills during their degree studies.

They draw heavily on existing literature and current practice in universities around the
world and include numerous references and links to useful web resources.

They are not comprehensive ‘guides’ or ‘how to’ booklets. Rather, they incorporate the
perspectives of academic staff, students, graduates and employers on the graduate
skills adopted by Griffith University in its Griffith Graduate Statement.
Griffith University. (2009). The Griffith Graduate Attributes. (Retrieved from the World Wide Web 1st
October 2010) http://www.griffith.edu.au/gihe/teaching-learning-curriculum/graduate-attributes

This Toolkit, Problem Solving Skills, focuses on how students can develop approaches
and strategies that will enable them to frame, set and solve problems in a variety of
learning contexts, inside and outside the university.

This toolkit, together with others in the series (as shown in the following table) can be
accessed via the Griffith Institute for Higher Education webpage, the URL of which is
listed on the following page.

GRADUATE
ATTRIBUTES DESCRIPTOR TOOLKIT
(1) Comprehensive knowledge and skills relating to their disciplines n/a
Knowledgeable
and Skilled in An interdisciplinary perspective Interdisciplinary Skills
their
Capacity to find, evaluate and use information Information Literacy
Disciplines
Ability to apply discipline/professional skills and knowledge in the Professional Skills
workplace
(2) Capacity to communicate effectively with others orally Oral Communication
Effective Capacity to communicate effectively with others in writing Written
Communicators Communication
and Team
Members Capacity to communicate effectively with others using ICTs, ICT and Other
multimedia, visual, musical and other forms appropriate to their Discipline-Related
disciplines Communication Skills
Capacity to interact and collaborate with others effectively, including Teamwork Skills
in teams, in the workplace, and in culturally or linguistically diverse
contexts.

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 3

 GRADUATE
ATTRIBUTES DESCRIPTOR TOOLKIT
(3) Ability to use knowledge and skills to devise solutions to unfamiliar Creativity and
Innovative and problems Innovation*
Creative, with Ability to analyse and critically evaluate arguments and evidence Critical Evaluation
Critical appropriate to their disciplines (e.g. collect analyse and interpret
Judgement data and information, generate and test hypotheses, synthesise and
organise information)
Knowledge of research methodologies in their disciplines and Research Skills
capacity to interpret findings
Ability to generate ideas/products/art Creativity and
works/methods/approaches/perspectives as appropriate to the Innovation*
discipline.
(4) Ethical awareness (professional and personal) and academic Ethical Behaviour and
Socially integrity Social Responsibility*
Responsible Capacity to apply disciplinary knowledge to solving real life Problem Solving
and Engaged in problems in relevant communities
their
Communities Understanding of social and civic responsibilities, human rights and Ethical Behaviour and
sustainability Social Responsibility*
Understanding the value of further learning and professional Further Learning
development
(5) Awareness of and respect for the values and knowledges of To be developed
Competent in Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander First Peoples
Culturally Respect, awareness, knowledge and skills to interact effectively in Global and
Diverse and culturally or linguistically diverse contexts International
International Perspective and
Environments Awareness*
A global and international perspective on their disciplines. Global and
International
Perspective and
Awareness*
NB: * Toolkit covers two sub-attributes. ** Toolkit development in progress

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 4

Why your students need problem
solving skills
The need for problem solving skills
Good problem solving skills empower students in their educational, professional, and
personal lives. Nationally and internationally, there is growing recognition that if
education is to produce skilled thinkers and innovators in a fast-changing global
economy, then problem solving skills are more important than ever. The ability to solve
problems in a range of learning contexts is essential for the development of knowledge,
understanding and performance. Requiring students to engage with complex,
authentic problem solving encourages them to use content knowledge in innovative
and creative ways and promotes deep understanding.

In a recent report, employers in small, medium and large enterprises identified the
following aspects of problem solving as crucial to success in their organisations:
• developing creative, innovative solutions;
• developing practical solutions;
• showing independence and initiative in identifying problems and solving them;
• solving problems in teams;
• applying a range of strategies to problem solving;
• using mathematics including budgeting and financial management to solve
problems;
• applying problem solving strategies across a range of areas;
• testing assumptions taking data and circumstances into account; and
• resolving customer concerns in relation to complex project issues.
Business Council of Australia and Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry. (2002). Employability
Skills for the Future. Canberra: AGPS. (Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 1 September, 2004)
http://www.dest.gov.au/ty/publications/employability_skills/final_report.pdf

Definition
Solving problems effectively requires students to identify, define and solve problems
using logic, as well as lateral and creative thinking. In the process, students arrive at a
deep understanding of the topic area and construct new knowledge and understanding
on which they are able to make decisions.

There is an important distinction between solving ‘exercises’ and solving ‘problems.’

The former usually have predetermined solutions, with “a well-defined route to the
solution and students must simply follow the formula” (Woods, 1985, p. 20). The latter,
however, are often fuzzy, open-ended, unstructured and ‘one-offs,’ with no predictable
outcomes:

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 5

“While these exercises make an important first step in helping students bridge the gap
between theory and application, they do not provide the depth and complexity
necessary to master problem solving skills... Students who train mostly in exercise
solving tend to develop a serious handicap. They rely heavily on solutions they have
seen before, rather than working from first principles. Thus a problem with brand new
context presents a formidable challenge to them.”

Mourtos, N.J., DeJong Okamoto, N., & Rhee, J. (2004). Defining, teaching, and assessing problem
solving skills. UICEE Annual Conference on Engineering Education, Mumbai, India, 9-13 February, 2004
(Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 1 September, 2004)
http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/nikos/fidp/pdf/UICEE%2004%20-%20Mumbai.pdf

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 6

What employers, graduates and
students say about problem solving
skills
Employers’ comments
“We look for a whole range of skills in our graduates. Basically, people who are able to
problem solve are important to us. We look for evidence of this in their work
experience, their technical performance as well as their academic results.”
(Employer of Griffith Accounting Graduates, 2001)

“Problem solving is a quality that really stood out with the Griffith graduate we have at
the moment. If he comes across a barrier he seeks advice, but doesn’t require
constant supervision or feedback. He has the initiative to go out and solve problems on
his own, which is great.”
(Employer of Griffith Microelectronic Engineering Graduate, 2003)

“We look for a whole range of skills in graduates we select. Academic results are
important but they’re not the only thing and not necessarily the first thing we look at.
We are interested in people who can think about a diverse range of problems and bring
a large amount of information down to important points. So people who are able to
problem solve are important to us. We look for evidence of this in their work
experience, and technically, as well as their academic results.”
(Employer of Griffith Science Graduates, 2001)

“As an employer, the most important thing I look for in graduates is good problem
solving skills. Within the university situation there is a lot of opportunity for problem
solving, through exams and assignments but those situations can be fairly contrived.
So there also needs to be opportunity for problem solving that is more open and
authentic, where the solution is not necessarily clear.”
(Employer of Griffith Microelectronic Engineering Graduates, 2002)

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Graduates’ comments
“I’ve learnt to make decisions about which pieces of information to retain and how to
use that information to formulate a good response to a problem, both at university and
in my part-time work.”
(Griffith Graduate, 2002)

“I find myself using information from one context in another, but changing the way I use
it. I do that a lot now, which is good because it has improved my problem solving
abilities.”
(Griffith Graduate, 2003)

Students’ comments
“I think that my study of literature has helped me become a better problem-solver. For
example, sympathetic imagination is a procedure we use to examine situations from
different points-of-view, such as the different perspectives each character in a novel
might have. It has helped me to develop the ability to examine problems from many
perspectives.”
(Griffith Student, 2004)

“Through my study of ethics, I have learned to identify core problems arising from the
issues being considered, examine the reasons why the problems exist and then seek
ways of responding to, dealing with or solving the problems.”
(Griffith Student, 2004)

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Teaching tips – How to develop your
students’ problem solving skills
Why teach students problem solving skills?
Students need to be able to transfer the ability to solve problems in one context into
new and different contexts and situations. Certain aspects of problem solving are
transferable, even if the particular problem to be solved is discipline- or context-
specific. Toohey lists these transferable aspects as:

“being able to analyse problems, to generate a range of possible solutions, to evaluate

the alternatives systematically before choosing and implementing the best.”
Toohey, S. (1999). Designing Courses for Higher Education. Buckingham: SRHE and Open University
Press, p. 138.

Preparing students for problem solving

Below are some aspects of problem solving to draw to students’ attention, especially in
group tasks:
• avoid focussing on solutions prematurely before the problem has been
thoroughly identified, defined and discussed;
• avoid a ‘quick fix’ approach that seeks to eliminate the problem as quickly as
possible – it is better to tolerate uncertainty, ambiguity and doubt;
• maintain an open mind and be willing to consider new ideas;
• be aware of individual biases when evaluating the facts of a case; and
• when working in a group, don’t misinterpret disagreement for dislike – view
different opinions as a positive consequence of the group’s diversity.

Designing problems for students to solve

Students develop problem solving skills through tasks which:
• have visible real-world value and use;
• are achievable;
• challenge them to display their grasp and use of skills that are important in their
domain;
• help them become aware of the range of other generic skills they are using
during the problem solving process (e.g., teamwork, communication, analytical
skills etc.); and
• are drawn from authentic activities that will help them learn to manage
complexity and diversity. Novice problem-solvers will need help and support in
this process.

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Defined problems have a clear structure, a clearly specified start and goal, and a set of
steps by which to move through the problem. An example of a defined problem is an
algebraic one, which has one unknown and only one right answer. Through the use of
algorithms (step-by-step procedures), the problem can be solved correctly, or at least
to the satisfaction of the discipline community. By contrast, real-world problems are
usually not clearly defined and have vague specifications, uncertain goals and no set
method of proceeding. Problem solving involves error and uncertainty and even if your
students are eventually successful, it is likely they will feel uncomfortable, or at risk, as
they come to terms with the problem solving processes they will encounter in the
workplace.
Adapted from:
Ryan, G. (1996). Solving problems and developing plans. In Nightingale, P., Te Wiata, I., Toohey, S.,
Ryan, G., Hughes, C., & Magin, D. Assessing Learning in Universities. Sydney: University of New South
Wales Press, p. 40.

Whatever form the problem takes and whatever approach is used to help students
develop their problem solving skills, it is important to recognise and make students
aware of the difference between solving exercises and solving problems. For example:

Exercise solving Problem solving

A process used to obtain the one and only right A process used to obtain a best answer to an unknown,
answer for the data given. subject to some constraints.
The situation is well defined. There is an explicit The situation is ill-defined. There may be some ambiguity
problem statement with all the necessary information in the information provided. Students must define the
(known and unknown). problem themselves. Assumptions may need to be made
about what is known and what needs to be found.

The student has encountered similar exercises in The context of the problem is brand new (ie. the student
books, in class or in homework. has not encountered this situation before).
Exercises often prescribe assumptions to be made, There is no explicit statement in the problem that tells the
principles to be used and sometimes they even give student what knowledge/technique/skill to use in order to
hints. solve the problem.
There is usually one approach that gives the right There may be more than one valid approach.
answer.
The usual method is to recall familiar solutions from The algorithm for solving the problem is unclear.
previously solved exercises.

Exercises involve one subject and in many cases only Integration of knowledge from a variety of subjects may be
one topic from this subject necessary to address all aspects of the problem.
Communication skills are not essential. Requires oral and/or written communication skills to
convey the essence of the problem and present the
results.

Mourtos, N.J., DeJong Okamoto, N., & Rhee, J. (2004). Defining, teaching, and assessing problem
solving skills. UICEE Annual Conference on Engineering Education, Mumbai, India, 9-13 February, 2004.
(Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 1 September, 2004)
http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/nikos/fidp/pdf/UICEE%2004%20-%20Mumbai.pdf

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 10

Structuring a problem solving task
Problem solving is an iterative, or cyclical process. The various steps in the process
outlined below need to be carried out and revisited from time to time.

Stages in the problem solving process

Identify the problem Either present a defined problem or ask students to identify their own.
Define the problem Ask students to represent the problem in their own words, defining the key
words, terms and concepts. Students should ask themselves questions such
as:
• What do I know already about this problem or question?
• What do I need to know to effectively address this problem or question?
• What resources can I access to determine a proposed solution or
hypothesis?
In this stage, a very focused problem statement is needed, though that
statement will go through a series of changes as new information is accessed
and processed.
Collect, evaluate and Determine what information will be relevant, useful and absolutely essential
organise information about for solving the problem; retrieve information from print, web and other
the problem sources; classify and categorise relevant information.
Create or select a strategy to Ask students to collect examples of similar problems and the strategies used
resolve the problem to solve them.
Allocate resources to solve Encourage students to develop timelines, action plans, progress reports and
the problem role allocations to ensure the problem is satisfactorily resolved.

Monitor the problem solving Ask students to submit regular progress reports or updates to ensure
process deadlines are met; require submission of reflective documents on process
issues as part of their assessment.
Evaluate the final solution Ask students to evaluate their final solution to the problem from multiple
perspectives (e.g., an accountant; a manager; a researcher; an end-user; an
advertising agent) to test its validity in a range of contexts.

Useful resources
Teaching Problem Solving
• University of Washington, Teaching and Learning. (2003). Common
Teaching Situations: Teaching Problem Solving. (Retrieved from the World
Wide Web on 1 September, 2004)
http://depts.washington.edu/cidrweb/TAHandbook/ProblemSolving.html

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Different approaches to the problem solving process

Problem-based learning
“Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is a system of teaching and learning where,
without prior preparation, small groups of students consider an unfamiliar situation,
problem or task. By exploring the nature of this unfamiliar situation, the students
share prior knowledge and experience. As they progress, they pose questions
which they need to explore in order to progress with the task.

After a period of individual study and other supportive educational experiences,

they discuss what they have learned and how this relates to the original situation.
Curriculum construct and assessments are designed and implemented, in order to
support this form of self-directed learning. Teachers adopt the roles of facilitators
and managers of the students' learning.”
University of Brighton. (n.d.). PBL Directory (Retrieved from the World Wide Web 22 December 2010)
http://feedback.bton.ac.uk/pbl/pbldirectory/whatisPBL.php

Problem-based learning (PBL) had its origins in medical practice in North America
in the 1960s, but is receiving increasing application in a number of other curriculum
areas. In some universities, the entire curriculum has moved to problem-based
learning, and many medical schools rely on it instead of the traditional curriculum.
In a problem-based learning curriculum, “the problems are the curricuilum” (Biggs,
1999, p. 207). PBL draws on real-world problems, not hypothetical case studies
with neat, convergent outcomes. It is in the process of struggling with actual
problems that students “acquire knowledge, content-related skills, self-
management skills, attitudes, know-how: in a word, professional wisdom” (Biggs,
1999, p. 207). Students in a course or program grounded in problem-based
learning will learn what they need to know in order to function and behave as a
practicing professional:

“An essential component of problem-based learning is that content is introduced in

the context of complex, real-world problems. In other words, the problem comes
first (Boud, 1985; Boud and Feletti, 1991; Woods, 1985). This contrasts with
prevalent teaching strategies where the concepts, presented in a lecture format,
precede ‘end-of-the-chapter’ problems. In problem-based learning, students
working in small groups must identify what they know, and more importantly, what
they don't know and must learn to solve a problem. These are prerequisites for
understanding the problem and making decisions required by the problem. The
nature of the problem precludes simple answers. Students must go beyond their
textbooks to pursue knowledge in other resources in between their group
meetings. The primary role of the instructor is to facilitate group process and
learning, not to provide easy answers.”
White, H. B. (1996). Dan Tries Problem-based Learning: A Case Study in L. Richlin (Ed), To Improve
the Academy Vol. 15 (pp. 75 - 91). Stillwater, OK: New Forums Press and the Professional and
Organizational Network in Higher Education. (Retrieved from the World Wide Web 22 December
2010) http://www.udel.edu/pbl/dancase3.html

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 Benefits of problem-based learning
Biggs (1999) summarises the benefits of problem-based learning to students in the
following way:

“The motivational context is pressing. In a typical medical programme, students in

their first week of the first year are faced with the responsibility of a real patient
with, say, a broken leg. The felt need to learn is strong.

Learners become active very quickly. They are assigned to small problem solving
groups and begin interacting with teachers, peers and clients (who present the
problem).

Learners build up a knowledge base of relevant material; they learn where to go to

check it and to seek out more. They are variously guided towards resource
materials, including films, videos, the library and the lecture room. Knowledge is
elaborated and consolidated. Students meet a tutor and discuss the case in
relation to the knowledge they have obtained.

The knowledge is applied: the case is treated.

The case is reviewed, and learners develop self-management and self-monitoring
skills which they review throughout the programme.”

Biggs, J. (1999). Teaching for Quality Learning at University. Buckingham: SRHE and Open
University Press, p. 208.

Useful resources
• Boud, D. (ed.) (1985) Problem-Based Learning for the Professions, Sydney.
HERDSA
• Boud, D. and Feletti, G. (eds.) (1991). The Challenge of Problem-Based
Learning. St Martin's Press, N. Y
• Woods, D. (1985) Problem-based learning and problem solving. In D. Boud,
(ed.). Problem-Based Learning for the Professions, Sydney: HERDSA, 19-
42.
• White, H. B. (1996). Dan Tries Problem-based Learning: A Case Study in L.
Richlin (Ed), To Improve the Academy Vol. 15 (pp. 75 - 91). Stillwater, OK:
New Forums Press and the Professional and Organizational Network in
Higher Education. (Retrieved from the World Wide Web 22 December
2010) http://www.udel.edu/pbl/dancase3.html

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 Some relevant material including sample problems in the fields of Biology,
Chemistry, Biochemistry, Criminal Justice and Physics can be found at:
• University of Delaware. (2005). Problem-based Learning at the University of
Delaware. (Retrieved from the World Wide Web 22 December, 2010)
http://www.udel.edu/pbl/problems/
http://www.udel.edu/pbl/articles.html
• University of New England. (2010). Fifty Problem Solving Strategies
Explained. (Retrieved from the World Wide Web 22 December, 2010)
http://www.une.edu.au/bcss/psychology/john-malouff/problem-solving.php
• Psych Web – Dewey, R. (n.d). Problem Solving. (Retrieved from the World
Wide 22 December, 2010)
http://www.psywww.com/intropsych/ch07_cognition/problem_solving.html
• Mycoted. (2009). Creativity and Innovation Techniques: An A to Z.
(Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 25th October, 2010)
http://www.mycoted.com/creativity/techniques/index.php
• University of Brighton. (n.d.). Problem-based Learning (PBL) Directory.
(Retrieved from the World Wide 22 December, 2010)
http://feedback.bton.ac.uk/pbl/pbldirectory/whatisPBL.php

Devil’s advocacy
The Devil’s Advocacy strategy can be used with pairs or groups of students to
develop not only problem solving skills, but also critical thinking and group skills. It
relies on structured, managed conflict rather than group harmony to help groups
solve problems, while at the same time avoiding damage to interpersonal relations.
This strategy is often used by managers and strategic planners in industry, so
students need to know about it. Subjecting recommendations and assumptions to
intense critique develops the better ones and ensures that the team’s plan will
ultimately be able to survive the same sorts of critiques from outsiders.

In this approach, a solid, well-supported argument is made for a set of

recommendations or solution in response to a problem. This is then subjected to
interrogation and critical evaluation by another person or sub-group. Only the best
plans or solutions will survive unscathed. This is how you can implement it:
• Divide the class into two groups, one of which will serve as Devil’s
Advocate;
• The other group should develop a plan to solve the problem, making sure to
write down all key assumptions and facts that support them;
• This group then submits the recommendations and a list of the assumptions
that underlie them to the Devil’s Advocate group;
• The Devil’s Advocate group then interrogates and evaluates the plan, trying
to uncover everything that is wrong with the recommendations and
inaccurate with the assumptions;
• The first group then revisits their solution and adjusts their
recommendations based on these criticisms.
University of Illinois. (n.d.). Conflict-based problem solving. (Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 1
September, 2004) http://www.vta.spcomm.uiuc.edu/PSG/psgl3-ov.html

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 Useful resources
• Gough, J. (1998). Devil's Advocacy as Critical Research Methodology:
Spatial Thinking as a Case Study, "Sixth Contemporary Approaches to
Research in Mathematics, Science, Health and Environmental Education",
pp. 1-25, Melbourne.

de Bono’s ‘six hats’

Meetings or group sessions frequently get bogged down in arguments when
people take firm positions and defend them to the death. The ‘six hats’ strategy is a
co-operative, rather than an adversarial tool. In a team or meeting context, it can
be easy for someone not to see the positives of an idea or initiative they don’t
support, but the ‘six hats’ technique challenges participants to see all sides of a
problem. de Bono describes the ‘six hats’ as a ‘game’, but despite its simplicity, his
method is very powerful and is used extensively in industry and the professions.
This is how it works.

Each of the six hats has a different colour, with each hat representing a
perspective, or way of thinking. Ask each student in the group to ‘put on’ different
hats in a sequence to encourage them to adopt different perspectives. It is
important that the hats do not categorise or label people. Rather than limiting
people, the aim of this strategy is to get the thinker/problem solver to use all six
hats and broaden their horizons.

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 de Bono’s Six Hats
Hat colour Explanation Characteristic statements
White White is neutral. While wearing the white What information do we have here?
hat, ignore arguments and proposals. What information is missing?
Instead, examine the facts, figures and What information would we like to have?
information. Identify what information is
How are we going to get the information?
needed and how it might be acquired.

Red Red is for feelings, hunches and intuition. It My gut feeling is that it won’t work.
permits people to put forward their feelings I don’t like the way this is being done.
without the need for apology, explanation or My intuition tells me that this process won’t be
justification. Intuition may be a composite sustainable.
judgement based on years of experience,
and it can be valuable, even if the reasons
behind it cannot be spelled out.

Black The black hat is the logical negative. It is the The policies will prevent us from doing that.
hat of caution and critical judgement. It is We do not have the resources to do this project.
the most used hat, and perhaps the most The team doesn’t have the necessary project
valuable hat; however, it is very easy to management experience.
overuse the black hat and stifle creative
ideas with early negativity.

Yellow The yellow hat is for optimism and the That might work if we rearranged the timeline.
logical positive view of things. It looks for It’s possible the team could take this further in a
feasibility and how something can be done. second project.
It looks for benefits, but they must be We have the resources to make this work.
logically based.

Green The green hat is for creative thinking, new We need some new ideas here.
ideas and additional alternatives. This is Are there any other alternatives?
where lateral thinking and other creative Could we do this in a different way?
techniques are engaged.
Could there be another explanation?

Blue The blue hat is the thinking overview, or We have spent far too much time looking for
process control hat. It is generally used by someone to blame.
the chairperson of the meeting, as it sets the Could we have a summary of your views?
agenda for thinking, suggests the next step, I think we should take a look at the priorities.
and asks for summaries, conclusions and
decisions.

Table based on:

de Bono, E. (1986). Six Thinking Hats. New York: Little, Brown.

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Questions to help students monitor their problem solving
processes

The following prompt questions are useful to help students monitor their own processes
while solving problems. Designed for use specifically with novice design students, they
nevertheless are relevant to students in a number of disciplines.

Questions to prompt generative thinking

Procedure Question
Retrieval What are the things I already know that I can easily remember to help me get started
with this project or problem?
Search What other ideas can I come up with if I dig a little deeper into my memory or think more
broadly about the problem?
Association What is something really similar and then something really different that in some ways
can be connected with my current idea?
Contrast What is the opposite of this and what would happen if I put it together with what I’m
thinking about right now?
Synthesis What would happen if I blended two or more ideas together to come up with something
different but that still has some of the features of the original ideas?
Transformation If I had to make a drawing or a basic model of this idea or concept and folded it or
manipulated it in different ways, does it begin to look like something else that is
interesting?
Analogy Are there any particular features of this idea that resemble any particular aspects of
other really different things?
Categorical What would happen if I made this idea/thing really simple and basic?
reduction
Questions to prompt explorative thinking
Knowledge How can I develop and expand this idea by using my existing knowledge and
application understanding or researching more information?
Experimentation Does anything interesting happen if I fold this/cut it in half/bend the edge/curl it
up/change the shape, etc.? (useful if dealing with a physical product)
Context shifting If I put this idea or thing into a completely different place or time, what would happen to
it?
Attribute finding What are some of the patterns, trends or features that I can see coming out in the
project?
Acknowledging What could be some of the problems I might have to think about if I go down this path?
limitations

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 17

 Questions to prompt evaluative thinking
Analysis What are the strengths and weaknesses of this solution?
Assessment Am I ready to make some definite decisions about whether this idea is a good one?

Verification What’s good about the things I’ve decided to keep in so far?
Trialing If I ‘test drive’ this, does it work?
Criteria fulfillment Does this solution do (or look like it will eventually do) everything it is supposed to?
Elimination Does this idea, or some part of it, need to be taken out because it is just not useful for
this particular project?
Selection Some ideas or parts of them may have to go, but what is definitely staying?
Comparison Why is this outcome better or worse than another one?
Review Would doing a ‘stock take’ of where I am now be helpful?
Questions to prompt strategic thinking
Goal setting When I’m finished, what do I want this outcome to achieve?
Switching If what I’m doing at the moment isn’t working or if I’m stuck, or if I simply want some
fresh ideas – what else can I do?
Cognitive What questions should I ask myself at the moment to help me decide whether or not I’m
awareness generally happy with the way things are going?
Goal monitoring Is what I’m doing at the moment going to help me achieve the aim of the project?
Strategy Is what I’m doing at the moment taking me in the general direction of where I think I want
formulation to go, even if I’m not sure about where that is exactly?

Yashin-Shaw, I. (2004). Creative problem solving in graphic design. Australian Vocational Education
Review, 11(1), pp. 15-16.

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 18

Assessing students’ problem solving
skills
Options for assessing problem solving
It is likely that the traditional methods of assessing students’ work (e.g., examination;
research essay; project or laboratory report; oral presentation) will need to be
supplemented with other methods more closely aligned with real-world problem
solving.

Why not:
Design assessment items based on:
• problem scenarios;
• group work ;
• work-based problems;
• a committee of enquiry report;
• a research bid to a realistic brief;
• a case analysis; or
• a conference paper (or notes for a conference paper plus annotated
bibliography).
Oxford Brookes University. (n.d.). Selecting Methods of Assessment.(Retrieved from the World Wide
Web on 1 September, 2004) http://www.brookes.ac.uk/services/ocsd/2_learntch/methods.html

Other methods for assessing problem solving skills include:

• modified essay question;
• simulated client interviews;
• Objective Structured Clinical Assessment (OSCA);
• social history report; and
• research poster.
Ryan, G. (1996). Solving problems and developing plans. In Nightingale, P., Te Wiata, I., Toohey,
S., Ryan, G., Hughes, C., & Magin, D. Assessing Learning in Universities. Sydney: University of
New South Wales Press, pp. 42-61.

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 19

Assessment Tools

The Project Approach

Embed tasks within a project, or simulated project, which itself is constructed in
accordance with the individual steps of the problem solving process, including:
1. defining the goal;
2. analysing the situation;
3. planning the solution;
4. executing the plan; and
5. evaluating the result.

The situation should involve tasks, which might occur in a similar situation in real
life and should contain:
1. a description of the problem situation;
2. the participant’s role in the situation;
3. the participant’s task; and
4. a listing of the steps in the work.

PC Networks
Assess problem solving competencies in collaborative problem solving tasks where
individual students contribute to a group task in an internet discussion
environment. This allows you to monitor individual student responses.

Co-operative Planning
Provide each student within a small group (three students) with separate
introductory information for a project, with each student being responsible for
different goals. Each student works out a solution for his or her part of the
problem. A common solution then has to be arrived at in a group discussion.
(Klieme, quoted in J. Reeff.)
Adapted from J. Reeff, Project Coordinator for New Assessment Tools for Cross-Curricular
Competencies in the Domain of Problem Solving. Final Report of project ERB-SOE2-CT98-2042.
Pages 41 – 60). (Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 1 September, 2004)
http://improvingser.sti.jrc.it/default/page.gx?_app.page=entity.html&_app.action=entity&_entity.object
=TSER----0000000000000328&_entity.name=Report.PDF)

Problem Solving Rubric

The scale (illustrated in the table on the following page) evaluates the process
employed in response to a problem solving task. It takes into consideration the
level of student knowledge and understanding with respect to the given problem
solving task; the selection and implementation of appropriate procedures and/or
strategies; and the accuracy of the solution obtained.

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 20

 Level 0 Response is characterised by the following:

It is blank.
• The student response only repeats information in the problem task;
• An incorrect solution/response is given and no other information is shown;
• The solution/response and supportive information is totally irrelevant to the problem task.
Level 1 Response is characterised by the following:

An incomplete and/or incorrect response/solution is provided evidencing an attempt to solve the

problem. In addition, one or more of the following are apparent:
• The student did consider a constraint or variable of the problem situation;
• The student understands some concepts relevant to the problem task; and/or
• The student selected a totally inappropriate procedure/strategy.
Level 2 Response is characterised by one of the following:

The student selects appropriate procedures/strategies to solve this problem; however, the
response/solution is not correct because one or more of the following are:
• There is evidence that the student has several misconceptions or has failed to consider several
relevant concepts needed to solve the problem correctly;
• The student fails to consider several constraints of the problem situation;
• The student has also considered several irrelevant variables or failed to consider several
relevant variables;
• The student did not carry the procedures/strategies far enough to reach a solution; and/or
• The response/solution is generally correct; however, there is no information showing how the
student arrived at this response/solution.
Level 3 Response is characterised by one of the following:

The student selects appropriate procedures to solve this problem; however, the response/solution is
not entirely correct because one of the following is apparent:
• There is evidence the student has a misconception or has failed to consider a relevant concept
needed to solve the problem correctly;
• The student fails to consider a constraint of the problem situation;
• The student has considered an irrelevant variable or failed to consider a relevant variable;
and/or
• The response/solution is generally correct; however, from the information provided it is not
completely clear how the student arrived at this solution.
Level 4 Response is characterised by one of the following:
• The student selects and implements relevant concepts and procedures/strategies needed to
solve this problem.
• The student considers all constraints of the problem situation.
• The solution and all relevant work is correct; or, there is a mistake due to some minor
computational or copying error.
Adapted from:
National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing (CRESST). Problem Solving
Rubric.. (Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 1 September, 2004)
http://www.cse.ucla.edu/CRESST/pages/rubrics.htm - holistic

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 21

Strategies for assessing problem solving skills

Approach: Problem recognition tasks - Examples of common problems are presented to students and
they are expected to identify the basic type of problem represented by each example.

Purpose Use

Students often view problems as This assessment technique is most appropriate in quantitative and
separate or distinct situations that technical courses but may also be used to evaluate global problem
share few common features. solving skills in the humanities and social sciences. Specific steps
involved in developing a problem-recognition task instrument include:
Recognition of problem types is the • Selecting examples that represent different (but related) problem
first step to solving the problem. types that are difficult for students to differentiate. Each individual
Increasing the students’ example should represent only one type of problem type;
understanding of the type of problem
involved should increase the speed • Determining if the students will be asked to match the examples
and accuracy with which subsequent to a list of problem types or to name the problem type without the
problems are solved. aid of such a list;
• Testing your examples using colleagues, graduate students, or
Lecturers benefit by learning if advanced undergraduate students. Information gained from
students are correctly identifying types testing can include if the examples, amount of time needed to
of problems. If students are incorrectly complete the task, and the level of difficulty for students are
classifying the types of problems, appropriate.
corrective measures need to be taken. Allow students more time to complete the problem-recognition tasks.
The material to be presented in any
course can be presented more
efficiently and effectively when
students quickly recognise the type of
problem involved.

Approach: What’s the Principle? - This assessment technique logically follows problem recognition
tasks. Once a type of problem is correctly identified, students must identify which of the principles
must be applied to solve the problem.
One goal of What's the Principle? is to This technique can readily be applied in any course where students
assist students in understanding which are expected to learn rules or principles. What's the Principle? tasks
general types of problems can be may be applied in the humanities and social sciences as well as
solved with the individual principles traditional science and technology subjects. The steps are:
involved in the class. This technique • Identify the basic principles that the students are expected to
can also be used to help students learn;
understand why problems may be
encountered when basic principles are • Create examples that demonstrate the application of each of
not used. these principles;
• Develop a What's the Principle? assessment tool that asks
students to match a list of examples with a list of principles or
asks students to identify the principle(s) appropriate to the
example without the aid of a list.
Administering comparable What's the Principle? instruments over the
course of an academic semester permits the evaluation of the
enhancement of student learning in problem recognition and in the
selection of principles appropriate for solving various problems.

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 22

 Approach: Documented problem solutions. This technique asks students to keep
track of the steps involved in solving particular types of problems.
One goal of What's the Principle? is This technique can readily be applied in any course where students are
to assist students in understanding expected to learn rules or principles. What's the Principle? tasks may
which general types of problems can be applied in the humanities and social sciences as well as traditional
be solved with the individual science and technology subjects. The steps are:
principles involved in the class. This • Identify the basic principles that the students are expected to learn;
technique can also be used to help
students understand why problems • Create examples that demonstrate the application of each of these
may be encountered when basic principles;
principles are not used. • Develop a What's the Principle? assessment tool that asks
students to match a list of examples with a list of principles or asks
students to identify the principle(s) appropriate to the example
without the aid of a list.
Administering comparable What's the Principle? instruments over the
course of an academic semester permits the evaluation of the
enhancement of student learning in problem recognition and in the
selection of principles appropriate for solving various problems.

Table based on:

Harrold, R.L.. (n.d.). Problem Solving Skills. (Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 30 August 2004)
http://www.ndsu.nodak.edu/ndsu/marmcdon/assessment/assessment_techniques/problem_solving_skills.h
tm

Useful resources
• University of Technology Sydney - Trigwell, K. (1992). Assessing Problem-
based Learning. (Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 22 December,
2010) http://www.clt.uts.edu.au/assess1.html#pbl7

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 23

Principles of effective problem solving
Students’ problem solving skills
• develop incrementally though a series of stages, e.g.:
o identifying the problem;
o defining the problem;
o collecting, evaluating and organising information about the problem;
o creating or selecting a strategy to resolve the problem;
o allocating resources to solve the problem;
o monitoring the problem solving process; and
o evaluating the final solution.
• can be monitored by asking them to challenge and reflect on processes and
progress;
• can be developed through real-world problems to which there are no correct
answers;
• can be extended by asking them to view the problem from a range of
perspectives; and
• can be focused by using different problem solving strategies, such as: case
studies, Devil’s Advocacy or de Bono’s ‘six hats.’

Designing problems for students to solve

Students develop problem solving skills through tasks which:
• have visible real-world value and use;
• are achievable;
• challenge them to display their grasp and use of skills that are important in their
domain;
• help them become aware of the range of other generic skills they are using
during the problem solving process (e.g., teamwork, communication, analytical
skills etc.); and
• are drawn from authentic activities to help them manage complexity and
diversity.

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 24

Students should be aware of the risks
Students should be made aware of the risks involved in:
• focussing on solutions prematurely before the problem has been thoroughly
identified, defined and discussed;
• adopting a ‘quick fix’ approach that seeks to eliminate the problem as quickly as
possible – it is better to tolerate uncertainty, ambiguity and doubt;
• not adopting an open mind and being willing to consider new ideas;
• not taking into account individual biases when evaluating the facts of a case;
and
• misinterpreting others’ disagreement for dislike – different opinions are a
positive consequence of the group’s diversity.

When assessing problem solving skills

Look for evidence that the student has:
• interpreted the problem;
• considered a range of alternative solutions;
• thought creatively and laterally about the problem;
• tested and tried possible solutions;
• evaluated the worth of the solutions; and
• decided on the ‘best’ solution in light of the criteria.

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 25

Where to go for help
Contact:
• The Griffith Institute for Higher Education.
Griffith University, (n.d.). Griffith Institute for Higher Education. Retrieved from
the World Wide Web 22 November 2010) http://www.griffith.edu.au/gihe
• Information Services, Learning and Teaching.
Griffith University. (n.d.). Staff Support. (Retrieved from the World Wide Web
25th October, 2010) http://www.griffith.edu.au/learning-teaching/whos-
who/staff-support

Learning Services
Problem solving is an area where the University has recognised that support is
crucial. Learning Services has teams of learning advisers here to work with you.
They can:
• advise you on teaching, learning and assessment strategies; and
• team teach with you in your lectures and tutorials.

There are also services to which you can refer your students so that they can
independently develop their Problem solving skills. These include:
• individual or small group consultations with a learning adviser;
• workshops;
• self-help resources.

For more information on these services, visit the Information Services, Learning
and Teaching website.
• Griffith University. (n.d.). Staff Support. (Retrieved from the World Wide
Web 25th October, 2010) http://www.griffith.edu.au/learning-teaching/whos-
who/staff-support

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 26

Additional resources
Print resources
• Biggs, J. (1999). Teaching for Quality Learning at University. Buckingham:
SRHE and Open University Press.
• Boud, D. (ed.). Problem-based Learning in Education for the Professions.
Kensington, NSW: Higher Education Research and Development Society of
Australasia.
• Halpern, D. (1997). Critical Thinking Across the Curriculum. Mahwah, NJ: L.
Erlbaum & Associates.
• Little, P., Ostwald, M. & Ryan, G. (eds.). (1995). Assessment and Evaluation.
Research and Development in Problem Based Learning,. Volume 3. Newcastle:
PROBLARC.
• Ryan, G. (ed.). (1993). Problem Based Learning in Education and Training.
Research and Development in Problem Based Learning: Assessment and
Evaluation. Volume 1. Campbelltown: PROBLARC.
• Woods, D. (1985). Problem-based learning and problem solving. In D. Boud
(ed.). Problem-based Learning in Education for the Professions. Kensington,
NSW: Higher Education Research and Development Society of Australasia.
• Woods, D.R. (1994). Problem-based learning: How to gain the most from PBL.
Hamilton: Donald R. Woods, Publisher.

Web resources
• Indiana University - Kirkley, J. (n.d.). Principles for Teaching Problem Solving.
(Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 1 September, 2004)
http://www.plato.com/downloads/papers/paper_04.pdf
• University of New England - Malouff, J. (2010). Fifty Problem Solving Strategies
Explained. (Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 22 December, 2010)
http://www.une.edu.au/bcss/psychology/john-malouff/problem-solving.php
• Virtual Salt – Harris, R. (2002). Problem Solving Techniques. (Retrieved from
the World Wide Web on 22 December, 2010)
http://www.virtualsalt.com/crebook4.htm
• University of Delaware. (n.d.). Problem-based Learning.(Retrieved from the
World Wide Web on 22 December, 2010) http://www.udel.edu/pbl/

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 27

Appendix A- Student handouts
Please note: Appendix A contains reproduced information from within this toolkit that
may be useful to your students. For ease of reference and printing, this collection of
ready to use resources associated with various aspects of facilitating, teaching and
assessing problem solving has been collated in this appendix as follows:

1. Principles of effective problem solving

2. What employers, graduates and students say about problem solving skills

3. Solving problems

4. The ‘six hats’ strategy for problem solving

5. Questions for monitoring problem solving processes

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 28

Principles of effective problem solving
Problem solving skills
• develop incrementally though a series of stages, e.g.:
o identifying the problem;
o defining the problem;
o collecting, evaluating and organising information about the problem;
o creating or selecting a strategy to resolve the problem;
o allocating resources to solve the problem;
o monitoring the problem solving process; and
o evaluating the final solution.
• can be monitored by asking them to challenge and reflect on processes and
progress;
• can be developed through real-world problems to which there are no correct
answers;
• can be extended by asking them to view the problem from a range of
perspectives; and
• can be focused by using different problem solving strategies such as: case
studies, Devil’s Advocacy or de Bono’s ‘six hats.’

Problem solving skills are developed through tasks

Problem solving-skills are developed through tasks which:
• have visible real-world value and use;
• are achievable;
• challenge them to display their grasp and use of skills that are important in
their domain;
• help them become aware of the range of other generic skills they are using
during the problem solving process (e.g., teamwork, communication,
analytical skills etc.); and
• are drawn from authentic activities to help them manage complexity and
diversity.

Be aware of the risks

You need to be aware of the risks involved in:
• focussing on solutions prematurely before the problem has been thoroughly
identified, defined and discussed;
• adopting a ‘quick fix’ approach that seeks to eliminate the problem as
quickly as possible – it is better to tolerate uncertainty, ambiguity and doubt;
• not adopting an open mind and being willing to consider new ideas;

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 29

 • not taking into account individual biases when evaluating the facts of a
case;
• misinterpreting others’ disagreement for dislike – different opinions are a
positive consequence of the group’s diversity.

When assessing problem solving skills

Your lecturer or tutor will be looking for evidence that you have:
• interpreted the problem;
• considered a range of alternative solutions;
• thought creatively and laterally about the problem;
• tested and tried possible solutions;
• evaluated the worth of the solutions; and
• decided on the ‘best’ solution in light of the criteria.

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 30

What employers, graduates and
students say about problem solving
skills
Employers’ comments
“We look for a whole range of skills in our graduates. Basically, people who are able to
problem solve are important to us. We look for evidence of this in their work
experience, their technical performance as well as their academic results.”
(Employer of Griffith Accounting Graduates, 2001)

“Problem solving is a quality that really stood out with the Griffith graduate we have at
the moment. If he comes across a barrier he seeks advice, but doesn’t require
constant supervision or feedback. He has the initiative to go out and solve problems on
his own, which is great.”
(Employer of Griffith Microelectronic Engineering Graduate, 2003)

“We look for a whole range of skills in graduates we select. Academic results are
important but they’re not the only thing and not necessarily the first thing we look at.
We are interested in people who can think about a diverse range of problems and bring
a large amount of information down to important points. So people who are able to
problem solve are important to us. We look for evidence of this in their work
experience, and technically, as well as their academic results.”
(Employer of Griffith Science Graduates, 2001)

“As an employer, the most important thing I look for in graduates is good problem
solving skills. Within the university situation there is a lot of opportunity for problem
solving, through exams and assignments but those situations can be fairly contrived.
So there also needs to be opportunity for problem solving that is more open and
authentic, where the solution is not necessarily clear.”
(Employer of Griffith Microelectronic Engineering Graduates, 2002)

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 31

Graduates’ comments
“I’ve learnt to make decisions about which pieces of information to retain and how to
use that information to formulate a good response to a problem, both at university and
in my part-time work.”
(Griffith Graduate, 2002)

“I find myself using information from one context in another, but changing the way I use
it. I do that a lot now, which is good because it has improved my problem solving
abilities.”
(Griffith Graduate, 2003)

Students’ comments
“I think that my study of literature has helped me become a better problem-solver. For
example, sympathetic imagination is a procedure we use to examine situations from
different points-of-view, such as the different perspectives each character in a novel
might have. It has helped me to develop the ability to examine problems from many
perspectives.”
(Griffith Student, 2004)

“Through my study of ethics, I have learned to identify core problems arising from the
issues being considered, examine the reasons why the problems exist and then seek
ways of responding to, dealing with or solving the problems.”
(Griffith Student, 2004)

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 32

Solving problems
• Avoid focussing on solutions prematurely before the problem has been
thoroughly identified, defined and discussed;
• Avoid a ‘quick fix’ approach that seeks to eliminate the problem as quickly as
possible – it is better to tolerate uncertainty, ambiguity and doubt;
• Maintain an open mind and be willing to consider new ideas;
• Be aware of individual biases when evaluating the facts of a case;
• When working in a group, don’t misinterpret disagreement for dislike – view
different opinions as a positive consequence of the group’s diversity.

Stages in the problem solving process

Identify the problem Either present a defined problem or ask students to identify their own.

Define the problem Represent the problem in your own words defining the key words, terms and
concepts. Ask yourselves questions such as:
• What do I know already about this problem or question?
• What do I need to know to effectively address this problem or question?
• What resources can I access to determine a proposed solution or
hypothesis?
In this stage, a very focused problem statement is needed, though that
statement will go through a series of changes as new information is accessed
and processed.

Collect, evaluate and organise Determine what information will be relevant, useful and absolutely essential
information about the problem for solving the problem; retrieve information from print, web and other
sources; classify and categorise relevant information.

Create or select a strategy to Collect examples of similar problems and the strategies used to solve them.
resolve the problem

Allocate resources to solve Develop timelines, action plans, progress reports and role allocations to
the problem ensure the problem is satisfactorily resolved.

Monitor the problem solving Submit regular progress reports or updates to ensure deadlines are met and
process reflective documents on process issues as part of the assessment.

Evaluate the final solution Evaluate your final solution to the problem from multiple perspectives (e.g., an
accountant; a manager; a researcher; an end-user; an advertising agent) to
test its validity in a range of contexts.

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 33

The ‘six hats’ strategy for problem
solving
de Bono’s method
de Bono describes the ‘six hats’ as a ‘game’, but despite its simplicity, his method is
very powerful and is used extensively in industry and the professions. This is how it
works. Each of the six hats has a different colour, with each hat representing a
perspective, or way of thinking. The members of the group ‘put on’ different hats in a
sequence to encourage them to adopt different perspectives.

de Bono’s Six Hats

Hat colour Explanation Characteristic statements
White White is neutral. While wearing the white What information do we have here?
hat, ignore arguments and proposals. What information is missing?
Instead, examine the facts, figures and What information would we like to have?
information. Identify what information is
How are we going to get the information?
needed and how it might be acquired.
Red Red is for feelings, hunches and intuition. It My gut feeling is that it won’t work.
permits people to put forward their feelings I don’t like the way this is being done.
without the need for apology, explanation or My intuition tells me that this process won’t be
justification. Intuition may be a composite sustainable.
judgement based on years of experience,
and it can be valuable, even if the reasons
behind it cannot be spelled out.
Black The black hat is the logical negative. It is the The policies will prevent us from doing that.
hat of caution and critical judgement. It is We do not have the resources to do this project.
the most used hat, and perhaps the most The team doesn’t have the necessary project
valuable hat; however, it is very easy to management experience.
overuse the black hat and stifle creative
ideas with early negativity.
Yellow The yellow hat is for optimism and the That might work if we rearranged the timeline.
logical positive view of things. It looks for It’s possible the team could take this further in a
feasibility and how something can be done. second project.
It looks for benefits, but they must be We have the resources to make this work.
logically based.
Green The green hat is for creative thinking, new We need some new ideas here.
ideas and additional alternatives. This is Are there any other alternatives?
where lateral thinking and other creative Could we do this in a different way?
techniques are engaged.
Could there be another explanation?
Blue The blue hat is the thinking overview, or We have spent far too much time looking for
process control hat. It is generally used by someone to blame.
the chairperson of the meeting, as it sets the Could we have a summary of your views?
agenda for thinking, suggests the next step, I think we should take a look at the priorities.
and asks for summaries, conclusions and
decisions.

Table based on:

de Bono, E. (1986). Six Thinking Hats. New York: Little, Brown.

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 34

Questions for monitoring problem
solving processes
Although these questions were designed for use by design students, they nevertheless
are relevant in a number of different contexts or disciplines.

Questions to prompt generative thinking

Procedure Question
Retrieval What are the things I already know that I can easily remember to help me get started
with this project or problem?
Search What other ideas can I come up with if I dig a little deeper into my memory or think more
broadly about the problem?
Association What is something really similar and then something really different that in some ways
can be connected with my current idea?
Contrast What is the opposite of this and what would happen if I put it together with what I’m
thinking about right now?
Synthesis What would happen if I blended two or more ideas together to come up with something
different but that still has some of the features of the original ideas?
Transformation If I had to make a drawing or a basic model of this idea or concept and folded it or
manipulated it in different ways, does it begin to look like something else that is
interesting?
Analogy Are there any particular features of this idea that resemble any particular aspects of
other really different things?
Categorical What would happen if I made this idea/thing really simple and basic?
reduction
Questions to prompt explorative thinking
Knowledge How can I develop and expand this idea by using my existing knowledge and
application understanding or researching more information?
Experimentation Does anything interesting happen if I fold this/cut it in half/bend the edge/curl it
up/change the shape, etc.? (useful if dealing with a physical product)
Context shifting If I put this idea or thing into a completely different place or time, what would happen to
it?
Attribute finding What are some of the patterns, trends or features that I can see coming out in the
project?
Acknowledging What could be some of the problems I might have to think about if I go down this path?
limitations

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 35

 Questions to prompt evaluative thinking
Analysis What are the strengths and weaknesses of this solution?
Assessment Am I ready to make some definite decisions about whether this idea is a good one?

Verification What’s good about the things I’ve decided to keep in so far?
Trialing If I ‘test drive’ this, does it work?
Criteria fulfillment Does this solution do (or look like it will eventually do) everything it is supposed to?
Elimination Does this idea, or some part of it, need to be taken out because it is just not useful for
this particular project?
Selection Some ideas or parts of them may have to go, but what is definitely staying?
Comparison Why is this outcome better or worse than another one?
Review Would doing a ‘stock take’ of where I am now be helpful?
Questions to prompt strategic thinking
Goal setting When I’m finished, what do I want this outcome to achieve?
Switching If what I’m doing at the moment isn’t working or if I’m stuck, or if I simply want some
fresh ideas – what else can I do?
Cognitive What questions should I ask myself at the moment to help me decide whether or not I’m
awareness generally happy with the way things are going?
Goal monitoring Is what I’m doing at the moment going to help me achieve the aim of the project?
Strategy Is what I’m doing at the moment taking me in the general direction of where I think I want
formulation to go, even if I’m not sure about where that is exactly?

Yashin-Shaw, I. (2004). Creative problem solving in graphic design. Australian Vocational Education
Review, 11(1), pp. 15-16.

Problem Solving Skills Toolkit Page 36