Unit – 1

CDMA ( Code Division Multiple Access )

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a technology used in mobile

communication to allow multiple people to use the same frequency without
interference.

CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It is basically a channel access
method and is also an example of multiple access. Multiple access basically
means that information by several transmitters can be sent simultaneously onto
a single communication channel.

How It Works:

1. Shared Frequency: In
CDMA, many users share the
same frequency at the same
time.

2. Unique Codes: Each call or data is given a unique code, like a secret key.
Only the receiver with the matching code can understand the message.

3. No Interference: Since each user has a different code, the signals don’t
mix up, even if they’re sent at the same time.

4. Secure and Efficient: It’s more secure because it’s hard to decode
without the right code, and it uses the available bandwidth efficiently.
Advantages:

1. Efficient use of bandwidth.

2. High resistance to interference and eavesdropping.(You can secretly

intercepting or listening

other communication without the consent of other parties .)

3. Supports more users compared to traditional frequency or time division

systems.

Applications:

• Mobile communication (e.g., 3G networks).

• Satellite communication.

• GPS systems.

ISDN ( Integrated Services Digital Network )

The Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communication

protocols that enable the simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video, data,
and other network services over traditional Public Switched Telephone
Network(PSTN) connections. ISDN aims to enable end-to-end digital
connectivity to serve a diverse set of services.

ISDN works according to standards set by ITU-T, which used to be called

CCITT. ITU-T is a group that creates rules for telecommunications worldwide,
and it is located in Geneva, Switzerland. According to ITU-T, ISDN follows
certain principles to work properly.

• To support switched and non-switched applications

• To support voice and non-voice applications

• Reliance on 64-kbps connections

• Intelligence in the network

• Layered protocol architecture

• Variety of configurations

Advantages of ISDN

• ISDN channels have a reliable connection.

• ISDN is used to facilitate the user with multiple digital channels.

• It has faster data transfer rate.

 • Efficient use of bandwidth

• Improved call quality

• It provides Greater flexibility

• Integrated services

Disadvantages of ISDN

• ISDN lines costlier than the other telephone system.

• It requires specialized digital devices.

• It is less flexible.

• Limited coverage

• High installation and maintenance costs

• Limited features

VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)

VoIP is a technology that allows you to make voice calls using a broadband
Internet connection instead

of a traditional phone line. It converts voice signals into digital packets,

transmits them over the internet,

and reconverts them into voice at the receiving end.

How VoIP Works

1. Analog to Digital Conversion:

o The caller's voice (analog signal) is captured by a microphone.

o The signal is digitized using codecs (e.g., G.711, G.729).

2. Packetization:

o The digital voice data is divided into small packets.

o Each packet contains a portion of the audio and information for routing.

3. Transmission:
 o These packets are transmitted over the internet using IP protocols.

4. Reception:

o At the receiving end, the digital packets are reassembled.

o The digital data is converted back into analog signals (voice) for the
listener.

VoIP Protocols

• SIP (Session Initiation Protocol): Establishes and terminates VoIP

calls.

• RTP (Real-Time Transport Protocol): Ensures audio/video data is

delivered in real-time.

• H.323: An older protocol used for video conferencing and VoIP.

Key Features of VoIP

1. Cost-Efficiency: Cheaper than traditional telephony, especially for

long-distance calls.

2. Mobility: Accessible via any device connected to the internet (PCs,

smartphones, tablets).

3. Scalability: Easy to add users or features w ithout additional

hardware.

4. Rich Communication: Supports video calls, file sharing, conferencing,

and messaging.

Applications of VoIP

1. Residential Services:

o Services like Skype, WhatsApp, and Google Meet enable free or low-
cost calls.

2. Business Communication:

o Unified communication platforms like Zoom, Microsoft Teams, and Cisco

Webex

integrate VoIP for voice and video.

3. Customer Support:
 o Call centers use VoIP for handling multiple customer calls efficiently.

Advantages

• Low-cost international calling.

• Integration with other communication services.

• Flexibility in choosing devices and platforms.

Challenges

• Reliance on Internet Quality: Poor connectivity affects call quality.

• Latency and Jitter: Delay or inconsistency in packet delivery can

disrupt communication.

• Security: Vulnerable to hacking and eavesdropping if not encrypted

GSM ( Global system for mobile communication )

GSM in Wireless Communication

GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. It is a digital

mobile network commonly utilized by mobile phone users around the world. It is
the most popular of the three digital wireless telephony systems (TDMA, GSM,
and CDMA) and uses the combination of FDMA and TDMA. It uses 4 different
frequency bands 850 MHz, 900 MHz, 1800 MHz, and 1900 MHz. GSM converts
and compresses data before sending it along a channel with two other streams
of user data, each with its time slot.

GSM have 4 different sizes of cells

• Macro: In this size of the cell, a Base Station antenna is installed.

• Micro: In this size of cell, antenna height is less than the average roof
level.

• Pico: Small cells’ diameter of a few meters.

• Umbrella: It covers the shadowed (Fills the gaps between cells) regions.

Features of GSM
 • Supports international roaming

• Clear voice clarity

• Ability to support multiple handheld devices.

• Spectral / frequency efficiency

• Low powered handheld devices.

• Ease of accessing network

• International ISDN compatibility.

• Low service cost.

• New features and services.

How Does GSM Work

GSM describe the procedures for second-generation digital mobile networks,

such as those used by mobile phones. It is a broad-area communications
technology program that uses digital radio channeling to provide audio,
information, and multimedia communication systems. Every GSM radio channel is
200 kHz broad and is further divided into frames of eight time slots. The GSM
system consists of mobile stations, base stations, and interweaving switching
systems.
The GSM program allows 8 to 16 audio users to share a single radio channel, and
each radio transmission station can have numerous radio channels. Because of its
simplicity, cost, and accessibility, GSM is now the most often utilised network
technology in the Internet of Things (IoT)

Architecture of GSM
 1. MS : MS stands for Mobile System. MS comprises user equipment
and software needed for communication with a mobile
network. Mobile Station (MS) = Mobile Equipment(ME) +
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM).

2. BTS : BTS stands for Base Transceiver Station which

facilitates wireless communication between user equipment and a
network. Every tower has BTS.

3. BSC : BSC stands for Base Station Controller. BSC has multiple
BTS.

5. MSC : MSC stands for Mobile Switching Center. MSC is associated with
communication switching functions such as call setup, call release and
routing. Call tracing, call forwarding all functions are performed at the
MSC level. MSC is having further components like VLR, HLR, AUC, EIR
and PSTN.

• VLR : VLR stands for Visitor Location Register. VLR is a database which
contains the exact location of all mobile subscribers currently present in
the service area of MSC.

• HLR : HLR stands for Home Location Register. SIM card from in the
HLR. HLR is like a home which contains all data like your ID proof, which
plan you are taking, which caller tune you are using etc.

• AUC : AUC stands for Authentication Center. AUC authenticates the

mobile subscriber that wants to connect in the network.

• EIR : EIR stands for Equipment Identity Register. EIR is a database

that keeps the record of all allowed or banned in the network. If you are
banned in the network then you can’t enter the network, and you can’t
make the calls.

• PSTN : PSTN stands for Public Switched Telephone Network. PSTN

connects with MSC. PSTN originally a network of fixed line analog
telephone systems. Now almost entirely digital in its core network and
includes mobile and other networks as well as fixed telephones. The
earlier landline phones which places at our home is nothing but PSTN.
 6. OMC : OMC stands for Operation Maintenance Center. OMC monitor and
maintain the performance of each MS, BSC and MSC within a GSM system.

Services of GSM

1. Tele services such as:

• Video calls and face emoji.

• Short text message(SMS).

2. Supplementary services are advanced services such as:

• Conference calls.

• Call waiting.

• Call forwarding.

Applications of GSM

• Mobile Telephony

• VoIP Integration

• SMS (Short Message Service)

• Mobile Banking

• Smart Home Systems

• Surveillance Systems

• Alarm System

• Cell Broadcasting

Advantages of GSM

• Compatibility: GSM is widely used around the world, so it is compatible

with many different networks and devices.

• Security: GSM offers enhanced security features such as

authentication, encryption and confidentiality which helps to protect the
user’s privacy and data.
 • Efficient use of bandwidth: GSM uses a time-division multiplexing
(TDM) technique which enables many users to share the same frequency
channel at different times, making it an efficient use of the available
bandwidth.

• Roaming: GSM allows users to roam internationally and use their mobile
phones in other countries that use the same GSM standard.

• Wide range of features: GSM supports a wide range of features,

including call forwarding, call waiting, voicemail, conference calling, and
more.

Disadvantages of GSM

• Limited coverage: GSM networks may have limited coverage in some

remote areas, which can make it difficult for users to make calls or
access the internet.

• Network congestion: GSM networks may become congested during peak

hours, which can lead to dropped calls or poor call quality.

• Security vulnerabilities: Although GSM offers enhanced security

features, it is still vulnerable to certain types of attacks, such
as eavesdropping and spoofing.

• Data transfer speed: GSM networks offer relatively slow data transfer
speeds compared to newer technologies such as 3G and 4G.

• Limited capacity: GSM networks have a limited capacity for handling

large volumes of data, which can be a disadvantage for users who require
high-speed internet access or other data-intensive applications.

Fiber Optics

• Inventor: Narinder Singh Kapany (known as the "Father of Fiber Optics")

• Invented in: 1950s

• What is Fiber Optics:

o Technology that uses thin strands of glass or plastic (optical

fibers) to transmit data as light signals.
 o Used for high-speed data transmission over long distances with
minimal signal loss.

• How it Works:

o Data is converted into light signals using lasers or LEDs.

o Light signals travel through the optical fibers by the principle of

total internal reflection.

o At the receiving end, light signals are converted back into

electrical signals.

• Types of Optical Fibers:

1. Single-mode Fiber:

▪ Thin core (~8-10 microns)

▪ Transmits infrared laser light

▪ Suitable for long-distance communication

2. Multi-mode Fiber:

▪ Thicker core (~50-62.5 microns)

▪ Transmits infrared light from LEDs

▪ Ideal for short-distance communication

• Components of Fiber Optic Cable:

o Core: Carries the light signals (made of pure glass or plastic)

o Cladding: Surrounds the core, maintaining light within the core

using total internal reflection

o Buffer Coating: Protects the fiber from moisture and damage

o Outer Jacket: Provides additional protection and insulation

• Advantages:

o High data transmission speed

o Low signal loss and interference

o Secure data transmission

o Lightweight and flexible

 • Disadvantages:

o Expensive installation and maintenance

o Fragile compared to copper wires

o Complex repairs and splicing

• Applications:

o Telecommunications (Internet, telephone, and cable TV)

o Medical (Endoscopy and biomedical sensors)

o Networking (Local Area Networks - LANs)

o Military and Aerospace communications

o Industrial and commercial sensors

• Interesting Facts:

o Can transmit data at speeds close to the speed of light.

o Used in submarine cables for international communication.

o More secure than traditional copper cables as they are difficult to

tap without detection.

Bluetooth

• Inventor: Jaap Haartsen (while working at Ericsson)

• Introduced in: 1994

• What is Bluetooth:

o Short-range wireless technology for data exchange between

devices.

o Uses radio waves to create a personal area network (PAN).

• How it Works:

o Operates on 2.4 GHz frequency band.

o Devices pair using unique addresses and a pairing code for security.

o Uses frequency-hopping spread spectrum to minimize

interference.
 • Types of Bluetooth:

1. Bluetooth Classic: For audio devices and data transfer

2. Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE): Energy-efficient, ideal for IoT devices

3. Bluetooth 5.0 and 5.1: Improved range, speed, and location accuracy

• Advantages:

o Low power consumption

o Secure pairing and data transmission

o Compatible with a wide range of devices

• Disadvantages:

o Limited range (~10-100 meters)

o Slower data transfer speed compared to Wi-Fi

o Can be vulnerable to hacking if not secured properly

• Applications:

o Wireless audio (headphones, speakers)

o File transfer between devices

o Peripheral connectivity (keyboards, mice, game controllers)

o Smartwatches and fitness trackers

o Home automation and IoT devices

Radar

• Inventor: Sir Robert Watson-Watt

• Invented in: 1935

• What is Radar:

o Radio Detection And Ranging technology.

o Uses radio waves to detect objects' location, speed, and direction.

• How it Works:

o Radar system emits radio waves that bounce off objects.

 o The reflected waves are received and analyzed to determine
distance and speed.

o Operates on microwave and radio frequency bands.

• Types of Radar:

1. Pulse Radar: Sends pulses of radio waves and measures the time of
return.

2. Continuous Wave Radar: Transmits continuous waves to measure speed

using the Doppler effect.

3. Phased Array Radar: Uses multiple antennas for rapid scanning and
tracking.

4. Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR): High-resolution imaging, used in

satellites.

• Advantages:

o Long-range detection

o Works in all weather conditions (rain, fog, darkness)

o High accuracy in speed and distance measurement

• Disadvantages:

o Expensive equipment and maintenance

o Can be affected by interference and clutter

o Limited resolution for smaller objects

• Applications:

o Air traffic control and navigation

o Weather forecasting (Doppler radar)

o Military surveillance and missile guidance

o Automotive collision avoidance systems

o Space exploration and satellite imaging

Satellite
 • Inventor: Concept proposed by Arthur C. Clarke

• First Launched: 1957 (Sputnik 1 by the Soviet Union)

• What is a Satellite:

o A man-made object placed in orbit around Earth or other celestial

bodies.

o Used for communication, navigation, weather monitoring, and

scientific research.

• How it Works:

o Receives signals from Earth, amplifies them, and transmits them

back to a different location.

o Powered by solar panels and equipped with antennas for

communication.

o Orbits Earth in Geostationary, Low Earth Orbit (LEO), or

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO).

• Types of Satellites:

1. Communication Satellites: Relay telephone, television, and internet

signals.

2. Navigation Satellites: GPS and positioning services.

3. Weather Satellites: Monitor weather patterns and climate changes.

4. Reconnaissance Satellites: Military surveillance and intelligence

gathering.

5. Scientific Satellites: Space exploration and research (e.g., Hubble Space

Telescope).

• Advantages:

o Wide coverage area, including remote locations

o High-speed data transmission and broadcasting

o Reliable communication during natural disasters

• Disadvantages:

o High launch and maintenance costs

 o Signal delay (latency) due to long distances

o Vulnerable to space debris and solar radiation

• Applications:

o Global communication (TV, internet, phone)

o GPS navigation and location tracking

o Weather forecasting and disaster management

o Military surveillance and reconnaissance

o Scientific research and space exploration

Microwave

• Inventor: James Clerk Maxwell (predicted electromagnetic waves),

Heinrich Hertz (demonstrated them), and further developed by Sir John
Randall and Harry Boot (cavity magnetron for radar).

• Developed in: 1940s (mainly for radar technology during World War II)

• What is Microwave:

o A form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from

1 millimeter to 1 meter and frequencies between 300 MHz and
300 GHz.

o Used for communication, cooking, radar, and scientific research.

• How it Works:

o Transmits data using high-frequency radio waves.

o Signals are sent in a straight line (line of sight) between a

transmitter and receiver.

o Uses parabolic dish antennas to focus and direct signals.

• Types of Microwave Communication:

1. Terrestrial Microwave:

▪ Ground-based communication using towers or antennas.

 ▪ Used for point-to-point communication over long distances.

2. Satellite Microwave:

▪ Signals sent from ground stations to satellites and back to

Earth.

▪ Enables long-distance communication across continents.

• Advantages:

o High bandwidth and fast data transmission speeds.

o Less susceptible to cable damage and theft.

o Suitable for remote and difficult-to-reach areas.

• Disadvantages:

o Line of sight required, obstructed by buildings and terrain.

o Affected by weather conditions (e.g., rain, fog).

o Expensive installation and maintenance of antennas and towers.

• Applications:

o Long-distance telephone communication

o Satellite communication (TV broadcasting, GPS)

o Radar systems (weather forecasting, air traffic control)

o Microwave ovens (heating and cooking food)

o Wireless networking (WiMAX and backhaul networks)

• Interesting Facts:

o Discovered accidentally during radar research in World War II.

o The first microwave oven, called the Radarange, was invented by

Percy Spencer in 1945.

o Used in radio astronomy to study cosmic microwave background

radiation.