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1. Networking Overview

Anthony Maina M. Sc.

Overview
• Introduction to networks
• Elements of a network
• Network devices
• Network media
• Network benefits
• Network classification
– LAN vs. WAN
– Peer-to-peer vs. Server-based
• Network concepts – Delay, bandwidth, transmission modes,
DHCP, ICMP, topology
• Additional study
• Review questions

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Introduction to networks
• A computer data network is a collection of hosts
connected by networking devices.
• A host is any device that sends and receives
information on the network.
• Peripherals are devices that are connected to hosts.
– Some devices can serve either as hosts or peripherals. For
example, a printer connected to your laptop which is on a
network is acting as a peripheral.
– If the printer is connected directly to a networking device,
such as a hub, switch, or router, it is acting as a host.
• Computer networks are used globally in businesses,
homes, schools, and government agencies. Many of
the networks are connected to each other through the
Internet.

Computer network - diagram

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Introduction to networks
• Computers can be linked by networks to share
data and resources.
– A network can be as simple as two computers
connected by a single cable or as complex as hundreds
of computers connected to devices that control the
flow of information.
– Converged data networks can include general
purpose computers, such as PCs and servers, as well
as devices with more specific functions, including
printers, phones, televisions, and game consoles.
• The information on the network goes from one
place to another, sometimes via different paths,
to arrive at the appropriate destination.

Elements of a network
• A network has FOUR main elements:
• Messages
– this identifies the data that is sent over the network.
Messages can take various forms such as text,
pictures, animations and other graphics as well as
sound and video.
• Devices
– take part in the communication process either as end
devices (such as computers, printers) or as
intermediary devices (such as switches and routers).

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Switch
D-Link 24 Port 10/100/1000Mbps Gigabit Switch

Router
Cisco 2600 Router

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Elements of a network
• Media/Communication channels
– network media is classified as either wired (also bound) or
wireless (also unbound). Messages are sent over some
type media.
• Protocols
– All activity in a network that involves two or more
communicating entities is governed by a protocol.
– A protocol defines the format and the order of messages
exchanged between two or more communicating entities,
as well as the actions taken on the transmission and/or
receipt of a message or other event.
– The Internet, and computer networks in general,
make extensive use of protocols. Different protocols
are used to accomplish different communication
tasks.

Network devices
• Many different types of devices can connect to a network:
– Desktop computers
– Laptop computers
– Printers
– Scanners
– PDAs
– Smartphones
– File/print servers
• A network can share many different types of resources:
– Services, such as printing or scanning
– Storage space on removable devices, such as hard drives or
optical drives
– Applications, such as databases

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Network media
• Network devices link together using a variety
of connections:
– Copper cabling – Uses electrical signals to
transmit data between devices
– Fiber-optic cabling – Uses glass or plastic wire,
also called fiber, to carry information as light
pulses
– Wireless connection – Uses radio signals, infrared
technology (laser), or satellite transmissions

Network media

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Network media

Network media

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Network benefits
• Fewer Peripherals Needed
– Each computer on the network does not need to have its own
printer, scanner, or backup device. Multiple printers can be set
up in a central location and shared among the network users. All
network users send print jobs to a central print server that
manages the print requests. The print server can distribute print
jobs over multiple printers, or queue jobs that require a specific
printer.
• Increased Communication Capabilities
– Networks provide several different collaboration tools that can
be used to communicate between network users. Online
collaboration tools include e-mail, forums and chats, voice and
video, and instant messaging. With these tools, users can
communicate with friends, family, and colleagues.

Network benefits
• Centralized Administration
– Centralized administration reduces the number of people
needed to manage the devices and data on the network,
reducing time and cost to the company.
– Individual network users do not need to manage their own
data and devices. One administrator can control the data,
devices, and permissions of users on the network.
– Backing up data is easier because the data is stored in a
central location.
• Conserve Resources
– Data processing can be distributed across many computers
to prevent one computer from becoming overloaded with
processing tasks.

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Network benefits
• Avoid File Duplication
– A server manages network resources. Servers store data
and share it with users on a network. Confidential or
sensitive data can be protected and shared with the users
who have permission to access that data. Document
tracking software can be used to prevent users from
overwriting files, or changing files that others are accessing
at the same time.
• Lower Cost Licensing
– Application licensing can be expensive for individual
computers. Many software vendors offer site licenses for
networks, which can dramatically reduce the cost of
software. The site license allows a group of people or an
entire organization to use the application for a single fee.

Network classification
• A computer network is identified by the
following specific characteristics:
– The area it serves
– How the resources are managed
– How the network is organized
– The type of media used to connect the devices

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Network classification
• Local Area Network (LAN) - LANs are under one
administrative control group that governs the
security and access control policies that are in force
on the network.
• The defining characteristics of a LAN, in contrast to a
wide area network (WAN), include:
– Higher data transfer rates
• Current Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies operate
at data transfer rates up to 10 Gbit/s.
– Limited geographic range
– Lack of reliance on leased lines to provide connectivity

Network classification
• Wide Area Networks (WANs) are networks
that connect LANs in geographically separated
locations.
– The most common example of a WAN is the
Internet. The Internet is a large WAN that is
composed of millions of interconnected LANs.
• Telecommunications service providers (TSP) or
carriers (telecom companies) are used to
interconnect these LANs at different locations.

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Network classification
• A WAN uses a communications
channel that combines many
types of media such as telephone
lines, cables, and air waves.
• It often makes use of transmission
facilities provided by common
carriers, such as telephone
companies.
• WAN technologies generally
function at the lower three layers
of the OSI reference model: the
physical layer, the data link layer,
and the network layer.

Network classification
• In a traditional LAN, devices are connected together
using copper cabling.
– In some environments, installing copper cabling may not
be practical, desirable, or even possible.
– In these situations, wireless devices are used to transmit
and receive data using radio waves.
• In a WLAN, wireless devices connect to access points
within a specified area.
– Access points are typically connected to the network using
copper cabling.
– Only the wireless access point is connected to the network
with copper cabling.
– WLAN coverage can be small and limited to the area of a
room or can have greater range.

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Network classification
• In a peer-to-peer network, devices are connected directly
to each other without any additional networking devices
between them.
– In this type of network, each device has equivalent capabilities
and responsibilities.
– Individual users are responsible for their own resources and can
decide which data and devices to share.
– Because individual users are responsible for the resources on
their own computers, there is no central point of control or
administration in the network.
• Peer-to-peer networks work best in environments with ten
or fewer computers. Because individual users are in control
of their own computers, there is no need to hire a
dedicated network administrator.

Network classification
• Peer-to-peer networks have several
disadvantages:
– There is no centralized network administration which makes it
difficult to determine who controls resources on the network.
– There is no centralized security. Each computer must use
separate security measures for data protection.
– The network becomes more complex and difficult to manage as
the number of computers on the network increases.
– There may be no centralized data storage. Separate data
backups must be maintained. This responsibility falls on the
individual users.

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Network classification
• In a client/server network, the client requests information
or services from the server.
• The server provides the requested information or service to
the client.
– One example of a client/server network is a corporate
environment in which employees use a company e-mail server
to send, receive, and store e-mail. The e-mail client on an
employee computer issues a request to the e-mail server for any
unread e-mail. The server responds by sending the requested e-
mail to the client.
• In a client/server model, the servers are maintained by
network administrators. Data backups and security
measures are implemented by the network administrator.
The network administrator also controls user access to the
network resources.

Network classification

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Network bandwidth
• Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be transmitted
within a fixed time period.
– When data is sent over a computer network, it is broken up into
small chunks called packets.
– Each packet contains headers. A header is information added to
each packet that contains the source and destination of the
packet. A header also contains information that describes how
to put all of the packets back together again at the destination.
The size of the bandwidth determines the amount of
information that can be transmitted.
• Bandwidth is measured in bits per second and is usually
denoted by any of the following units of measure:
– bps – bits per second
– Kbps – kilobits per second
– Mbps – megabits per second

Network delay
• As a packet travels from one node (host or router) to
the subsequent node (host or router) along this path,
the packet suffers from several types of delays at each
node along the path.

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Network delay
• Processing delay: time required to examine the packet’s
header and determine where to direct the packet.
– Includes other factors, such as the time needed to check for bit-
level errors in the packet.
– Delays in high-speed routers are typically on the order of
microseconds or less.
• Queuing delay: experienced as a packet waits to be
transmitted onto the link.
– The length of the queuing delay of a specific packet will depend
on the number of earlier-arriving packets that are queued and
waiting for transmission onto the link.
– If the queue is empty and no other packet is currently being
transmitted, then our packet’s queuing delay will be zero. On
the other hand, if the traffic is heavy and many other packets
are also waiting to be transmitted, the queuing delay will be
long.

Network delay
• Transmission Delay: is the amount of time required to
push (that is, transmit) all of the packet’s bits into the
link.
• Packets are transmitted in a first-come-first-served
manner in packet-switched networks.
• The transmission delay is L/R.
– Denote the length of the packet by L bits
– Denote the transmission rate of the link from router A to
router B by R bits/sec.
– For a 10 Mbps Ethernet link, the rate is R = 10 Mbps, for a
100 Mbps Ethernet link, the rate is R = 100 Mbps.
• Transmission delays are on the order of microseconds
to milliseconds.

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Network delay
• Propagation Delay: is the distance between two
routers divided by the propagation speed.
– Propagation delay is d/s, where d is the distance between
router A and router B and s is the propagation speed of the
link.
• The bit propagates at the propagation speed of the
link.
– The propagation speed depends on the physical medium
of the link (that is, fiber optics, twisted-pair copper wire,
and so on).
– It is in the range of 2 108 meters/sec to 3 108 meters/sec
which is equal to, or a little less than, the speed of light.
• In wide-area networks, propagation delays are on the
order of milliseconds.

Network delay
• Comparing Transmission and Propagation Delay
– The transmission delay is the amount of time required
for the router to push out the packet.
• It is a function of the packet’s length and the transmission
rate of the link.
• It has nothing to do with the distance between the two
routers.
– The propagation delay is the time it takes a bit to
propagate from one router to the next.
• It is a function of the distance between the two routers
• It has nothing to do with the packet’s length or the
transmission rate of the link.

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Transmission modes
• The data that is transmitted over the network can flow
using one of three modes:
– Simplex, also called unidirectional, is a single, one-way
transmission. An example of simplex transmission is the
signal that is sent from a TV station to your home TV.
– When data flows in one direction at a time, it is known as
half-duplex. With half-duplex, the channel of
communications allows alternating transmission in two
directions, but not in both directions simultaneously. Two-
way radios, such as police or emergency communications
mobile radios, work with half-duplex transmissions.
– When data flows in both directions at the same time, it is
known as full-duplex. Although the data flows in both
directions, the bandwidth is measured in only one
direction. A network cable with 100 Mbps in full-duplex
mode has a bandwidth of 100 Mbps.

Transmission modes

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Packet switching
• Packet switching is a digital networking
communications method that groups all transmitted
data – regardless of content, type, or structure – into
suitably sized blocks, called packets.
– When traversing network adapters, switches, routers, and
other network nodes, packets are buffered and queued,
resulting in variable delay and throughput depending on
the network's capacity and the traffic load on the network.
• Packet switching contrasts with another networking
paradigm, circuit switching, a method which sets up a
limited number of dedicated connections of constant
bit rate and constant delay between nodes for
exclusive use during the communication session.

Circuit switching
An example of circuit switching in a telephone network

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Packet switching
Internet Protocol (IP) is an example of packet switching

Protocols
• Protocols - A communications protocol is a set of rules
for exchanging information over a network.
– An important example of a protocol stack is HTTP running
over TCP over IP over IEEE 802.11. (TCP and IP are
members of the Internet Protocol Suite. IEEE 802.11 is a
member of the Ethernet protocol suite.)
– This stack is used between the wireless router and the
home user's personal computer when the user is surfing
the web.
• Communication protocols have various characteristics.
– Connection-oriented or connectionless
– Use circuit mode or packet switching
– Use hierarchical addressing or flat addressing

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Protocols
• Ethernet - is a family of protocols used in LANs,
described by a set of standards together called IEEE
802.
– It has a flat addressing scheme.
– It operates mostly at levels 1 and 2 of the OSI model.
– For home users today, the most well-known member of
this protocol family is IEEE 802.11, otherwise known as
Wireless LAN (WLAN).
– The complete IEEE 802 protocol suite provides a diverse
set of networking capabilities.
• For example, MAC bridging (IEEE 802.1D) deals with the routing of
Ethernet packets using a Spanning Tree Protocol, IEEE 802.1Q
describes VLANs, and IEEE 802.1X defines a port-based Network
Access Control protocol, which forms the basis for the
authentication mechanisms used in VLANs.

Protocols
• Internet Protocol Suite - The Internet Protocol
Suite, also called TCP/IP, is the foundation of all
modern internetworking.
– It offers connection-less as well as connection-
oriented services over an inherently unreliable
network traversed by datagram transmission at the
Internet protocol (IP) level.
– The protocol suite defines the addressing,
identification, and routing specifications for Internet
Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) and for IPv6, the next
generation of the protocol with a much enlarged
addressing capability.

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DHCP
• Dynamic Host
Configuration
Protocol (DHCP)
is a software
utility used to
dynamically
assign IP
addresses to
network devices.

DHCP
• This is the IP
address
information that a
DHCP server can
assign to hosts:
– IP address
– Subnet mask
– Default gateway
– Optional values,
such as a Domain
Name System
(DNS) server
address

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ICMP
• Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is
used by devices on a network to send control
and error messages to computers and servers.
• There are several different uses for ICMP,
– announcing network errors
– announcing network congestion
– troubleshooting.

ICMP
• Packet internet groper (ping) is commonly used
to test connections between computers.
– command line utility used to determine whether a
specific IP address is accessible.
– You can ping the IP address to test IP connectivity.
• Ping works by sending an ICMP echo request to a
destination computer or other network device.
• The receiving device then sends back an ICMP
echo reply message to confirm connectivity.

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ICMP
• Ping is a troubleshooting
tool used to determine
basic connectivity.
• The command line
switches that can be used
with the ping command
are shown in Figure 1.
• Four ICMP echo requests
(pings) are sent to the
destination computer.
– If it is reachable, the
destination computer
responds with four ICMP
echo replies.
– The percentage of successful
replies can help you to
determine the reliability and
accessibility of the
destination computer.

ICMP

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Topology

Topology

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Topology

Topology

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Additional study
• How home networking works
– http://computer.howstuffworks.com/home-
network.htm
• Computer networks
– http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network
• Internetworking elements
– http://www.highteck.net/EN/Basic/Internetworki
ng.html

Review questions
• Discuss the basic elements of a network.
• What is a client program? What is a server
program?
• What are some of the physical media that
Ethernet can run over?
• Distinguish between a LAN and a WAN

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Review questions
• Discuss various uses of computer networks
today.
• Consider an organisation nearest to you that
has a computer network in place.
– Which devices are part of their network?
– Draw a diagram showing the physical layout of the
network.
– Discuss ways in which staff in that organisation
use the network.

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