COMPARATORS AND

WAVEFORM GENERATORS

5.1 INTRODUCTION
An operational amplifier in the open-loop configuration operates in a non-linear manner.
There are a number of applicationsof op-amp in this mode, such as, comparators, detectors,
limiters and digital interfacing devices namely converters. In this chapter, we shall discuss
comparator and its applications.

5.2 COMPARATOR
Acomparator is a circuit which compares a signal voltage applied at one input of an op-amp
ith a known reference voltage at the other input Tt is basically an open-loop op-amp with
output +Vot (= Vo) as shown in the ideal transfer characteristics of Fig. 5.1 (a). However,
sat
a commercial op-amp has the transfer characteristics of Fig. 5.1 (b).

10

(y,- Vo)
2 (v, -Vo) mV

10
-Vsat
(a) (b)

Fig. 5.1 The transfer characteristics (a) Ideal comparator (b) Practical comparator
may be seen that the change in the output state takes place with an increment in input
O only 2 mV. This is the uncertainty region where output cannot be directly defined. This
region is due to input off-set voltage and off-set null compensating techniques can be used
to eliminate this. There are basically two types of comparators:
208 Linear Integrated Circuits

Non-inverting comparator
Inverting comparator.
The circuit of Fig. 5.2 (a) is called a non-inverting comparator. Afixed reference
Vref is applied to ( input and a time varying signal v, is applied to (+) input. The ou
voltage is at -V sat for v; < Vpef And v, goes to + Vsat for v, > Vref The output waveforr
voltag
a sinusoidal input signal applied to the (+) input is shown in Figs. 5.2 (b and c) for pos
and negative V,er respectively.
V

Vm V

Vref
OV OV
R
-Vref
Vo

R
R
V4
Vret
+V,asat +Veat
OV
(a) t
-Vsat
Vsat
y<-Vrelf
(b) (c)

10kS2
(d)

Fig. 5.2 (a) Non-inverting comparator. Input and output waveforms for (b) Vef
positive
(c) Vet negative (d) Practical non-inverting comparator

In a practical circuit Vef is obtained by using a l0 k2

potentiometer which
voltage divider with the supply voltages V* and V- with the wiper connected to (-)forms inpu
terminal as shown in Fig. 5.2 (d). Thus a V,pef of desired amplitude and polarity Can be
obtained by simply adjusting the 10 kl potentiometer.
Figure 5.3 (a) shows a practical inverting comparator in which the reference voltage Vr
is applied to the (+) input and u, is applied to (-) input. For asinusoidal input signal, t
output waveform is shown in Fig. 5.3 (b) and (c) for Vef positive and negative respective
Output voltage levels independent of power supply voltages can also be obtained by
using a resistor R and two back to back zener diodes at the output of op-amp as shown in
 Comparators and Waveform Generators 209

Fig.5.3(d). The value of resistance R is chosen so that the zener diodes operate at the
recommended current. It can be
seen that the limiting
(V2 + Vp) where Vp (-0.7 V) is the diode forward voltages of , are (Vz1 + V) and
the waveforms of Figs. 5.2 and 5.3, the output voltage.
nstantaneously. Practical circuits, transitions are shown as taking place
one voltagelevel to another. The actualhowever, take willcertain
waveform a therefore exhibitof slanted
amount switchas from
time toedges well
1s delays atthe points of input threshold crossing. These effects are more noticeable at high
trequencies where the output switching
timestoarethe comparable
perioditself. Thus there is an upper limit or even longer
operating frequency than
of any the input
comparator.
If 741, the internally compensated op-amp is used as comparator, the primary limitation
isthe slew rate. Since 741C has slew rate equal to 0.5 Vus, it takes 2 x 13/0.5 50 us (Vsat
13V for 741) to swing from one saturation level to the other. In many applications, this

R
10 ks2
V

(a)

OV

ref

+Vsat
OV (d)
OV
t

-Vsat
v>Vyef v>-V,ol
(c)
(b)

comparator. Input and output waveforms (b) K.> 0

Fig. 5.3 (a) Inverting Comparator with zener diode at the output
(c) Vof <0 (d)
210 Linear Integrated Circuits

1stoo long. Todecrease the response time, it is possible to use uncompensated Op-amps suek
as 301, for comparator applications.
Although uncompensated op-amps make faster comparators than compensated
op-amps,
there are applications where even higher speeds are required. Also, for interfacing, it is often
desired that the output logic levels be compatible with standard logic families such as T
CMOS, ECL. To accommodate these needs, monolithic voltage comparators are availa J
Some of the comparator chips available are the Fairchild uA710 and 760, the National M
111, 160 and 311. The response time for 311 is 200 ns whereas 710 is a high speed compar.
with a response time of 40 ns, CMOS comparators are also available. Some examples Te
TLC 372 dual, TLC 374 quad (Texas Instruments), MC 14574 quad (Motorola).
5.2.1 Applications of Comparator
Some important applications of comparator are:
Zero crossing detector
Window detector
Time marker generator
Phase meter.
Zero Crossing Detector
The basic comparators of Figs. 5.2 (a) and 5.3 (a) can be used as a zero crossing detec or
provided that Vyef is set to zero. An inverting zero-crossing detector is shown in Fig. 5.4 ()
and the output waveform for a sinusoidal input signal is shown in Fig. 5.4 (b). The cireuit
is also called a sine to square wave generator.

OV
t

R V,4
10 ks2
Vsat
OV

(a)
(b)
Fig. 5.4 (a) Zero crossing detector (b) Input and output
waveforms
Window Detector
Sometimes one may like to mark the instant at which an unknown input is between two
threshold levels. This can be achieved by a circuit called window detector. Figure 5.5 shows
a three level detector withindicator circuit. There are three indicators: Yellow (LED3) 10
input too low (<3 V), Green (LED 2) for safe input (3-6 V) and Red (LED 1) for high inpu
(>6 V). They are turned on and off as indicated in Table 5.1.
212 Linear Integrated Circuits

as shown in Fig. 5.6 (d). The negative portion is clipped off after passing through
the help of this the dinde
D and the
waveform VL is as shown in Fig. 5.6 (e). So, withspacing Tand may be circutusent, forhe
sinusoid has been converted into a train of positive pulses of
triggering the monoshots, SCR, Sweep voltage of CRT etc.
Phase Detector
The phase angle between two voltages can also be measured using the circuit of Fig. 56 a
Both voltages are converted into spikes and the time interval between the pulse spik
one input and that of the other is measured. The time interval is proportional to the pa
aiterence. One can measure phase angles from 0° to 360° with such a circuit.

Example 5.1
(a) For the comparator shown in Fig. 5.7 (a) plot the transfer curve if the op-amp
ideal one and Vz1 = Vz = 9V.
(b) Repeat part (a) if the open loop gain of op-amp is 50,000.
Solution
(a) Since Ao. = o, even a small positive or negative voltage at the input drives the ou t
to Vsat. This causes Vz1 or Vz to break down, giving output voltage U, = t (V, +
=+9.7 V. The transfer curve is shown in Fig. 5.7 (b).

9.7 V 9.7 V
V, R Vi, mV

10 k2 V
-0.194 mV0.194 my

-9.7
7 V F-9.7V
(a)
(b) (c)
Fig. 5.7 (a) Circuit of Example 5.1 (b) Transfer curve for Example 5.1 (a).
(c) Transfer curve for Example 5.1 (b)
9.7
(b) Now Ao. = 50,000, so Au; = = 0.194 mV. The zeners break down after +0.194 mV
AoL
as shown in the transfer curve of Fig. 5.7 (c).

5.3 REGENERATIVE COMPARATOR (SCHMITT TRIGGER)

If positive feedback is added to the comparator circuit, gain can be increased greatly. Conse
quently, the transfer curve of comparator becomes more close to ideal curve. Theoretically
if the looP gain -ßAoL 0s adjusted to unity,then the gain with feedback, Ave becomes infinite
This results in an abrupt (zero rise time) transition between the extreme values of output
voltage. In practical circuits, however, it may not be possible to maintain loop-gain exact
equal to unity for a long time because of supply voltage and temperature variations. So d
value greater than unity is chosen. This also gives an output wayeform virtually discont1nu
 213
Comparators and Waveform Generators

ous at
the comparison voltage./ This circuit, however, now exhibits a phenomenon called
hvsteresis or backlash
Schmitt
Figure b.8 (a) shows such a regenerative comparator. The circuit is also known as
(+)
Trigger. The input voltage is applied to the (-) input terminal and feedback voltage to the
terminal. The input voltage v, triggers the output , every time it exceeds certain
input
levels. These voltage levels are called upper threshold voltage (Vup) àndlower threshold
voltage
threshold voltages i.e.
voltage (VLT). The hysteresis width is the difference between these two
These threshold voltages are calculated as follows.
Suppose the output V, = + Vsat: The voltage at (+) input terminal can be obtained by using
superposition

R+R,
RVsat
R, + R
(5.1)

This voltage is called upper threshold voltage V. As long as v; is less than VU, the
output v, remains constant at +Vsat When v, is just greater than Vrr, the output
regeneratively
switches to -Vsat and remains at this level as long as v; > Vr as shown in Fig. 5.8 (b).
For v, = -Vsat the voltage at the (+) input terminal is,

VLT = RV sat (5.2)

R, +Ry R, +R,
This voltage is referred to as lower threshold voltage VT The input voltage v, must
become lesser than Vr in order to cause v, to switch from -Vat to +V.sat: A regenerative
transition takes place as shown in Fig. 5.8 (c) and the output v, returns from -Vsat to +V sat
almost instantaneously. The complete transfer characteristics are shown in Fig. 5.8 (d).
V
Vsat
(b)
VuT
’-Vsat
Rg 5Cha
V
V sat

R.

Vref
R -Vsat
(c)
V
(a)

(d) Vef VuTV

Fig. 5.8 (a) An inverting Schmitt Trigger (b, c) Transfer characteristics for y increasing and
K decreasing (d) Composite input-output curve
214 Linear Integrated Circuits

Vur

|Vr=Vsin9
V, 4 sin =V Vm
V

(e) ()

Fig. 5.8 (e) Schmitt Trigger used as a squarer () Shift in the output waveform for K = -K
Note that Vn < VËm and the difference between these two voltages is the hysteresis wi th
Vy and can be written as
2 R, Vsat
VH =VUT - ViT = (E3)
R,+ R
Because of the hysteresis, the circuit triggers at a higher voltage for increasing sign ls
than for decreasing ones. Further, note that if peak-to-peak input signalv, were smaller than
VH then the Schmitt trigger circuit, having responded at a threshold voltage by a transition
in one direction would never reset itself, that is, once the output has jumped to, say, +V sat
it would remain at this level and never return to -Vsat: It may be seen from Eg. (5.3) that
hysteresis width VH is independent of Vef The resistor Rg in Fig. 5.8 (a) is chosen equal
to R, | R, to compensate for the input bias current. A non-inverting Schmitt trigger is
obtained if v; and Vef are interchanged in Fig. 5.8(a) (Problem 5.10). The most important
application of Schmitt trigger circuit is to convert a very slowly varying input voltage into
a square wave output as shown in Fig. 5.8 (e).
If in the circuit of Fig. 5.8 (a), Vef is chosen as zero volt, it follows from Eqs. (5.1) and
(5.2) that

VUp =-VT =
R, V,sat
R+R¡
If an input sinusoid of frequency f= /T is applied to such a comparator, a symmetrical
square wave is obtained at the output. The vertical edge of the output waveform howevet,
will not occur at the time the sine wave passes through zero [Fig. 5.8 ()) but is shifted u
phase by where sin = Vy/Vm and V, is the peak sinusoidal voltage.
Special purpose Schmitt triggers are commercially available. T1-13, T1-14 and T1-lS
chips with totem pole output and Vum= 1.7 V, V= 0.9 Vare available. The T1-132 packag*
is a quad two-input NAND Schmitt trigger. CMOS Schmitt triggers offer the advantage of
high input impedance and low power consumption. Examples of CMOS inverting Sehm
trigger are the CD40106B and 744C14.
 217
Comparators and Waveform Geneerators

interesting application of hysteresis is in the detection and counting of trating by

An
(roSsingsof an arbitrary waveform if it is Superimposed with interference say of a freqxceeds
much higher than the signal. hoth
Consider the Fig. 5.8(g) where the clean signal crosses the zero axis a number of time.
corrupted with noise interference around each of the zero crossing pointS we are trying
when
detect, A
to
simple comparator would change state at each of the zero crossings. If, however,
we
know the expected peak-to peak amplitude of the interference, the problem is solved by
introducing hysteresis of appropriate width in the circuit as shown by Vur and Vur in Fig.
The hysteresis in the comparator characteristics thus provides an effective means of
reiecting interference.
Zero
crossings
Clean
signal

Signal corrupted
with interference

VuT
t

Multiple
zero crOssings 5Chapt

in the comparator characteristics

Fig. 5.8 (a) Illustrating the use of hysteresis interference
as a means of rejecting

Example 5.2
In the Circuit of Schmitt trigger of Fig. 5.8 (a), R, = 100 2, R, =50 ks2, Vef = 0 V, U, = 1 V,,
voltage = tl4 V. Determine threshold voltages VUT
andpeak-t
VTo-peak)
Sine wave and saturation

SolFromutioBqs.
n (5.1) and (5.2)
100 x14 = 28 mV
Vur = 50100
 to.zthe in A5.4
oscillator, and Solution ency 214
the simpe So, The In So, --UI zero ne
C
saturation
(+) SQUARE period, Fig.
3 2 op-amp_square
the -0.2 U 215 oors Lineay
Vef input 5.9=0.2
, VLr VVH VUT =
0
T, T Tewl; the
principle = = T = the
WAVE T2= T2 (0.1/2 = 2T = arc = V,
=VyT
Fig.
(a)
terminal.
Rregion.
negative
- + (1000)
1f
sin sin
angle Circuits
ited
5.10 -
of Ta Ie T) = the 50100 100
6 GENERATOR
In wave 1/1000 0.1 (n V and wave
(a) R? generation
Thus Fig. = = ms TA + can
Simple
R,. 0.484 0.516 = upper
= = = 0) 0.2 positive ofx(-14)=-28 mV
generator = 0.1 = be
the 5.10 0.016 0.1
op-amp ms ms radian
1 -V
calculated V threshold
amplitude
of
reference (a) (ASTABLE ms m
ms portion
square is sin
square fraction
shown 0 level
= as 4V,n
of
wave voltage wave -2
Vsat - -BVsal
Vsat MULTIVIBRATOR) B in the into VyT
sat Vo4 = Fig. sin
generator 0 output output =
R,/R,
Vyef 0
5.10 a0V
V,l1-(1+p)e is + is Vo4 2V square and
(b) (a). waveform.
Bu, R) to
T
Fig.
Waveforms force Also hysteresis
(b) and of 5.9 T,
wave.
the an
may called Circuit
output
op-amp Calculatewidth
take a for V-0.2V)
Vc
free Example
Vo
values fed is to the
V,u
running
operate =09.
back 5.3 time
as
 Or
Or T and andthewhere,the back
+ charges -Veat
thisAt(-)terminal
R, on is
towards +V the Va means BV +
= period
Total
time This algebraic
After At Therefore, BVat The that input CConsiderstates
The 2 Ifthe Switching sat 0r
RC R, t to rises,
output give = frequency
and + is,
more ofa
=
output T, initial
value, terminal
Ro, value,final vice Vsat
charges until held at at anarlow-pass
e
peak-to-peak V, only voltage and instant, BVat
swings then wave The throughinstantquasitakes
versa. is it
onemanipulation, more The
B across determined cycle towardbecomes has+ßVsat stable. place RC
from form
= half v(T) the resistance
just of output
0.5, v,(t) v(t) vt) "Thenegatively combination.
time
fo= T T =-BV, VË
V=+ repeats voltage by resulting
+ is of the voltage - exceeded
just
= sat V and = period.the = = = = = Vsat: R, when
symmetrical. V is
Vat 2 2RC 2T, RC BVsat capacitor Vsat Vsat by and
to-V T=
get,we Vsat +(V itself When greater on R, also
= In - + sat
across the until the in
2RC 1-B 1+ß = sat V
(-BVsat the + R, as Whenever fed
2RC Vsat -V; time as BVaty
combination. shownoutput square a back
sat:S0, reaches (1 its the than
In -Vsat )e-tlRC the shown capacitor
In
1-B +p + - itvoltage
output this the
3. B)
Vat) capacitortakes in is to
(1+B)e-Ti/RC BVsat etR C reference at waveinput Comparators
the
And in Fig.
just reference is
e the Fig. voltage + This 5.10+Vo.sat output. at (-)
for and kC exceeds BVsat-
capacitoras 5.10
condition The theinput
R, switching voltage.
Whenthe (b). and
a switches voltage,
= function (b). It capacitor In (-)
-begins to The terminal Waveform
1.16Ry,
BV, astableinput
to sat continues voltage
takes charge to the terminal
of The -Voutput now afterGenerators
it multivibrator,
can time discharge
place. capacitorthesat at
from output voltagetheat asstarts integratingby
be is th e just
is the
seen Therefore, given -BV driven (+ )
switchesthrough chargecharging exceeds
(3.9) (3.8) (5.6) (5.5) (5.4) by,
sat input both 217
that 5.7)
to to

Chapter5
218 Linear Integrated Circuits

R=10 ks2
R

(V+V,)
741 W
Rsc Vo
Vin 0 R,=10k

R, V,+V,)
b R,=10
C=0.1 uF
BV,

(c) (d)

Fig. 5.10 (c) Use of back to back zener diodes. (d) Asymmetric square wave generator

The peak to peak output amplitude can be varied by varying the power supply volta,
However, a better technique is to use back to back zener diodes as shown in Fig. 5.10
The output voltage is regulated to + (V, + Vp) by the zener diodes.
U, peak-to-peak = 2 (V, + V) (5.1 )
Resistor Ro limits the currents drawn from the op-amp to,
Vsat Vz
(5.11)

This circuit works reasonably well at audio frequencies. At higher frequencies, however,
slew-rate of the op-amp limits the slope of the output square wave.
If an asymmetric square wave is desired, then zener diodes with different break down
voltages Vz1 and V2 may be used. Then the output is either V or Vs where Va = V t
V, and V = V2 + Vp. It can be easily shown that the positive section is given by,
T, = RC n l+ßVo2/Vo (5.12)
1-B
The duration of negative section T, will be the same as given by Eg. (5.12) with V and
Vo interchanged.
An alternative method to get asymmetric square wave output is to add a dc
voltage source
Vin series R, as shown in Fig. 5.10 (d). Now the capacitor C swings
between the voltage
levels (BVat + V) and (- BVsat + ). If the voltage source V is made variable, voltage to
frequency conversion can be achieved though the variation will not be linear.
5.5 MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
Monostable multivibrator has one stable state and the other is quasi stable state. The circuil
is useful for generating single output pulse of adjustable time duration in response to
triggering signal. The width of the output pulse depends only on external components connecteu
to the op-amp. The circuit shown in Fig. 5.11(a) is a modified form of the astable multivibrator.
 Comparators and Waveform GeneratorS 219

R Vin
W t

(b)
Vo ToVsat
R R, Vo
D,
T
R,
BVsat
-pV sat
(c)
v, To -Vsat
D, Vsat
RS
(a)
-Vsat
(d)
Fig. 5.11 (a) Monostable multivibrator (b) Negative going triggering signal
(c) Capacitor waveform (d) Output voltage waveform

Adiode D, clamps the capacitor voltage to 0.7 Vwhen the output is at +Vsat A negative
going pulse signal of magnitude VË passing through the differentiator R,C, and diode D,
produces a negative going triggering impulse and is applied to the (+) input terminal.
Toanalyse the circuit, let us assume that in the stable state, the output v, is at +sat The
diode D, conducts and v, the voltage across the capacitor C gets clamped to +0.7 V. The
voltage at the (+) input terminal through RR, potentiometric divider is + BVat: Now, if
effective
anegative trigger of magnitude V, is applied to the (+) input terminal so that the
signal at this terminal is less than 0.7 V, i.e. ((B Vsat + (-V)) < 0.7 V), the output of the op
amp will switch from + Vnt to Vot The diode will now get reverse biased and the capacitor
sat
input
starts charging exponentially to -Vat through the resistance R. The voltage at the (+)
terminal is now - BVat. When the capacitor voltage v becomes just slightly more negative
than -B Vsat the output of the op-amp switches back to + Vsat: The capacitor C now starts
the voltage.
charging to + Veot through R until v, is 0.7V as capacitor C gets clamped to Cha
Various waveforms are shown in Fig. 5.11 (6, c, d).
calculated as follows:
The pulse width T of monostable multivibrator is
V; and V,as initial
The general solution for a singletime constant low pass RC circuit with
and final values is,
RC (5.13)
Uo = V + (V, - Ve
tor the circuit, V, =-Vo
sat
and V, = V, (diode forward voltage).
The output u, is,
Vo)e-t/RC (5.14)
V = -Vsat t (Vp +
at t = T;
(5.15)
V =-BV,
sat

Therefore, Vsat)e
-TIRC
-B Vsat =-Vat + (Vp +
220 Linear Integrated Circuits

After simplification, pulse width T is obtained as

T= RC ln (1+VD Vsat) (5 16)

1-ß
where B = R/R, + R,)
If, Veat >> Vp and R, = R, so that B = 0.5, then
T = 0.69 RC
(5. 7)
For monostable operation, the trigger pulse width T, should be much less than T :
pulse width of the monostable multivibrator. The diode D, is used to avoid malfunctio,
by blocking the positive noise spikes that may be present at the differentiated trigger in:
It may be noted from Fig. 5.11(b) that capacitor voltage v, reaches its quiescent valuc D
at T' > T. Therefore, it is essential that a recovery time T' -T be allowed to elapse be
the next triggering signal is applied. The circuit of Fig. 5.11 (a) can be modified to ach
voltage to time delay conversion as in the case of square wave generator. The monosta e
e

multivibrator circuit is also referred to as time delay circuit as it generates a fast transit n
at a predetermined time Tafter the application of input trigger. It is also called a gat g
circuit as it generates a rectangular waveform at a definite time and thus could be used o
gate parts of a system.
5.6 TRIANGULAR WAVE GENERATOR
A triangular wave can be simply obtained by integrating a
square wave as shown in F .
5.12 (a). It is obvious that the frequency of the square wave and
as shown in Fig. 5.12 (b). Although the amplitude of the triangular wave is the sa! e
square wave is constant at +V t
the amplitude of the triangular wave will decrease as the
because the reactance of the capacitor C, in the feedback circuit frequency atincreases. This is
A resistance R, is connected across C, to avoid the decreases high frequencies.
in the case of practical integrator. saturation problem at low frequencies as
R
R,-10R,

V..
sat

OV
R.
R. V,
Sat

R, omr

R,
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5.12 (a) Triangular waveform
generator (b) Output waveform
Another triangular wave
5.13 (a). It basically consists generator using lesser number of
of a two level comparator components is shown in g
of the comparator A, is a followed
square wave of amplitude + Vsat andbyisanapplied
integrator. The outpu
terminal of the integrator A, producing a to the () input
as input to the triangular wave.
comparator A, through a voltage divider R,R4.This triangular wave is fed bacn
 Comparators and Waveform Generators 221

Voltage
V
+Vsat +Vaat
-V sat

A.
R, +Vamp
Ra
t.
P

ramp

TI2
-V sat
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.13 (a) Triangular waveform generator using lesser components (b) Waveforms

Initially, let us consider that the output of comparator A, is at +V,at: The output of the
integrator A, will be a negative going ramp as shown in Fig. 5.13 (b). Thus one end of the
oltage divider R,R, is at a voltage + Vsat and the other at the negative going ramp of A
At atime t=t1, when the negative going ramp attains a value of-V,ramp the effective voltage
at point P becomes slightly less than 0 V. This switches the output of A, from positive
saturation to negative saturation level -Vsat During the time when the output of A, is at
Va the output of A, increases in the positive direction. And at the instant t = ty the
voltage at point P becomes just above 0 V, thereby switching the output of A, from -Vsat to
+Veat: The cycle repeats and generates a triangular waveform. It can be seen that the
frequency of the square wave and triangular wave will be the same. However, the amplitude
of the triangular wave depends upon the RC value of the integrator A, and the output
appropriate
voltage level of A,. The output voltage of A, can be set to desired level by usingfollows:
calculated as
zener diodes. The frequency of the triangular waveform can be
level is given
The effective voltage at point P during the time when output of A, is at +Vsat
by,
ramp +
R |+Vsat -(-Vramp (5.18)
R, + R; Cha
5
equal to zero. Therefore, from Eq. (5.18),
At t = t,, the voltage at point P becomes
(3.19)
- Vramp R2 (+ Vsat)
R3
switches from -Vat to + V.sat:
DImlarly, at t to, when the output of A,

Vramp -R2 (-Vant) = R2 (Vgat (5.20)

R,
peak amplitude of the triangular wave is,
Therefore, peak to
(3.21)
=+ Vramp - (-Vramp) = 2
V, (pp) Rg
-Vramp to +Vramp in half the time period T/2. Putting
The output switches from
the values in the basic integrator equation
 222 Linear Integrated Circuits

1
RC
T/2
1 Vsat ( T
V,pp) = Vat Ddt = R,C,2
R{C1 0
V,(pp)
or, T = 2RC, (5 2
Vgat
Putting the value of v, (pp) from Eq. (5.21), we get
T = 4R{C,R,
Rg
Hence the frequency of oscillation f is,

fo =
1 R_ (5 3
T
4R,C,R,
5.7 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF SINE WAVE OSCILLATORs
The basic structure of sine wave oscillators based on the use of feedback in amplifier is
shown in Fig. 5.14. It consists of an amplifier with gain A and a frequency selective feedb k
network (having inductor or capacitive components) with the transfer ratio B. It may
noted that the loop is incomplete as the terminal 2 is not connected to terminal 1. o
understand the operation of the circuit, consider the situation where an input signal 1s
applied at the input terminal 1l of the amplifier, so that the output v, = A ,. The feedb. k
signal v, at terminal 2, therefore is vp = Aß v,. The
quantity Aß, therefore, represents the loop gain of 1 V V, =Av
Basic
the system. If the values of A and B are adjusted amplifierA
so that AB = 1, the feedback signal v, will be
2 v,=AB V,
identically equal to the externally applied signal .
If the terminal 2 is now conhected to terminalA
and the external signal v, is removed, the circutt Frequency
selective
witcontinue to provide output as the amplifier can feedback
not distínguish whether v; is coming from external network, B
source or from the feedback circuit.(Thus, output
signal can be continuously obtained without any Fig. 5.14 Basic structure of a
feedback oscillator
input signal if we can satisfy the condition on the
loop gain, that is,
Aß = 1/ (5.24
This is called Barkhausen criterion for oscillations)The condition Aß = 1can be satistie
only at one specific frequency, f, for the given component values. The circuit thus provides
utput at frequency, f, where the cireuit components meets the condition given by Eq. (524
We may rewrite Eq. (5.24) as
 is llations leAB|Ifand
as nity. becomes
in the the bycircuit, 0n Johnson' at s signal The Drinciple start Ereaterhecause however,
Oscillator
KC-Phase equency
TheShift
0scillators
30 Irequency.
trequencies oscillators
available
according Sine-wave
There transistor
Fig.
enters amplified./Since
inereasing th e output the and ß The and the
ordgaiingnd lo pP There
shoul
always the Now, vary
nverting requencies
circuit
are
5.15. into onset of frequency
the
noise) oscillations oftransistor
by of can the
condition the to are
about which inspite due
of
RC
varying The to
saturation)
different
output
until
waveform
present
oscillation not the
oscillations magnitude gain
(5.25)beEq. infact
otherand
mode an phase output to
can
non-linearity (as of |Aß| go temperature which
up
RC-phase the at or to
1the
On of less
variations, AB| two
RC-phase
and transistor it
signal variation
which and sustained enters unity,
than
shift to from range as is >1 at is in 5% increasing variations,
ampl1tude = of theneeds
types conditions
therefore provide
hundreds a shift shown limited in obtained
the later Fig. to
will
l thephase
total Aj0,)
oscillators. few goes th e into is
shift o1 of the in remove 5.14,
input ensure die
difficult
usually loop to
circuit the oscillations
saturation. the down Býo,)
hertz frequency
whi |A
c h
ß|=1 thNoise
efor at
voltage and will feedbackthe simultaneously be in
oscillator
provides of as we circuit ZAB |AB| 1= gain,
carrier (i.e. that go
gets eventually. Eq.
MHz. to soon it. had shift =
several satisfies base) In on = Aß (5.25), 1
Fig. |AB| can limited aging of 0° should be 20°
l80° is Here concentration assumed
as a increasing is
Thus of
shown 5.15 power
practical
of designed to or the Comparators
the does be signal multiples one
phase hundred Oscillations
|A B|>1
as the achieved. it due components, In maintain
we Showing order loop
in is that not is to satisfied on
wil goes conditionAB| oscillator,transistor with so v equal
shift. Fig. turned wefall the the that to phase
kHz. grow (Schottky goes in of and
discuss intO
constant The
non-linearity
below
non-linearity
first
every ensure to
The 5.16 on the 2n to Waveform
LC
saturation on.
duehowever, |AB| change unity.
(a). connect value feedback reducing circuit achieve
additional oscillators
only output Actually, unity
noise).
= to isthat
The of slightly of That
two amplitude (|AB| temperature 1 AB the as zero Generators
op-amp Amplitude
intobecomes
transistor
constant
saturation
goes as isThe it
signal
a In of cycle. of supply
in oscillations.
is
on
phase > picked isthe the circuit the or the
types are there explaining is each
1) noise not usually device, greater
suitable as transistor The voltage values multiplesmagnitude
of is of transistor donesource
is sustains
feedback
180° used up (called nose signal,
audio signal kept that than
(5.27) (5.26) Thus, (5.25)
for
and so. to the etc. of
of
23
is in A
)
Chapter5
 and and 5.16
(b).
calculated
oscillations.
inter-modal
undesirablepossible
thanHowever, are It consists
totalstage of
total
RCprovided 224
Replacing Solving -1,R The is
0-I4R+1,2R+ +1,|2R
feedback
one identical notphase phase
Eqs. 1, frequency.
by
that necessary
if provides byCircuits
Integrated
Linear
+-R R+-I,R shiftidentical
threeRC
shift the
writing the we so
(5.28), sC 1 1 factor total use long
that
due ofRC
This a
B= s V;I,R= = (5.29)
sC the non-identical
B phase
the to60° feedback
360°.
= KVLphenomenonof feedback
total all phase
-5a²)+ja(6a') - 1
jo, 1+ 1+ and = = the The
o'RC2RC
jo s sRC
6
0 V,equations RC shift phase the stages.network
6 6 5sRC three feedback
= 1+ (5.30) network is network shift
1 -0 180°
stages, shift RC
5sRC + can so
Each to
andsC'R³
s'c²R? V,R's'C fo r (5.31) (5.30) (5.29) (5.28) from
5 5 1 6sC' R fo r sections
is that
is network obtain
s° + I3, can lead
= V,R °s°Ca Fig. more 180°. it 180°. the theof
+
6sCR+ we be to is
jo, a
jo'R'c 1 s°C'R3 + get
Fig.
we
s°CR 5.16 Fig. R
get C
(b) 5.16 R.

Calculating
network
shift (a) R
comp R
Phase
R,
ß shift R
from
oscillator
the netw P 1

phase Feedt
Arnplifier
(5.36) (5.35) (3.34) (5.33) (5.32)
 225
Comparators and Waveform Generators

1 (5.37)
0=
where oRC
Thus
1, B should be real, that is the imaginary term in Eq. (5.36) must be zero.
For Aß = (5.38)
a (6 - a) = 0
a' = 6

a = /6
1
That is, oRC = /6
given by
The frequency of oScillation, fo is therefore
1 (5.39)
fo= 2r RC 6

Putting a² =6 in Eq. (5.36), we get

1 (5.40)
B= 29
indicates that the feedback network produces a phase shift of 180°.
The negative sign
1
So, 29

Since |AB| > 1

Therefore, for sustained oscillations, (5.41)
|A| >29
The gain A,
inverting op-amp should be atleast 29, or R, = 29 R,. make lA. B|
That is the gain of the ensure that variations in circuit parameters will not
1S kept greater than 29 to
<1, otherwise oscillations will
die out.
741 may be used, however, for high frequencies, 5Chap
kHz), op-amp
For low frequencies (< 1 used.
LM 318 or LF 351 should be

Example 5.4 Fig. 5.15 to oscillate at

100 Hz.
shift oscillator of
Design a phase
Solution
Let C = 0.1 uF. Then from Eq. (5.25)
=6.49 kQ
R=
V6 2 (10-7) (100)
Use R = 6.5 ks2
amplifier by RC network, R, s 10 R
prevent loading of the 65 k2
let R, = 10 R =
Therefore,
Since R, =29 R1
R, = 1885 ks2
 226 Linear Integrated Circuits

Wien Bridge Oscillator

Another commonly used audio frequency R

Oscillator is a Wien bridge oscillator. The C

circuit is shown in Fig. 5.17. It may be noted
that the feedback signal in this circuit is
connected to the non-inverting (+) input W
terminal so that the op-amp is working as a
non-inverting amplifier. Therefore, the
feedback network need not provide any phase
shift. The circuit can be viewed as a Wien
bridge with a series RC network in one arm
and a parallel RC network in the adjoining
arm. Resistors R, and Rp are connected in the
remaining two arms. The condition of zero Fig. 5.17 Wien bridge oscillator
phase shift around the circuit is achieved by
balancing the bridge.
A
The circuit has been redrawn to show the
bridge network in Fig. 5.18. The output ac Re
signal of the op-amp amplifier is fed back to
point A of the bridge. The feedback signal, V
across the parallel combination R,C, is applied
to the non-inverting input terminal of the op
amp. The gain of the op-amp amplifier is R

A = 1+ Rp (5.42)
R3
and feedback factor, ß from Fig. 5.18 is
Fig. 5.18 Wien bridge oscillator showing
B= (5.43) the bridge network

1
where Z, = R t sR,C, +1
(3.44)
sC, sC,

(5.45)
1+ sR,C
Putting the values of Z, and Zg in Eq.5.43), we get

B= R, /(1+R,C,s) (5.46)
1+ sRC; R,
sC 1+ sR,C,
 Comparators and Waveform Generators 227

sR,C,
1+s(RC +R,C, +
R,C,) +s'R, R,C,C, (5.47)
Putting S = J0,

B= joR,C,
1+ joR,C + R,C, (5.48)
a real
+R,C,)- o»R,R,C,C,
Inorder Bto be quantity
1-oR,R,C,C, = 0
Thus, the frequency of oscillation.
1
(5.49)
2r R,R,CC,
and R,C,
B= (5.50)
RC, +R,C, +R,C,
For R, = R, =R and C; = Cy = C,
1
fo = 2TRC
(5.51)

and (5.52)
3
Since |AB| > 1for sustained oscillations,
|A| > 3

Since A = 1+
5Cha
3 = 1+
R

Or Rp = 2R;) (5.53) Ra
If the gain |A| > 3, sometimes oscillations V
clip the output
keep growing and it mayis eliminated by a C
Sipractical
newave. Wien
This problem
bridge oscillator with
adaptive
this
R.

5.19. In
negative feedback as shown in Fig. give
ircuit, resistor R4 is initially adjusted to
The output
a
gain so that oscillations start.
until the voltage
Signal grows in amplitude
cut-in voltage of the Fig. 5.19 Practical Wien bridge oscillator with
across R3 approaches the
turn-on (one for adaptive negative feedback
diode. A the diodes begin to
 228 Linear Integrated Circuits

the positive half cycle and the other for the negative half cycle), the effective
resistance Rp decreases because the diode is in parallel with the resistance R. Thi
reduce the gain of the amplifier which in turn lowers the output amplitude. Hence fe dback
Oscillations can be obtained. Further, if the output signal falls, the diodes would bei.
turn-off thereby increasing Ry which in turn increases gain. sustained
The two op-amp RC oscillator circuits studied are suitable for the
10 Hz to 100 kHz (maximum 1 MHz). The size of Rand C components rang f
becomes very frequency
for generating low frequencies. Thus, the low frequency limit is dictated by the si
passive componentsrequired. The upper frequency limnit is governed by the frequency res
and slew rate limit of the op-amp used. For generating high frequencies in the RF
rang:
oscillator circuits are usually designed using BJT and LC tuned circuits or crystal oscill
Quadrature and Biphasic Oscillators
Signals that are of same frequency but have a phase shift of 90° with respect to eachc
er
are called quadrature signals. An example of quadrature signals is sine
and
shown in Fig. 5.20 (a). It may be noted that the distinction between sine and cosine
w es
cosine w
1S meaningless unless both are present or a timing method is used to
establish 'zero deg
point.
The circuit of a quadrature oscillator that generates both
sine and cosine wave is sh n
in Fig. 5.20 (b). It consists of two op-anmps A, and A,.
Both the op-amps are used as Mi er
+V

90°
Vot
Vsin 0, t V cos ht

Vcos 0, t C1 C2
HE
R1
2T
0
3Tt R3 R2
2
A

C3
Vsin o, t
R4

(a)
(b)
Fig. 5.20 (a) Quadrature sine cosine waves (b)
Quadrature oscillator circuit
integrators, where A, is
non-inverting type and A, is
(i.e. Va)is assumed to be a sinewave output. In orderinverting integrator. The output of
to obtain sinewave output a total
360° phase shift is required between the output of A,, around the loop
and back to the inpu
of A,. The op-amp A, provides 180° phase shift as A, is used in the
inverting configuratiot.
another 90° phase shift is obtained from A, as an integrator and the remaining 90° phase
 Comparators and Waveform Generators 229

shiftis provided by RC; network. If R, = R, = R, = Rand C = Cz = C, = C, then the

fiequency of Oscillation is given by:
1
f= (5.54)
2r RC
t this frequency,
A = =1.414 (5.55)

mla cosine output (Vo2) is taken from the output of amplifier A,. The relative amplitudes
are approximately equal, but the phase is shifted by 90° between the two stages.
Abiphasic oscillator is a sine wave oscillator that outputs two identical sine wave signals
that are 180° out of phase with each other.
The block diagram is shown in Fig. 5.21 and
Vsin o, t
onsists Of a sine wave oscillator followed by
aninverting amplifier that has a gain of one. Sine wave
A=-1 V
sin (o,t + 2)
The output of the sine wave oscillator is Oscillator
sin apf while the output of the inverter is
Tsin (@t + 2r). Fig. 5.21 Biphasic oscillator

Function Generator

We have earlier discussed circuits that generates square wave, triangular wave or a sine
wave. A function generator, however, produces all three types of waveforms simultaneously.
MHz) without
It is possible to achieve frequencies from very low (~0.01 Hz) to very high (>10
Significant distortion.
The op-amp
The circuit of a function generator using 3op-amps is shown in Fig. 5.22 (a). One
comparator or a Schmitt trigger.
Ay produces a square wave as it is used as a two level square
741 Cto produce a
should use a high speed comparator such as LM 311 in place of
from A, is fed to op-amp A,
wave with faster rise and fall times. The square wave output
therefore a triangular waveform.
WhIch is used as an integrator. The output of op-amp A, is, Chap
operating frequency.
Ihe switch S, selects the capacitor and thus the wave into a sine
Ine op-amp A, is used as a sine shaper circuit. It shapes the triangle
shown in Fig. 5.22 (b). When the triangle wave's amplitude is low, all the diodes in
Wave as amplifier with a gain -R,/R.
an inverting
g8 Teedback path are off. The op-amp A, works as
therefore is shown by line segment OA. When the output attains the amplitude
Ihe output, biases. This places a resistor is parallel
forward
at time 1, a diode in the feedback path in turn reduces the gain of the amplifier.
with the feedback resistance. This
R thus lowering diode
rate, as seen by the segment AB. Now, a second
The therefore, rises
output, at a slower
further reducing the feedback resistance. The
amplifier
In the path gets turned on
feedback
and in turn the slone of the output wave reduces once more in the segment BC, The
tips of the triangle wave. The
sine sine wave by rounding off the
shaper
distortion
thus produces a
of the sine wave thus produced is
very high compared to the sine waves generated
way to produce sine waves whose
by RC OScillators. However. this is the only practical(over 10 MHz),.
high
low (0.01 Hz) to very
irequencies vary from very