Urban Development in the United States in the Nineteenth Century

In discussing the growth of cities in the United States in the nineteenth century, one
cannot really use the term 'urban planning,' as it suggests modern concerns for spatial
and service organization which, in most instances, did not exist before the planning
revolution called the City Beautiful Movement that began in the 1890s. While there
certainly were urban areas that were “planned” in the comprehensive contemporary
sense of the word before that date, most notably Washington, D.C., these were the
exception. Most “planning” in the nineteenth century was limited to areas much smaller
than a city and was closely associated with developers trying to make a profit from a
piece of land. Even when these small-scale plans were well designed, the developers
made only those improvements that were absolutely necessary to attract the wealthy
segment of the market. Indeed, it was the absence of true urban planning that allowed
other factors to play such an important role in shaping the nineteenth-century American
city.
Three forces particularly affected the configuration of urban and suburban areas in the
nineteenth century: economics, transportation technology, and demographics. Added to
these was the characteristic American preference both for independent living, usually
associated with having an individual, free-standing home for one’s family, and for rural
living. Economics affected urbanization in two ways: First, economic considerations
influenced location decisions for business and industry, which often preempted choice
sites. Second, industrial growth generated higher incomes for large segments of the
population, which in turn provided more money for larger homes and commuter
transportation. As a result, many locations that would have been ideal for housing—or
for urban parks or other public spaces—were unavailable for such use.Related to
economics (since costs to individuals always played a role) were improvements in
transportation, from the first horse-drawn buses of the 1820s to electrified street
railways at the end of the century. Each transport innovation extended the distance that
a person could reasonably travel as a commuter or shopper, while constant system
improvements and increased ridership lessened costs.
Demographic patterns also affected urbanization in two ways: first, urban populations
grew steadily throughout the century due to immigration from rural areas, principally by
those seeking factory work, and emigration from abroad. Therefore cities expanded as
new housing had to be provided. Secondly, at the same time that new residents were
surging into cities, many urbanites, particularly those of the middle classes, began to
leave. While a preference for rural living explained part of this exodus, it was also due to
the perception that various urban problems were becoming worse.
Many nineteenth-century urban problems were those that continue to plague cities
today—crime, pollution, noise—but others were the direct result of lack of planning and
regulation, such as threat of fire, poor sanitation, and shoddy building construction. Fire
was a significant problem in urban areas of North America from the time of the first
European settlement. Construction with combustible materials coupled with close
placement of buildings and the use of open flames in heating, cooking, and lighting
meant that the potential for raging fires was ever present. Lack of sanitation, and the
ensuing public health problems it created, was a more constant, if less dramatic, urban
issue. It was not until the 1860s that any serious, concerted effort was made to develop
proper systems for water delivery and sewage removal. In spite of remarkable strides
made in the 1870s and 1880s by the newly established profession of sanitary
engineering, the common nineteenth-century pattern of individual unprofessionally
planned and installed cesspools (underground tanks for holding household sewage)
continued. This led to water contamination and the spread of disease by rodents and
insects.
Problems of fire and poor sanitation were inextricably linked with the last major urban
problem of the nineteenth century—lack of coordination in the physical expansion of
cities and their infrastructure systems (systems for providing services such as water,
gas, electricity, and sewage). Typically, development was both unplanned and
unrestricted, with landowners making all choices of lot size, services, and street
arrangement based only on their individual needs in the marketplace. Distortions of
streets and abrupt changes in the distance of houses from the street in urban areas,
which so clearly delineate where one development ended and another began, were just
the most obvious problems that this lack of coordination created.

句子插入 Look at the four squares that indicate where the following sentence
could be added to the passage.

As a result, many locations that would have been ideal for housing—or for
urban parks or other public spaces—were unavailable for such use.

Where would the sentence best fit? Select a square to add the sentence to
the passage.

A.

Square-1

B.

Square-2

C.

Square-3

D.

Square-4

Correct answer: B

My answer: C

答案解析

B 选项正确,因为插入句
As a result, many locations that would have been ideal for housing—or for
urban parks or other public spaces—were unavailable for such use

与原文中提到的

economics affected urbanization in two ways: First, economic considerations

influenced location decisions for business and industry, which often
preempted choice sites.

经济因素通过两种方式影响城市化：首先，经济考虑影响了商业和工业的选址决策，这通常会优先占据理想的地点。）紧密相关。插入句进一步解释
了由于经济因素，许多本来适合住宅或公共空间的地点被占用了。因此，B 选项是正确的。

显示翻译

Transportation and Economic Change in the Nineteenth-Century United

States

Between 1820 and 1860, the American economy entered a new stage of
development as it moved away from its reliance on agriculture as the major
source of growth toward an industrial and technological future. Because the
size of American families gradually shrank—in 1800, the average woman
bore seven children; by 1860, the number had declined to five—immigration
from Europe played an important part in providing the new workers, new
households, and new consumers essential to economic development as well
as the capital and technological ideas that helped to shape American growth.

Improved transportation played a key role in bringing about economic and

geographic expansion. Early in the century, high freight rates discouraged
production for distant markets and the exploitation of resources, and
primitive transportation hindered western settlement. During the 1820s and
1830s, however, canal-building projects dramatically transformed this
situation. The 363-mile-long Erie Canal, the last link in a chain of waterways
binding New York City to the Great Lakes and the Old Northwest, was the
most impressive of these new canals. The volume of goods and people it
carried at low cost and the economic advantages it conferred on those within
its reach prompted the construction of over 3,000 miles of canals by 1840,
primarily in eastern and midwestern states.

Even at the height of the canal boom, politicians, promoters, and others,
impressed with Britain’s success with railways, also supported the
construction of railroads. Railroads, unlike canals that might freeze during
the winter, were capable of operating all year-round. Nor did they need large
amounts of water to operate, as canals did. They could be built almost
anywhere, an advantage that encouraged Baltimore merchants, envious of
New York’s water link to the Old Northwest, to begin the Baltimore & Ohio
Railroad in 1828.

Despite the interest in and advantages of railroads, there were technical

problems to resolve; for example, the first trains jumped their tracks and
spewed sparks, setting nearby fields on fire. But such difficulties were quickly
overcome. By 1840, there were 3,000 miles of track, most in the Northeast.
Another 5,000 miles were laid during the 1840s, and by the end of the
1850s, total mileage soared to 30,000. Like the canals, the new railroads
strengthened the links between the Old Northwest and the East.

Improved transportation had such a Highlight]profound influence on

American life that some historians use the term “transportation revolution”
to refer to its impact. Canals and railroads bound the country together in a
new way. They provided farmers, merchants, and manufacturers with cheap
and reliable access to distant markets and goods and encouraged Americans
to settle the frontier and cultivate virgin lands. The economic opportunities
they opened fostered technological innovations that might increase
production. Eventually, the strong economic and social ties the waterways
and then the railways fostered between the Old Northwest and the East led
people living in the two regions to share political outlooks.

Especially in terms of the pattern of western settlement, the railroads

exerted enormous influence. As the railroads followed—or led—settlers
westward, their routes could determine whether a city, town, or even
homestead survived. The railroad transformed Chicago from a small
settlement into a bustling commercial and transportation center. In 1850, the
city contained only a single railroad, but within five years, 2,200 miles of
track serving 150,000 square miles terminated in Chicago.

The dramatic rise in railroad construction in the 1840s and 1850s contributed
to faster economic growth after 1839. Goods, people, commercial
information, and mail flowed ever more predictably, rapidly, and cheaply. In
1790, an order from Boston took two weeks to reach Philadelphia; in 1836, it
took only 36 hours.

Improved transportation stimulated agricultural expansion and regional

specialization. Farmers began to plant larger crops for the market,
concentrating on those most suited to their soil and climate. By the late
1830s, the Old Northwest had become the country’s grain-growing region,
and northeastern farmers turned to dairy or produce farming. By 1860,
American farmers were producing four to five times as much wheat, corn,
cattle, and hogs as they had in 1810. Their achievements meant plentiful,
cheap food for American workers and more income for farmers to spend on
the new consumer goods.

单选 According to paragraph 6, which of the following was true of Chicago in

1850 ?

A.

It was a major center for commerce.

B.

It contained 2,200 miles of track.

C.

It was a small settlement in comparison to its later size.

D.

Its population was decreasing as settlers left it to travel westward.

Correct answer: C

My answer: A

答案解析

The railroad transformed Chicago from a small settlement into a bustling

commercial and transportation center. In 1850, the city contained only a
single railroad, but within five years, 2,200 miles of track serving 150,000
square miles terminated in Chicago.

这句话明确指出，1850 年的芝加哥只是一个小的定居点，与后来的规模相比显得很小。