The world, and everything in it, moves.

The
classification and comparison of motion called
kinematics is often challenging. What exactly do
you measure, and how to do compare? There are
three restricted ways to examine the general
properties of motion:
i. The motion is along a straight line;
ii. The cause of motion will not be specified
iii. The moving object is either a particle or an
object that moves like a particle
At the end of the topic, the student must be able to
1. define physical quantities associated with
rectilinear motion
2. describe and discuss rectilinear motion;

3. solve problems involving rectilinear motion

4. construct and interpret graphs related to

motion
5. apply calculus in describing rectilinear motion
 Consider a particle moving along a straight line
which we designate as our x-axis. Let the origin O
be the starting point.
 Suppose that 1.0 s after the start, the front of
the particle is at pt P1, 19 m from origin, and 4.0
s after the start, it is at pt P2, 277 m from the
origin. The displacement of the particle is a
vector that points from P1 to P2.
 The x-component of displacement is the change
in x, (277 m − 19 m) = 258 m that took place
during time interval of (4.0 s − 1.0 s) = 3.0 s.
• The particle’s average velocity during this time interval as
a vector qty whose x-component is the change in x
divided by time interval:
(258 m)/(3.0 s) = 86 m/s.
• At time t1, the particle is at pt P1, with coordinate x1, and
at time t2 it is at pt P2, with its coordinate x2. The
displacement of the particle during the time interval from
t1 to t2 is the vector from P1 to P2 with x-component (x2 −
x1) and with y- and z-components equal to zero.
• The x-component of the particle’s displacement is the
change in the coordinate x,
x = x2 − x1 (2.1)
The x-component of average velocity is: the x-
component of displacement, Δx, divided by the
time interval, Δt during which the displacement
occurs. We represent it by the symbol av-x, where
“av” signifies average value and subscript x
indicates that this is the x-component:

x2 − x1 x
av− x = = (2.2)
t2 − t1 t
 For the above example, we get a positive
average velocity for the particle. This means
that during the time interval, the coordinate x
increased and the particle moved in the
positive x-direction.
 If a particle moves in the negative x-direction
during a time interval, its average velocity for
that time interval is negative.
 With straight-line motion, we usually call Δx
simple displacement and av-x simply the
average velocity.
 But remember that these are really the x-
components of vector quantities that, in this
special case, have only x-components.
 The graph shows the particle’s position as a
function of time, an x-t graph.
 The curve does not represent the particle’s path
is space; it’s only a pictorial way to represent
how its position changes with time.
 Average velocity
av-x = Δx/Δt of the
particle is equal to
the slope of the
line p1p2.
 The average velocity of a particle during a time
interval can’t tell us how fast, or in what direction,
the particle was moving at any given time.
 Thus, we use instantaneous velocity to describe the
particle motion in greater detail.
 In physics, an instant has NO duration at all; it
refers to a single value of time.
 Using the previous example, we imagine moving
the second pt P2 closer to P1 and computing the
average velocity over these shorter and shorter
distances.
 Thus, as the limit of Δx/Δt as Δt approaches
zero is called the derivative of x with respect to
t and we write it as dx/dt.
 Instantaneous velocity is defined as the limit of
the average velocity as time interval
approaches zero; it equals the instantaneous
rate of change of position with time. Symbol
used is x:
x dx
 x = lim = (2.3)
t →0 t dt
 We always assume Δt is positive so that x has
the same algebraic sign as Δx.
 Instantaneous velocity, like average velocity is
a vector quantity.
 Eqn 2.3 defines its x-component, which can be
negative or positive.
 In straight line motion, all other components of
instantaneous velocity are zero.
 When we use the term “velocity”, we mean
instantaneous velocity rather than average
velocity, unless stated otherwise.
 We use the term speed to denote distance
traveled divided by time, on either an average
or instantaneous basis.
 We use the term  with NO subscripts to
denote instantaneous speed. Instantaneous
speed measures how fast a particle is moving;
whereas instantaneous velocity measures how
AND in what direction is it moving.
 Thus, note that instantaneous speed can
NEVER be negative.
Caveat:
 Average speed, is not the magnitude of average
velocity.
 When Alexander Popov set a world record in 1994 by
swimming 100.0 m in 46.74 s, his average speed was
(100.0 m)/(46.74 s) = 2.139 m/s. But he swam two
lengths in a 50-m pool, he started and ended at the
same pt, giving him zero total displacement and zero
average velocity for his effort!
 Average speed and instantaneous speed are scalars,
not vectors.
A cheetah is crouched in ambush 20 m to the east of an
observer's blind. At time t = 0 the cheetah charges an
antelope in a clearing 50 m east of the observer. The
cheetah runs along a straight line. Later analysis of a
videotape shows that during the first 2.0 s of the attack,
the cheetah's coordinate x varies with time according to
the equation x = 20 m + (5.0 m/s2)t2.
(a) Find the displacement of the cheetah during the
interval between t1 = 1.0 s and t2 = 2.0 s. (b) Find the
average velocity during the same time interval. (c) Find
the instantaneous velocity at time t1 = 1.0 s by taking t =
0.1 s, then t = 0.01 s, then t = 0.001 s.
(d) Derive a general expression for the instantaneous
velocity as a function of time, and from it find x at
t = 1.0 s and t = 2.0 s.
Identify:
This problem requires us to use the definitions of
displacement, average velocity, and instantaneous
velocity. Using the first two of these involves
algebra; the last one requires us to use calculus to
take a derivative.
Set Up:
To analyze this problem, we use Eqn. 2.1 for
displacement, Eqn. 2.2 for average velocity, and
Eqn. 2.3 for instantaneous velocity.
Execute:
(a) At time t1 = 1.0 s the cheetah's position is

( )
x1 = 20 m + 5.0 m/s 2 (1.0 s )2 = 25 m
At time t2 = 2.0 s its position is

( )
x2 = 20 m + 5.0 m/s 2 (2.0 s )2 = 40 m
The displacement during this interval is
x = x2 − x1 = 40 m − 25 m = 15 m
(b) The average velocity during this time interval
x2 − x1
av− x = =  = 15 m/s
t2 − t1
(c) With t = 0.1 s, the time interval is from t1 = 1.0 s to t2 =
1.1 s. At time t2, the position is

( )
x2 = 20 m + 5.0 m/s 2 (1.1 s )2 = 26.05 m
The average velocity during this interval is
26.05 m − 25 m
av − x = = 10.5 m/s
1.1 s − 1.0 s
You should follow this same pattern to work out the
average velocities for the 0.01-s and 0.001-s intervals. The
results are 10.05 m/s and 10.005 m/s.
As t gets smaller, the average velocity gets closer to
10.0 m/s, so we conclude that the instantaneous
velocity at time t = 1.0 s is 10.0 m/s.
(d) We find the instantaneous velocity as a function of
time by taking the derivative of the expression for x
with respect to t. For any n the derivative of tn is
ntn-1, so the derivative of t2 is 2t. Therefore
dx
( ) ( )
x = = 5.0 m/s 2 (2t ) = 10.5 m/s 2 t
dt
At time t = 1.0 s, x = 10 m/s as we found in part (c).
At time t = 2.0 s, x = 20 m/s.
EVALUATE:
Our results show that the cheetah picked up
speed from t = 0 (when it was at rest) to t = 1.0 s
(x = 10 m/s) to t = 2.0 s (x = 20 m/s). This makes
sense; the cheetah covered only 5 m during the
interval t = 0 to t = 1.0 s, but covered 15 m during
the interval t = 1.0 s to t = 2.0 s.
Finding velocity on an x-t Graph
 Velocity of a particle can also be found from the graph
of the particle’s position as a function of time.
 On a graph of position as a function of time for
straight-line motion, the instantaneous velocity at any
pt is equal to the slope of the tangent at that pt.
Finding velocity on an x-t Graph
Figure below illustrates the 3 different cases of
velocity derivation.
 When the velocity of a moving body changes
with time, we say it has an acceleration.
 Acceleration describes the rate of change of
velocity with time.
 Acceleration is a vector quantity.
 In straight-line motion, acceleration’s only
nonzero component is along the axis which the
motion takes place.
Average Acceleration
 Average acceleration aav-x of a particle as it moves
from P1 to P2 is defined to be a vector quantity
whose x-component is ∆, the change in the x-
component of velocity, divided by the time
interval ∆t:
2 x − 1x vx
aav− x = = (2.4)
t2 − t1 t
 For straight-line motion, we usually call aav-x
simply the average acceleration.
 Units of average acceleration is m/s2.
An astronaut has left an orbiting space shuttle to
test a new personal maneuvering unit. As she
moves along a straight line, her partner on board
the shuttle measures her velocity every 2.0 s,
starting at time t = 1.0 s, as follows:
t (s) x (m/s) t (s) x (m/s)
1.0 0.8 9.0 −0.4
3.0 1.2 11.0 −1.0
5.0 1.6 13.0 −1.6
7.0 1.2 15.0 −0.8
Find the average acceleration, and describe
whether the speed of the astronaut increases or
decreases, for each of the following time intervals:
(a) t1 = 1.0 s to t2 = 3.0 s;
(b) t1 = 5.0 s to t2 = 7.0 s;
(c) t1 = 9.0 s to t2 = 11.0 s;
(d) t1 = 13.0 s to t2 = 15.0 s.
Identify and Set Up:
We use the definition of average acceleration, Eqn.
2.4, to determine the value of aav-x from the change
in velocity for each time interval. We determine the
change in speed for each time interval by
remembering that speed  is the magnitude of the
instantaneous velocity x.
Execute:
The upper part of the figure graphs the velocity as
a function of time. On this graph, the slope of the
line connecting the pts at the beginning and end of
each interval equals the average acceleration aav-x =
x/t for that interval. The values of aav-x are
graphed in the lower part of the Figure.
Execute:
For each time interval, we have
(a) aav-x = (1.2 m/s − 0.8 m/s )/(3.0 s − 1.0 s) = 0.2 m/s2.
The speed increases from 0.8 m/s to 1.2 m/s.
(b) aav-x = (1.2 m/s − 1.6 m/s)/(7.0 s − 5.0s) = −0.2 m/s2.
The speed decreases from 1.6 m/s to 1.2 m/s.
(c) aav-x = [− 1.0 m/s −(−0.4 m/s)]/[11.0 s − 9.0 s] = −0.3
m/s2. The speed increases from 0.4 m/s to 1.0 m/s.
(d) aav-x = [− 0.8 m/s − (− 1.6 m/s)]/[15.0 s − 13.0 s] =
0.4 m/s2. The speed decreases from 1.6 m/s to 0.8
m/s.
Evaluate:
When acceleration has the same direction as the initial
velocity, as in intervals a and c, the astronaut goes
faster; when it has the opposite direction, as in intervals
b and d, she slows down. When she moves in the
negative direction with increasing speed (interval c),
her velocity is algebraically decreasing (becoming
more negative), and her acceleration is negative. But
when she moves in the negative direction with
decreasing speed (interval d), her velocity is
algebraically increasing (becoming less negative) and
her acceleration is positive.
 Instantaneous acceleration is the limit of the
average acceleration as the time interval
approaches zero.
 Or in calculus, instantaneous acceleration
equals the instantaneous rate of change of
velocity with time.
vx dvx
a x = lim = (2.5)
t →0 t dt
 Note that this is really the definition of x-
component of the acceleration vector; all other
components are zero.
Suppose the velocity x of the car in figure below
at any time t is given by the equation

 x = 60 m/s + (0.50 m/s 3 )t 2

a) Find the change in velocity of the car in the time
interval between t1 = 1.0 s and t2 = 3.0 s. (b) Find the
average acceleration in this time interval. (c) Find the
instantaneous acceleration at time t1 = 1.0 s by taking t to
be first 0.1 s, then 0.01 s, then 0.001 s. (d) Derive an
expression for the instantaneous acceleration at any time,
and use it to find the acceleration at t = 1.0 s and t = 3.0 s.
Identify:
This example is similar to the previous example. There we
determined the average velocity over shorter and shorter
time intervals by considering the change in displacement,
and we determined the instantaneous velocity by
differentiating the position as a function of time. In this
example, we determine the average acceleration by
considering changes in velocity over a time interval.
Likewise, we find the instantaneous acceleration by
differentiating the velocity as a function of time.
Set Up:
We use Eqn. 2.4 for average acceleration and Eqn. 2.5 for
instantaneous acceleration.
Execute:
(a) We first find the velocity at each time by substituting
each value of t into the eqn.
At time t1 = 1.0 s,
( )
1x = 60 m/s + 0.50 m/s 3 (1.0 s )2 = 60.5 m/s
At time t2 = 3.0 s,

( )
2 x = 60 m/s + 0.50 m/s 3 (3.0 s )2 = 64.5 m/s
Execute:
(a) The change in velocity x is
 x = 2 x − 1x = 64.5 m/s − 60.5 m/s = 4.0 m/s
The time interval is t = 3.0 s − 1.0 s = 2.0 s.
(b) The average acceleration during this time interval is
2 x − 1x 4.0 m/s
aav− x = = = 2.0 m/s 2
t2 − t1 2.0 s
During the time interval from t1 = 1.0 s to t2 = 3.0 s, the
velocity and average acceleration have the same algebraic
sign, and the car speeds up.
Execute:
(c) When t = 0.1 s, t2 = 1.1 s and
( )
2 x = 60.5 m/s + 0.50 m/s 3 (1.1 s )2 = 60.605 m/s
 x = 0.105 m/s
 x 0.105 m/s
aav − x = = = 1.05 m/s 2
t 0.1 s
Repeat this pattern for t = 0.01 s and t = 0.001 s; the
results are aav-x = 1.005 m/s2 and aav-x = 1.0005 m/s2,
respectively. As t gets smaller, the average acceleration
gets closer to 1.0 m/s2. We conclude that the instantaneous
acceleration at t = 1.0 s is 1.0 m/s2.
Execute:
(d) The instantaneous acceleration is ax = dx/dt, the derivative of a
constant is zero, and the derivative of t2 is 2t. Using these formulas, we

 ( )
obtain
d x d
ax = = 0.60 m/s + 0.50 m/s 3 t 2
dt dt
= (1.0 m/s 3 )t
ax = (1.0 m/s 3 )(1.0 s ) = 1.0 m/s 2
When t = 1.0 s,

When t = 3.0 s,

( )
ax = 1.0 m/s (3.0 s ) = 3.0 m/s
3 2
Evaluate:
Note that neither of the values we found in part (d)
is equal to the average acceleration found in part
(b). The instantaneous acceleration of this car
varies with time. Automotive engineers sometimes
call the rate of change of acceleration with time the
"jerk."
Finding Acceleration on a vx-t Graph or an x-t Graph
We can understand the concepts of average and
instantaneous acceleration from a graph with
instantaneous velocity  on the vertical axis and time t on
horizontal axis; or commonly known as vx-t graph.
Finding Acceleration on a vx-t Graph or an x-t
Graph
 On a graph of velocity as a function of time, the
instantaneous acceleration at any pt is equal to
the slope of the tangent to the curve at that pt.
 Note that the algebraic sign of the acceleration
doesn’t tell you whether a body is speeding up
or down. We need to compare the signs of the
velocity and the acceleration.
Finding Acceleration on a vx-t Graph or an x-t Graph
1. x and ax have same positive sign, body is moving in
positive direction and increasing speed
2. x and ax have same negative sign, body is moving in
negative direction and increasing speed
3. x is positive and ax is negative, body is moving in
positive direction and decreasing speed
4. x is negative and ax is positive, body is moving is
negative direction and decreasing speed
Finding Acceleration on a vx-t Graph or an x-t Graph
Finding Acceleration on a vx-t Graph or an x-t Graph
Finding Acceleration on a vx-t Graph or an x-t Graph
We can also learn about the acceleration of a body from a
graph of its position vs. time. Because ax = dvx/dt and x =
dx/dt,
dvx d  dx  d 2 x
ax = =  = 2 (2.6)
dt dt  dt  dt
Thus, ax is the second derivative of x with respect to x.
The second derivative of any function is directly related to
the concavity or curvature of the graph of that function.
Finding Acceleration on a vx-t Graph or an x-t Graph
Examining the curvature of an x-t graph is an easy way to
decide what the signs of acceleration is. But this technique
is less helpful for determining the numerical values of
acceleration, because the curvature of a graph is hard to
measure.
Curvature of x-t graph x ax
Concave up Increasing Positive

Concave down Decreasing Negative

No curvature (flat) Constant Zero

 The simplest accelerated motion is straight-line motion
with constant acceleration.
 For this case, velocity changes at the same rate
throughout the motion.
 Such motions occur frequently in nature and also in
human technology.
 We will derive key equations for straight-line motion
with constant acceleration.
The motion diagram shows the position, velocity, and
acceleration at five different times for a
particle moving
with
constant
acceleration.
 Since acceleration ax is
constant, the ax-t graph
shows a horizontal line.

 The graph of velocity vs.

time has a constant slope
because the acceleration
is constant.
 We replace average acceleration aav-x by the constant
(instantaneous) ax,
v2 x − v1x
ax = (2.7)
t2 − t1
 Now we let t1 = 0 and t2 be any arbitrary later time t.
We use 0x for the x-component at the later time t is x.
Then Eqn 2.7 becomes

vx − v0 x
ax = or
t −0
 x = v0 x + axt (2.8)
 Next, we derive an equation for the position of x of a
particle moving with constant acceleration.
 Firstly, we use Eqn 2.2, the initial position where time t
= 0 and denoted by x0.
 The position at the later time t is simply x. Thus for
time interval ∆t = t − 0 and ∆x = x − x0,

x − x0
av− x = (2.9)
t
 We can also obtain a second expression for av-x that is
valid for constant acceleration only.
0 x − 0
av− x = (2.10)
2
 Substitute Eqn 2.8 into above equation,

1
av − x = (0 x + 0 x + axt )
2
1
= 0 x + a x t (2.11)
2
 Finally, equating Eqns 2.9 and 2.11 and
simplifying the result:
1 2
x = x0 + 0 xt + axt (2.12)
2

 Just as change in velocity of particle equals the

area under ax-t graph, the displacement equals
the area under x-t graph.
 This method is always valid even if the
acceleration is not constant.
 Taking derivative of Eqn 2.12:
dx
 x = = 0 x + a x t
dt
 Differentiating again,
d x
= ax
dt
 In many problems, it is useful to have a
relationship between position, velocity, and
acceleration that does not include time.
 Solving Eqn 2,8 for t, then substitute resulting
expression into Eqn 2.12,
 x − 0 x
t=
ax
2
  x − 0 x  1   x − 0 x 
x = x0 + 0 x   + a x  
 ax  2  ax 
2a x (x − x0 ) = 20 x x − 20 x +  x − 20 x x + 0 x
2 2 2

 Simplifying,
 x = 0 x + 2ax ( x − x0 )
2 2
(2.13)
 Equating Eqns 2.9 and 2.10, multiply through
by t,
 0 x +  x 
x − x0 =  t (2.14)
 2 

 Eqns 2.8, 2.12, 2.13 and 2.14 are the equations of

motion with constant acceleration.
 These equations can be used to solve ANY
kinematics problems involving straight-line
motion of a particle with constant acceleration.
 Graph shows the coordinate x as a function of
time for motion with constant acceleration.
 Characteristics:
 A parabola
 Intercept x0 at t = 0
 Slope of tangent
at t = 0 equals 0x
 Slope of tangent
at t equals x
 A motorcyclist heading east through a small Iowa city
accelerates after he passes the signpost marking the
city limits. His acceleration is a constant 4.0 m/s2. At
time t = 0 he is 5.0 m east of the signpost, moving east
at 15 m/s. (a) Find his position and velocity at time t =
2.0 s. (b) Where is the motorcyclist when his velocity is
25 m/s?
 Identify:
 The statement of the problem tells us explicitly that the
acceleration is constant, so we can use the constant-
acceleration equations.
 Set Up:
 We take the signpost as the origin of coordinates
(x = 0), and choose the positive x-axis to point east. At
the initial time t = 0, the initial position is x0 = 5.0 m and
the initial velocity is 0x = 15 m/s. The constant
acceleration is ax = 4.0 m/s2. The unknown target
variables in part (a) are the values of the position x and
the velocity x at the later time t = 2.0 s; the target
variable in part (b) is the value of x when x = 25 m/s.
Execute:
(a) We can find the position at t = 2.0 s by using Eqn 2.12,
which gives position x as a function of time t:
1 2
x = x0 + 0 xt + a xt
2
1
( )
= 5.0 m + (15 m/s )(2.0 s ) + 4.0 m/s 2 (2.0 s )2
2
= 43 m
We can find the velocity at this same time by using Eqn
2.8, which gives velocity x as a function of time t:
 x = 0 x + a x t
( )
= 15 m/s + 4.0 m/s 2 (2.0 s ) = 23 m/s
Execute:
(b) From our soln to part (a), we see that the velocity is x
= 25 m/s at a time later than 2.0 s and at a point farther
than 43 m from the signpost. From Eqn. 2.13 we have
 x 2 = 0 x 2 + 2ax ( x − x0 )
Solving for x and substituting in the known values, we
find
 x − 0 x
2 2
x = x0 +
2a x
(25 m/s )2 − (15 m/s )2
= 5.0 m +
(
2 4.0 m/s 2 )
= 55 m
 Evaluate:
 Do these results make sense? According to our
results in part (a), the motorcyclist accelerates from
15 m/s (about 34 mi/h, or 54 km/h) to 23 m/s
(about 51 mi/h, or 83 km/h) in 2.0 s while
traveling a distance of 38 m (about 125 ft). Our
results in part (b) tell us that after an additional 0.5
s, the motorcyclist has moved an additional 12 m
(about 39 ft) and has accelerated to
25 m/s (56 mi/h, or 90 km/h). This is pretty brisk
acceleration, but well within the capabilities of a
high-performance bike.
A motorist traveling with constant velocity of 15 m/s
(about 34 mi/h) passes a school-crossing comer, where the
speed limit is 10 m/s (about 22 mi/h). Just as the motorist
passes, a police officer on a motorcycle stopped at the
comer starts off in pursuit with constant acceleration of 3.0
m/s2. (a) How much time elapses before the officer
catches up with the motorist? (b) What is the officer's
speed at that point? (c) What is the total distance each
vehicle has traveled at that point?
 Identify:
 The police officer and the motorist both move with
constant acceleration (equal to zero for the motorist), so
we can use the formulas we have developed.
 Set Up:
 We take the origin at the corner, so x0 = 0 for both, and
take the positive direction to the right. Let xP (for police)
be the officer's position and xM (for motorist) be the
motorist's position at any time. The initial velocities are
P0x = 0 for the officer and M0x = 15 m/s for the
motorist; the constant accelerations are aPx = 3.0 m/s2
for the officer and aMx = 0 for the motorist.
Set Up:
Our target variable in part (a) is the time when the
officer catches the motorist; when the two vehicles are
at the same position. In part (b) we're looking for the
officer's speed  (the magnitude of his velocity) at the
time found in part (a). In part (c) we want to find the
position of either vehicle at this same time. Hence we
use Eqn. 2.12 in parts (a) and (c), and Eqn. 2.8 in part
(b).
Execute:
(a) We want to find the value of the time t when the
motorist and the police officer are at the same
position: xM = xP.
Execute:
(a) Applying Eqn. 2.12 to each vehicle, we get
1
xM = 0 + M0 xt + (0 )t = M0 xt
2
2
1 2 1
xP = 0 + (0)t + (aPx )t = (aPx )t 2
2 2
Since xM = xP at time t, we set these two expressions equal
to each other and solve for t:
1
M0 xt = aPxt 2
2
2M0 x 2(15 m/s )
t =0 or t= = 2
= 10 s
aPx 3.0 m/s
Execute:
(a) There are two times when both the vehicles have the
same x-coordinate. The first, t = 0, is the time when the
motorist passes the parked motorcycle at the corner. The
second, t = 10 s, is the time when the officer catches up
with the motorist.
(b) We want the magnitude of the officer's velocity Px at
the time t found in part (a). Her velocity at any time is
given by Eqn. 2.8:

Px = P0x + aPxt = 0 + (3.0 m/s 2 )t

so when t = 10 s, we find Px = 30 m/s.
Execute:
(b) When the officer overtakes the motorist, she is
traveling twice as fast as the motorist is.
(c) In 10 s the distance the motorist travels is

xM = M0 xt = (15 m/s )(10 s ) = 150 m

and the distance the officer travels is
1
2
2 1
( )
xP = aPxt = 3.0 m/s 2 (10 s )2 = 150 m
2

This verifies that at the time the officer catches the

motorist, they have gone equal distances.
Evaluate:
Graphs of x vs. t for each vehicle
shown. We see that there are 2
times when the 2 positions are
the same. At neither of these
times do the 2 vehicles have the
same velocity. At t = 0, the officer is at rest; at t = 10 s, the
officer has twice the speed of the motorist. In real pursuits
the officer would accelerate to a speed faster than that of
the motorist, then slow down to have the same velocity as
the motorist when she catches him. We haven't treated
this case here because it involves a changing acceleration.