School of Chemical and Process Engineering

CAPE2030
Process Systems and
Applications

2023/2024
Semester 1

Name:……………………………
 Laboratory Guidelines – 2023/2024: Semester 1

Introduction
CAPE2030 is a 20-credit module taught across both semesters and it is a pass for
progression module (PFP). This means that you must pass the module to progress
to Level 3 next year.

Experiments and Schedule

You will be allocated to one laboratory group (T1 – T23) in one of the several
timetabled slots (see the table in the Laboratory Practical Resources folder on
Minerva) and you will undertake the following three practicals during Semester 1:

Practical 1 – Air flow in a duct

Practical 2 – Pump Characteristics
Practical 3 – Thermal conductivity and Radiation

The practicals are compulsory and attendance will be recorded. If you are unable to
attend a practical for an acceptable reason, then it is essential that you apply
for mitigating circumstances to avoid penalty. In Semester 1, each student will
submit three non-assessed Formative Sheets. Important dates for your lab sessions,
report submission and feedback are provided on Minerva.

Although you will be working in groups, you will submit individual reports (or formative
sheets), in which the gathered data is to be critically assessed and your own
conclusions presented. Information on the required format and submission of the
reports is given in the following section on “Guide to report writing”.

You must bring your notebook to the lab so that you can record your data/observations,
as well as recording some data using the instrument software.

Health and Safety Requirement: You must wear shoes that cover the whole foot,
bring your lab coats and tie back long hair when coming to the lab. Safety
glasses will be provided to you in the lab.

Pre-lab Work
Before coming to the laboratory:
 Make sure that you have read the relevant pre-lab materials which include: i)
reading the practical manual and reading the chapters in the referenced
textbooks.
 You must watch the short video which demonstrates how to operate the
process unit, and you should familiarise yourself with the operation and any
health and safety aspects.
You must take the short MCQ quiz for the practical and you need to achieve 70%
to pass the pre-practical assessment. Note that you have two attempts to pass this
MCQ. Should you fail to do this you will not be allowed to take part in the lab practical
i
at the scheduled time. Following two failed attempts you will meet with Dr Eric Danso-
Boateng, and if you fail again you will meet with the program lead to discuss
how we can support your learning. Once you pass the MCQ you will then be
allocated a new time slot to complete the practical.

Lab Group Lists

The group list and lab schedule will be issued separately on the VLE in the
“Laboratory Practicals” folder or link. Make a note of your group number, weekly
slot, and experiment dates to make sure that you attend the correct designated
sessions. Remember to sign the attendance register before starting each experiment.
Please note that any report (or formative sheet) submitted for an experiment
where there is an absence recorded will not be marked.

If you need any assistance concerning the lab practicals, contact:

Dr Eric Danso-Boateng
Room: 1.31 (for in-person visit, email me first for an appointment)
Email: [email protected]

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 Guide to Report Writing

Introduction
Good engineers are both technically competent and good communicators. Engineers
mostly work in teams; hence, communication and the presentation of information is
often critical to the success of the team. The reports you will be writing in this module
are based on experiments already undertaken by others, so it is difficult to be
completely original. However, you should try to convey your own interpretation of the
experiment and the associated data. Although each report will be distinctively yours,
you are required to adopt certain conventions in presentation.

Presentation
Use 12 pt (Times New Roman) for the main text in the formative reports. Use the title
page provide on Minerva and include the following:

 Your name
 Your ID number
 The experiment number and title
 The date the experiment was undertaken
 The date of the report submission

You are required to submit the report as an electronic version to the appropriate
VLE Turnitin submission to allow for plagiarism checking, verification and
archiving of the submissions.

Always write in an impersonal way, e.g. “The pump was started and its speed was
adjusted”, not “I started the pump and adjusted its speed”. You should normally write
in the past tense, although present tense may be used when discussing results. Try
to be as concise as possible and remember to paginate the report and apply
heading numbering.

The guidance below will help you to understand the requirements for each formative
report.

Introduction – present what you set out to do, mentioning the intended scope of
investigation and any special features, together with its industrial relevance or
applications and a brief relevant background theory/science.

Methodology – provide a summary of what you actually did using the third person
passive voice, not the procedure given in the manual. Do not simply copy the
methodology section in the manual - this may constitute plagiarism. Draw your
own experimental diagram – do not use photos or copy/paste diagrams from the
lab manual or literature. Note that the experimental diagram weighs 50% of the
marks.

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Results – provide an account of data obtained, usually in the form of tables and/or
graphs (again, numbered and captioned). Include sample calculations where
appropriate, but not every single one. Do not include the raw Excel data (results) in
tables. Present only the calculated results in a table(s).

Discussion – this main section of the report should be used to assess the significance
of your findings, by critically appraising your results. That is, comprehensively discuss
the results explaining “WHY” the trend of results was obtain. Support arguments with
theoretical concepts and references. Any shortcomings and errors should also be
noted.

References – list all the references you have cited in the text. A minimum of five
references (from reliable sources such as textbooks, journal papers, etc.) are required
to support the introduction and discussion. Note: It is best to use the Harvard
referencing method

Submission and Assessment of the Formative Sheets

You should upload the formative sheets to the correct VLE pigeon-hole on Minerva
before 14:00 hrs on the deadline. Note that your formative reports will help to
improve on the presentation of your summative reports.

Formative Sheet 1 Submission: Introduction and Methodology

This is a short report consisting of only the Introduction and Methodology. You must
submit Sheet 1 for Practical 1: Air flow in a duct.
You should cite references for any information taken from the literature and include a
References page.

Formative Sheet 2 Submission: Raw Data and Analysed Results

This results sheet is a short report consisting of only the results (tables, calculations
and graphs). You must submit a process data sheet for Practical 2: Pump
characteristics.

Formative Sheet 3 Submission: (Analysed Results) and Discussion

This is a short report consisting of only the discussion of the results. You should
include the results graphs to support the discussion. You must submit Sheet 3 for
practical 3 – Thermal conductivity and radiation.
You should cite references for any information taken from the literature and include a
References page.

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 Health and Safety Procedures

Introduction
All of the experiments in this module involve some degree of risk, so the following
health and safety guidelines are provided to ensure that all students work in a safe
and responsible manner. Please read these and make sure that you are familiar with
them before starting work. You are expected to follow these safety procedures and to
ask instructors if you are unsure about appropriate actions.

You must wear a laboratory coat and safety glasses during the experimental sessions,
as well as any other equipment provided (such as gloves). Every experiment has been
assessed for potential hazards and the level of risk, so make sure that you are aware
of these before starting each experiment. Risk assessment forms for each experiment
are kept in the laboratory. However, you must complete the health and safety training
session on Minerva and pass a quiz before you will be allowed to perform each
experiment.

Although there is a trained instructor for each experiment, who will be available to help
you as appropriate, it is your responsibility to read the relevant experimental procedure
before starting. The instructor will ask you about the experiment and associated
hazards and level of risk at the start of the session; if they consider that you are not
sufficiently familiar with these, you will be prevented from performing the experiment
(and, hence, submitting a report), resulting in a mark of zero being recorded for that
session. If you fail to obey specific instructions, you will be excluded from the
session and a mark of zero will be recorded for that experiment.

Legislation and terminology

Health and Safety is enabled by the Health and Safety at Work Act, 1974. As an
enabling act, it allows for specific health and safety legislation to be formed. There are
numerous regulations covering many specific activities. They often centre around the
requirement for the completion of a Risk Assessment for the activity being undertaken.
You will become familiar with the process of Risk Assessment and COSHH (Control
of Substances Hazardous to Health) during your degree programme.

Complying with COSHH involves a number of important actions, including:

Hazard and risk – definition

Hazard
‘something with the potential to cause harm’

Risk
‘the likelihood of a substance, activity or process to cause harm’

v
For substances or materials used in laboratories, this depends on a number of factors,
including its use, how exposure to it is controlled, how much someone is exposed to
and for how long.

Personal safety
For your own personal safety, there are several common-sense rules, which are
enforced when working in the laboratory:
 Eating and drinking – Both of these are strictly forbidden at all times.
 Smoking – This is strictly forbidden anywhere on University premises.
 Sitting on benches – This is also forbidden.
 Eye protection – This must be worn at all times, as normal spectacles do not offer
sufficient protection. Use the pair of safety goggles provided. If you wear contact
lenses, please inform the instructor, so that appropriate action can be taken in case
of an emergency.
 Protective clothing – Wearing a laboratory coat is compulsory and you will be
excluded from the session if you do not have one.
 Long Hair and Loose clothing – Ensure long hair is tied back and loose
clothing are secure.
 Exposure to chemicals – Protect yourself by minimising your exposure to
chemicals. Use the fume cupboard for volatile materials. Always label chemicals
and keep their containers closed. Keep your work area clean and tidy and never
smell or taste chemicals.
 Disposal of chemicals – Do not pour waste chemicals down the drain. Always
dispose of chemicals in co-operation with an instructor.
 Hand washing – Always wash your hands at the end of each laboratory session.
Also, use the hand sanitisers provided in the lab or available.
 Spillages – If you spill or splash any chemicals, inform the instructor immediately.

Protecting those around you

As well as being responsible for your own personal safety, you have a responsibility
to practise safe laboratory procedures to minimise hazards to others. In particular:
 Carry materials with care; if you drop or break anything, inform the instructor
immediately.
 If you observe anyone who has an accident, is misbehaving, or is engaging in an
unsafe procedure, you should report this immediately.
 Once you have finished your experiment, please leave the laboratory quietly by
following the directions by the instructors, and do not disturb other students still
doing their work.

vi
 Practical 1
Air Flow in a Duct

Pre-reading Material:
Coulson, J. M., Richardson, J.F., J R Backhurst. Coulson & Richardson’s Chemi
cal Engineering. Vol. 1, Fluid flow, heat transfer and mass transfer, Chapter 3.2.
2, 3.3.2, 3.3.4.1, 6.2.2, 1999.
Library reference number: 9780080492551

Introduction
Fluid flow is ubiquitous in chemical processing, with liquids and gases being moved as
process streams, or used to heat and cool process streams. Examples of air flow
include pneumatic conveying of solids, ventilation, gas-cooled nuclear reactors, and
many more.

In this practical you will measure the air velocity at different radial and axial distances
in a pipe to determine the velocity profile distribution. The local velocity will be
determined by measuring the pressure drop between two points, as shown by Eq. (2).
You will also measure the pressure distribution along the pipe downstream of an orifice
plate and determine the discharge coefficient (Eq. 5) for the orifice plate meter inserted
into the air flow. This will enable you to understand the concept of losses incurred in
pipe flow.

The F6 – Air Flow Rig equipment will allow you to comprehensively study air flow
characteristics at a practical level. This practical involves two experiments, with further
details provided below.

Theory
Velocity profile
When fluid flows in a pipe, the no-slip boundary condition means that a shear stress is
generated between the moving fluid and stationary wall. This leads to the development

1
of a boundary layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of the pipe wall. Initially, a laminar
boundary layer is formed and as the flow continues down the pipe, this will develop
into a turbulent boundary layer, depending on the fluid Reynolds (Re) number.

The developing boundary layer can be seen through the velocity profiles at different
axial distances along the pipe, see Figure 1. The flow is fully developed when the
velocity profile is independent of the axial position.

Figure 1. Velocity distributions at different locations in a pipe

Fluid velocity in a pipe can be determined from the measured dynamic pressure of the
moving air, relative to the static pressure in the pipe at the same cross-section, which
is measured at the pipe wall. The relationship can be derived from the Bernoulli’s
equation as follows:

v21 v22
P1 + ρ + ρgh1 = P2 + ρ + ρgh2 (1)
2 2

ℎ1 = ℎ2
P1 − P2 = ∆𝑃
𝜌
so ∆𝑃 = 2 (v22 − v12 )

𝑣1 = 0
𝜌 2
∆𝑃 = v
2 2

2∆𝑃
v22 =
ρ

or
√2Δp
v= (2)
√ρ

where
ΔP = The difference between the static wall pressure (P1) and the Pitot tube (or
dynamic) pressure (P2) (Pa)
ρ = the density of air at the atmospheric pressure at 23 oC (kg m-3)
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m s-2)
v2 or v = velocity of air inside the pipe (m s-1)

2
Effect of an orifice on discharge coefficient
When an orifice plate meter is inserted into the pipe, the flow is constricted before an
expanding jet of air is formed on the downstream-side of the plate, see Figure 2.

Manometer

Orifice plate meter ∆P or ho

Aj Ao
vj Az
Q
Qz

Figure 2. Air flow through an orifice plate meter fitted in a pipe

The pressure drop (∆𝑃, ho) between the two sides (upstream and downstream) of the
plate is a function of the volumetric flowrate (discharge), and is given by:

Q = Aj vj = Ao Cc vj = Ao Cc Cv √2gho (3)

where Q = volumetric flowrate (m3 s-1)

Aj = jet cross-section area at minimum contraction (m2)
Ao = orifice cross-section area (= πD2o /4: Do = orifice size) (m2)
vj = jet velocity at minimum contraction (m s-1)
Cc = coefficient of contraction of jet
Cv = coefficient of velocity of jet
∆P, ho = pressure difference 'head' across orifice (Pa)

The single coefficient of discharge is given by:

CD = CC ∙ CV (4)
Rearranging Eq. (3), the discharge coefficient:

𝐶𝐷 = 𝑄/𝐴0 √2𝑔ℎ0 (5)

in which,
CD = 0.97 is used in this practical, but the value varies at low values of Reynolds
number.

The pressure head (H) values are obtained from the computer manometer transducers
connected to the pipe inlet pressure tapping and open to the atmosphere. The readings
of H are used to calculate the orifice head (ho) and nozzle head (hz). For example,
pressure drop across the inlet, hz = H1 – H3, and pressure drop across the orifice, ho
= H6 – H7. Head positions H1, H3, H6 and H7 are shown in Figure 3.

3
Equipment set-up
Five mounting ports are provided for the Pitot tube, with the ports positioned at 54, 294,
774, 1574 and 2534 mm from the pipe inlet. The orifice plate is to be inserted into the
pipe at the flanged joint, between positions 6 and 7 as shown in Figure 3.

Pitot Tube Pitot Tube Pitot Tube

Position 5 Pitot Tube Position 3 Position 1
Position 4
Inlet
Position H1
Position H7
Air Flow Pitot Tube
Direction Position H6 Position 2
Position H3

Figure 3. A schematic of the experimental setup

A Pitot tube is an L-shaped hollow metal tube with a hole in the front that faces the
incoming air, which measures the dynamic pressure of the moving air in the pipe. This
is compared with the static pressure at the pipe entrance at the same cross-section
and flow velocity.

When starting the fan, air is drawn into the pipe and moves down the pipe (see Figure
3) before exiting to atmosphere at the pipe outlet. The system is run in this orientation
so that the developing air flow in the entrance region of the pipe is unaffected by flow
disturbances caused by the fan. Disturbances and flow straightening is also achieved
by inserting a bell-mouth at the pipe inlet, see Figure 4. Through the action of the
bellmouth, the velocity of the working fluid does not vary in the vertical direction at the
pipe inlet, thus setting the initial condition.

Figure 4. A picture of the bellmouth inlet pipe with anti-vortex vanes where the static
pressure is measured

Note that the manometer pressure transducers measured in mm H2O, not in Pa.

4
Experiment 1

Objectives
To determine the air velocity distribution profiles at different cross-sections in a pipe at
difference distances from the pipe inlet.

Procedure
Make sure the Pitot tube is placed at the mounting position 1 and the orifice plate is NOT
in position.

Place the Pitot tube at the lowest position in the pipe.

Turn the fan on by pressing the green (switch) button.
Start recording the pressure data with the software provided by clicking the Go icon.
Leave the Pitot tube in this position for 10–20 seconds.
Click the Stop icon to pause the data collection and type 0 mm in the last row of the
NOTES column.

Move the Pitot tube by 10 mm and repeat the above procedure.

Repeat the procedure at: 20 mm, 30 mm, 40 mm, 50 mm, 60 mm, 70 mm, and 80 mm.
When all data have been collected, stop the data collection and save the data as a
comma separated variable in the correct folder.

Repeat the procedure at Pitot tube positions 3, 5, then 4 and 2 if time allows.
Ensure to replace the metal blanking plugs in the Pitot tube mounting holes not in use.

Record the air temperature in the laboratory.

Assume the barometric pressure to be 760 mmHg in the laboratory all the time to obtain
the air density.

*I will send your data to you at the end of the practical.

Guidance for Results and Discussion of Experiment 1

1. Calculate the air velocity at each point using Equation (1). Plot the transverse
velocity profile on a graph, indicating the true position of the measurement points
relative to the pipe walls.

2. Explain the fully developed region in a pipe in terms of boundary layers using the
graphs obtained from the experiment.

5
Experiment 2

Objectives
To determine the discharge coefficient experimentally for an orifice plate meter fitted in
an air flow pipe. Also, to determine the pressure distribution along the pipe downstream
of the orifice plate using the static pressure tapping’s provided.

Procedure
Insert the orifice plate as demonstrated in the video.
The position of the Pitot tube is to be chosen by the student.

Turn the fan on by pressing the green (switch) button.

Start recording the pressure data with the software provided by clicking the Go icon.
Leave the Pitot tube in this position for 20 seconds.
Click the Stop icon to pause the data collection and type 100 % in the last row of the
NOTES column.

Reduce the opening of the exit nozzle to 75% by using the grey plastic plate provided.
Collect data for 20 seconds.
Repeat the procedure at: 50%, 25% and 10%.

When all data has been collected, stop the data collection and save the data as a comma
separated variable in the correct folder.

Guidance for Results and Discussion of Experiment 2

1. Plot values of CD obtained by calculation against the corresponding values of Re
obtained using the following relationship:

ρvDz
Re = (6)
μ

Where,
μ = coefficient of dynamic viscosity of air at 23 oC (kg m-1 s-1)
v = the mean pipe velocity (Qz/Az) (m s-1)
Dz = nozzle (pipe) diameter (m)

Further guidance on CD calculation:

 Values of the discharge through the nozzle (Qz) can be determined if a nozzle is fitted
at the pipe inlet.
 You should use the CD value of 0.97 to calculate Qz, using the area of the nozzle (Az)
calculated from using the measured nozzle diameter, (Dz) (Az = πD2z /4) (m2).
 The nozzle head (hz) should be used, and you need to calculate this from the H
readings (i.e., H1 – H3) at each percentage opening. Note that you will have different
Qz values because hz changes.
 Then use the same Qz values obtained to calculate CD for the orifice plate using the
orifice diameter (Do) to calculate the area of the orifice (Ao).

6
  Similarly, calculate ho from H readings across the orifice plate (i.e., H6 – H7) at the
various % openings.
 Use Equation (3) to calculate the velocity (v), and then use the v values to calculate
Re.
2. Comment on the static pressure distribution at the pipe wall before and after
the restriction induced by an orifice plate.

7
 Practical 2
Pump Characteristics

Pre-reading material:
- Coulson, J.M., Coulson & Richardson’s chemical engineering. Vol.1, Fluid
flow, heat transfer and mass transfer, Chapter 8.2, 1999
Library Reference Number: 9780080501017
- Nesbitt, B., Handbook of pumps and pumping, Chapter 4, 2006
Library Reference Number: 9781856174763

Introduction
Pumps fall into two categories – positive displacement and rotodynamic. Positive
displacement pumps operate with enclosed liquid volumes which are forced forward in the
direction of pumping by reduction in volume and expelled into the pump outlet as shown
in Figure 1. For example, a plunger pump presses a certain volume of liquid out of the
cylinder for each stroke of the piston.

Figure 1. Examples of positive displacement pump

Description of a Centrifugal Pump
The FM50, as used in the practical, is a centrifugal (rotodynamic) pump. The centrifugal
pump is the most widely used type in chemical and petroleum industries because it can
pump liquids with wide-ranging properties with a high solid content such as cement
slurries.

(a) (b)

Figure 2. A schematic of (a) a centrifugal pump, and (b) circulation within a centrifugal
pump impeller

The liquid enters the casing of the pump, which is picked up by the vanes of the impeller
and discharges into a chamber of gradually increasing cross-section (volute) with a
tangential outlet as shown in Figure 2(a).
The impeller consists of a series of curved vanes, as shown in Figure 2(a) and (b), so that
the flow within the pump is as smooth as possible. The greater the number of vanes on
the impeller, the greater is the control over the direction of motion of the liquid and hence
the smaller are the losses due to turbulence.
The centrifugal pump converts energy supplied from a motor or turbine, first into kinetic
energy and then into potential energy. The impeller vanes transfer kinetic energy to the
fluid flowing into the centre of the impeller by spinning the fluid. It then travels outwards
along the vanes to the impeller casing at an increasing flow rate. This kinetic energy is
then converted into potential energy in the form of an increase in head. This provides
resistance to the flow created by the impeller, and hence the fluid decelerates in the outlet
pipe. As the volumetric flow rate remains constant, this decrease in velocity produces a
corresponding increase in pressure as described by the Bernoulli equation.

Pump Characteristics
The operating characteristics of a pump can be described by using graphs of pump
performance, where the parameters are measured at constant pump speed.
The three most common graphical representations of pump performance are:
 Change in total head produced by the pump, Ht.
 Mechanical power input to the pump, Pm.
 Pump efficiency, E.

2
Pump Performance Curve
The operating characteristics of a pump are conveniently shown by plotting the head Ht,
power Pm and efficiency against the flow rate Q. An example of this type of graphical
representation of pump performance is given in Figure 3. It is important to note that the
efficiency reaches a maximum and then falls, whilst the head at first falls slowly with Q but
eventually falls off rapidly.

Peak efficiency point

Efficiency
BEP

Volume Flow Rate, Q (dm3 s-1) Power (W)

Figure 3. Pump performance curve

The Htotal –Q curve shows the relationship between the head and the flow rate. The head
decreases as the flow rate increases. This type of curve is referred to as the rising
characteristic curve.

The Pmechanical–Q curve shows the relationship between the power input to the pump and
the change in flow rate through the pump. Outside the optimum operating range of the
pump this curve flattens, achieving a lower efficiency as a large change in pump power
produces only a small change in flow velocity.

The E–Q curve shows the pump capacity at which the pump operates most efficiently. In
the example here, the optimum operating capacity is ~ 0.7 dm 3 s-1, which would give a
head of about 0.95 m and gives the Best Efficient Point (BEP).

Pump Operating Characteristic Curves

A different way of illustrating pump characteristics is to construct contour lines of constant
efficiency in a head (Ht) vs. discharge or flow rate (Q) plot as shown in Figure 4. These
allow engineers to see the maximum efficiency of a pump over a range of operating
parameters, which can assist the selection of an appropriate pump to suit specific
3
operating conditions. These may be also used to compare actual pump performance with
that of expected.

Figure 4. Characteristic curves for a centrifugal pump

Equipment setup

Figure 5 shows a labelled photo of the experimental set up, which does not include the
PC. Please refer to the lab video for assembling the pump components together.

Figure 5: Diagram of experimental set up

4
Exercise A – Introduction to Pump Characteristics & Curves

Objective
To determine the pump characteristics of the centrifugal pump (FM50) using the
performance and the characteristics curves.

Procedure
Start up
1. Make sure the RED and the BLUE valves are closed on the top of the equipment as
shown in photo 1 in Figure 6.
2. Make sure the BLUE drain valve is in line with the pipe (i.e., open) as shown in photo
2 in Figure 6.
3. Connect the water fill tube to the tap.
4. Fit the pump cover and pipe in place without over-tightening the screws. Tighten each
screw until flush with the face plate. When all 6 screws are in place, tighten by ~10
degrees in pairs of opposite positions (e.g., 1 and 4; 2 and 5; 3 and 6) as shown in
photo 4 in Figure 6.
5. Tighten the grey compression fitting.
6. Slowly open the water tap and fill the large water tank to the base of the Armfield logo.
7. Turn off the water supply at the tap.
8. Close the BLUE Drain valve and turn 90 degrees as shown in photo 3 in Figure 6.
9. Remove the water fill pipe from the tap and place the end in the drain.
10. Open the top BLUE valve (in-line with pipe).
11. Open the RED valve (turn fully anti-clockwise).
12. Check for water leaks, proceed if no leaks.
13. Switch on all the main sockets.
14. Turn on the computer and start the FM50 software.

Set up and start the pump according to the start up procedure provided above.
Set the Pump Setting to 50 on the FM50 software and allow the sensor readings to
stabilise (Figure 7 shows the software window).
Click the View Table icon in FM50 programme.
Click the green Go icon to record the data
Repeat at ~ 2 seconds intervals to collect 5 sets of data points in total.
Then turn the RED valve clockwise 180 degrees and allow sufficient time to stabilise.
Click the green Go icon to record 5 sets of data points in total.
Repeat until the RED valve is fully closed and cannot be turned any further.
Save your data in your folder as an Excel 5.0 file and name the file as 50 %.
Repeat the data collection at the pump settings of 60, 70, 80, 90 and 100.

5
Figure 6. Main components of the experiment set up

Figure 7. A screenshot of the FM50 programme setting

6
Guidance for Results and Discussion for Exercise A
1. Plot a graph of the head against the flowrate. On the secondary axis plot a
graph of mechanical power and of efficiency against flowrate to produce a chart
as shown in Figure 3.

2. Construct contour lines of constant efficiency in a graph of pump head plotted

against discharge.
HINT: First select a value for efficiency, for example, 40%. On each line plotted,
mark the estimated points at which efficiency of 40% is achieved. Join the
marked points to form a smooth curve and repeat for different efficiency values
to give a family of efficiency curves as in Figure 4.

3. Examine the shapes of the graphs obtained, relating this to the changing
performance of the pump as the flow rate changes. Determine and justify the
point of maximum efficiency and the flowrate at which it occurs.

7
Exercise B – Effect of different impeller designs on efficiency

Objective
To compare head, power, and efficiency characteristics curves for a centrifugal pump
of two different impeller designs. Investigate the effect of impeller design on the pump
performance.

Equipment Setup
For Exercise B, an impeller of a different design will be used. An adjustable mole
wrench will be provided to replace the impeller for Exercise B. Recall Figure 3 for the
experimental setup and the lab video for replacing the impeller.

Figure 7. Impeller 1 (For excerise A) Figure 8. Impeller 2 (For excerise B)

Procedure
Replace the impeller to Type 2 impeller, as shown in Figure 8, using a wrench provided
in the lab.

When the impeller is firmly fixed, reassemble the pump unit as in Exercise A.
Set the Pump Setting to 50 on the FM50 software and allow the sensor readings to
stabilise.
Click the View Table icon in FM50 programme.
Click the green Go icon to record the data
Repeat at ~ 2 seconds intervals to collect 5 sets of data points in total.
Then turn the RED valve clockwise 180 degrees and allow sufficient time to stabilise.
Click the green Go icon to record the data of 5 sets of data.
Repeat until the RED valve is fully closed and cannot be turned any further.

8
Save your data in your folder as an Excel 5.0 file and name the file as 50 %.
Repeat the data collection at the pump settings of 60, 70, 80, 90 and 100.
Ensure to switch the pump off after taking the final set of results using the following
steps:

Shut down process

1. Set the pump setting to zero
2. Shut down the FM50 Centrifugal Pump program
3. Click the ‘Start’ icon (lower left desktop) and select shutdown.
4. Turn the power off at the sockets (ALL THREE).
5. Open drain valve (red) on the centrifugal pump.
6. Once drained, close all four valves on the equipment (2 blue and 2 red).
7. Remove the 6 screws on the centrifugal pump and undo the grey compression
fitting.
8. Wipe the apparatus dry using a paper tissue (e.g., blue roll), placed used tissue
in the orange bin bag.
*Your data will be sent to you by email at the end of the lab.

Guidance for Results and Discussion for Exercise B

1. Produce a chart of pump performance curve as in Exercise A.

2. Construct a pump characteristics curve as in Exercise A.

3. Compare the plots obtained from Exercise A and B to comment on achieving a

maximum efficiency depending on the different impeller designs. Also,
determine the impeller design with higher efficiency and explain why.

9
 Practical 3
Radiation and Thermal Conductivity

Pre-reading material:

 Bergman, T. L., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2017

- Online library Reference Number: 991019816330005181
- Chapter 1.2.1, 1.2.3, 2.1, 2.2.1, 12.1-12.3.2, 12.4.3, 13.1.1, 13.2

 Modest, M. F., Radiative heat transfer, 3rd Edition, 2013.

- Online library Reference Number: 991019432298605181
- Chapter 1.1-1.4, 4.1, 4.2

Objectives
The main aim of this practical is to demonstrate the concepts of heat transfer by
radiation and conduction. The radiation section will introduce the concept of a view
factor and investigate the relationship between radiation intensity and distance from
the emitting source. The radiation part will also investigate the relationship between
radiation intensity and temperature. The final experiment will study thermal
conductivity of two metal specimen.

Introduction
Heat transfer occurs whenever a temperature difference exists in a medium or
between media. As shown in Figure 1, there are three different types of heat transfer
modes, namely conduction, convection and radiation. When a temperature gradient
exists in a stationary medium, which may be a solid or a fluid, the heat transfer that
occur across the medium is term conduction. Convection on the other hand refers to
heat transfer that will occur between a surface and a moving fluid when they are at
different temperatures. Radiation heat transfer is a process where energy in the form
or electromagnetic radiation is emitted by a heated surface that may be absorbed,
reflected, or transmitted through a colder body. In the absence of an intervening
medium, there is net heat transfer by radiation between two surfaces at different
temperatures. The intensity and distribution of radiant energy within the wavelength
range is governed by the temperature of the emitting surface.
10
 T1 > T2 Ts > T¥
Moving fluid, T¥ Surface, T1
T1 T2
q Surface, T2
q
Ts

a) Conduction through a b) Convection from a c) Net radiation heat exchange

solid or a stationary fluid surface to a moving fluid between two surfaces

Figure 1. Conduction, convection, and radiation heat transfer modes

Inverse square law

From Figure 2, if radiation from a finite element, dA, on a surface in a vacuum is
considered, the radiation will expand outwards from the element in all directions. In a
vacuum the radiation is not attenuated by air or dust particles. If the radiation is
considered to expand continuously, then at a radius, x, a surface of uniform radiant
intensity will be formed that is hemispherical as shown below. At a further radius of 2x
a similar hemisphere of uniform intensity will be formed that is also hemispherical.

4A

dA

2x

Figure 2. Illustration of the Inverse Square Law. The source is positioned at the centre.
At an angle of 0o, there is no radiation. Radiation is maximum at the horizontal position.

The surface area of a hemisphere of radius 𝑥 is given by

4
Area = πx 2 (1)
2

or Area = constant × x 2 (2)

Hence for radius 𝑥, Area = constant × x

For radius 2𝑥, Area = constant × (2x)2 = 4x 2
11
At twice the radius the area increases by 4 (or 22). As the radius is increased the same
amount of radiation is therefore distributed over an area that is increasing by the
"square of the radius". The “intensity" of the radiation (W m-2) therefore reduces by the
inverse square of the radius. This is the inverse square law of radiation.

The view factor

The Stefan-Boltzmann law states that for a black body:

q b = σ(TS 4 − Ta 4 ) (3)
where
q b is the energy emitted per unit area of a black body radiator (W m-2)
Ts is the absolute temperature of the black body (K)
Ta is the absolute temperature of the surroundings (K)
σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4)

From Figure 3, at a distance 𝑥 from the surface, the energy received (and indicated)
by a detector, R, will be related to the Stefan-Boltzmann constant by a factor F, such
that:

R = F × σ(Ts4 − Ta4 ) (4)

Hence

R
F= (5)
σ(Ts4 − Ta4 )

R
F= (6)
qb

Heat
source
a=

Figure 3. Illustration of view factor between heat source and radiometer

It can be shown that the view factor F is related to the view angle θ such that

F = sin2 𝜃 (7)

12
 a2
i.e. F= (8)
a2 + x2
Hence
R = sin2 θ × σ(Ts4 − Ta4 ) (9)

R = q b × sin2 θ (10)

Ts = T10 + 273.15 (11)

Ta = T9 + 273.1 (12)
From the geometry, θ = tan−1 (a⁄x) (13)

where
a is the radius of the emitter (50 mm)
T9 is the ambient temperature (oC)
T10 is the temperature of the emitter (oC), recorded during the experiment.

Thermal conductivity of metals

For conduction, the heat flow through the apparatus is given by Fourier's Law:

Q = k int Aint (∆Tint /∆X int ) (14)

where
Q is the heat flow (Watts) through the specimens determined from Volts * Amps
kint is the thermal conductivity of the material
Aint is the surface area of the heat flow (m2) determined from sample diameter,
25 mm
ΔTint is the temperature difference; i.e., (Thot surface – Tcold surface)
∆𝐱 𝐢𝐧𝐭 is the distance between hot and cold face, i.e., length of sample, 30 mm

The thermal conductivity of the specimen (in W m-1 K-1) is calculated as follows:

(V × I)∆Xint
k int = (15)
Aint (Thot surface − Tcold surface )

Experiment set-up
Figure 4 is a photo of the set-up of the radiation experiment, whilst Figure 5 is the set-
up of the thermal conductivity experiment. Figure 4 shows a hot plate with
thermocouple 10 connected to the console, radiometer connected to the power meter
and one black plate placed on the bench and connected to thermocouple socket 8,
which measures the room temperature. In Figure 5, there are six thermocouples
connected to the linear heat conduction unit where the metal sample block is placed.

13
 Heat source (T10) Radiometer Radiometer Control box
shield (movable)

Scale

Radiometer
indicator

Press 
button to zero
Temperature Current
indicator indicator

Thermocouple Voltage
selector indicator
Thermocouples

Voltage control
(turn clockwise)

Figure 4. Experiment set-up of the radiation unit

Linear heat
conduction unit

Temperature
Locks (release indicator
to open and
close to lock)
Water
return

Cold
water in Thermocouple
Metal sample selector buttons
block Thermocouples

Figure 5. Experiment set-up of the metal conductivity unit

14
Figure 6. Envelope of experiment 4 set-up showing the distances between the
thermocouples

15
Part A: Radiation Experiments
Experiment 1 – To demonstrate that the intensity of radiation on a surface
is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source of
radiation (Inverse Square Law).

Procedure
1. Switch on the sockets and turn on the main switch on the controller.

2. With the radiation shield in place, position the radiometer (stem) in the 900 mm
position.

3. Monitor the digital display showing energy emitted reading (in W m-2), and when it
reaches a minimum and stable value, zero the radiometer by pressing the star (*)
button twice.

4. Increase the voltage controller to give maximum volts of about 200 V, and select
T10 to monitor the hot plate temperature. When T10 has reached a maximum and
stable value, remove the radiation shield (without touching the radiometer).
When the radiometer reading reaches a maximum and table value, record the
following:
Ambient Temperature T 9 (in oC) (you can use T8 if T9 gives error);
Temperature of the emitter T10 (in oC);
Distance from hot plate x (900 mm here);
Radiometer reading R (in W m-2)

5. Move the radiometer to the 900 mm position, and put back the radiator shield. Wait
for the energy emitted (the radiometer indicator) reading to reduce to <2 W m-2 and
then press the * button to zero it.

6. Move the radiometer carriage to position 800 mm (do not touch the radiometer).
When the radiometer reading reaches a maximum and stable value; record the
readings as before.

7. Repeat the procedure in steps of 100 mm until the radiometer is 200 mm from the
hot plate.

8. Switch off the hot plate, return the radiometer carriage to the 900 mm position and
replace the radiation shield.

16
Observations and calculated data

T9 T10 x R Rc Log (x) Log (Rc)

(oC) (oC) (mm) (W m-2) (W m-2)

Note that x is the distance in mm of the radiometer from the emitter.

Corrected radiometer reading or heat flux, R c = R × C

For the die unit tested, the correction factor, C = 0.786

The data should be converted to log10 format as shown in the table above to produce
a linear graph to demonstrate the inverse square law relationship. The slope of the
line should be -2 assuming perfect results and no external influences on the test data.

Guidance for Results and Discussion for Experiment 1

1. Draw a table consisting of the columns shown above.

2. Plot a graph consisting of:

 A scatter plot of log10 (Rc) vs. log10 (x).
 A trend line fitted to these data clearly showing the equation of best fit.

3. Your discussion should include comments on:

 The linearity of the graph and why you would expect these data to fall on a
straight line.
 The value of the gradient of the straight line fit in the graph and what its
expected value should be.
 Reasons for any deviation of the gradient from its expected value.

17
Experiment 2 – To show that the intensity of the radiation measured by
the radiometer is directly related to the radiation emitted from a source by
the view factor between the radiometer and the source.

Use the results obtained from experiment 1 to investigate the relationship between
intensity measured and the view factor.

Test data is shown below to illustrate the relationship.

Observations

T9 T10 x R Rc
(oC) (oC) (mm) (W m-2) (W m-2)

Recall, Rc = R × C
And for the unit tested, C = 0.786

Calculated Data

Ts Ta qb θ sin2θ 𝐪𝐛 sin2θ Rc
(K) (K) (W m-2) (radians) (W m-2) (W m-2)

Recall that
q b = σ(TS 4 − Ta 4 ) (3)
2⁄ 2 2
F=a (a + x ) (8)
R = q b × sin2 θ (10)
Ts = T10 + 273.15 (11)
Ta = T9 + 273.15 (12)
θ = tan−1 (a⁄x) (13)

Compare the calculated radiation incident on the detector, 𝑞𝑏 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 and the
corrected radiation measured by the detector, Rc.
18
Guidance for Results and Discussion for Experiment 2
1. Provide tables consisting of the columns shown above.

2. Plot a graph consisting of:

 A scatter plot of qb.sin2 vs. Rc.
 A trend line fitted to these data clearly showing the equation of best fit.

3. Investigate the relationship between intensity measured and view factor. Your
discussion should include comments on:
 The linearity of the graph and why you would expect these data to fall on a
straight line. Also, include reasons for any deviations from linearity.
 The values of the gradient and the y-intercept of the straight line fit in the graph
and what their expected values should be.

19
Experiment 3 - To demonstrate that the intensity of radiation varies as
the fourth power of the source temperature – Stefan-Boltzmann Law

Procedure
1. With the radiation shield in place, position the radiometer (stem) in the 900 mm
position.

2. Monitor the digital display showing the energy emitted reading (in W m-2), and when
it reaches a minimum and stable value, zero the radiometer by pressing the star (*)
button twice.

3. Apply 40 volts to the hot plate using the voltage controller, and monitor the T10
thermocouple reading. When T10 has reached a maximum and stable value,
remove the radiation shield (without touching the radiometer) and move the carriage
to the 300 mm position. When the radiometer reading reaches a maximum and
remains stable, record the following:

Ambient temperature T9 (you can use T8 if T9 gives error);

Temperature of the emitter T10;
Distance from hot plate x (300 mm here)
Radiometer reading R

4. Move the radiometer carriage to the 900 mm position and replace the shield.
Increase the voltage by 40 volts and monitor the T10 thermocouple reading.
When T10 has reached a maximum value, remove the radiation shield and move
the carriage to the 300 mm position. Monitor the radiometer output until a maximum
value is reached and remains stable, and record the values as before.

5. Repeat the procedure until the heater voltage reaches 230 volts.

HINT: Use the fan to cool it when needed.

Observations

T9 T10 x R
(oC) (oC) (mm) (W m-2)
300
300
300
300
300
300
300
300

20
Calculated data

Ta Ts Ts4 Rc qb F = Rc/𝐪𝐛
(K)
(K) (K)
(K) (K4) (W m-2) (W m-2)

Recall, Rc = R × C
And for the unit tested, C = 0.786

Guidance for Results and Discussion for Experiment 3

1. Provide tables consisting of the columns shown above.

2. Plot a graph consisting of:

 A scatter plot of the heat flux, qb vs. Ts4.
 A trend line fitted to these data clearly showing the equation of best fit.

3. Your discussion should include comments on:

 The linearity of the graph and why you would expect these data to fall on a
straight line. Also, include reasons for any deviations from linearity.
 The value of the gradient of the straight line fit in the graph and what its
expected value should be.
 The expected relationship between the gradient and the y-intercept for the
graph and whether or not this is borne out by your results.

21
Part B: Thermal Conductivity Experiment

Experiment 4 – Thermal Conductivity of metals

Procedure
1. Switch on the sockets and turn on the main switch on the controller. Turn on the
tap.

2. Release the clamps to open the linear conduction unit.

3. Smear both surfaces of the metal sample block with a thermal conducting silicone
paste (use a very small amount).

4. Place the metal block with the silicone paste in the conduction unit, clamp them
together with the intermediate section of the sample metal block in place.

5. Ensure that cooling water is flowing to the apparatus by opening the connected tap.

6. Set the voltage to 150 volts using the voltage control.

7. Monitor temperatures Tl, T2, T3, T6, T7 and T8 until they are stable, then record
these values and the values V (volts) and I (amps) from the console. Note that it
takes about 20 min to stabilise.

8. Repeat the readings 2 more times to obtain triplicates.

9. Switch off the power and allow the apparatus to cool.

10. Repeat the procedure using the other metal block sample.

11. To shut down, switch off the mains on the unit. Switch off the sockets, and turn off
the tap.

Observations and calculated data

T1 T2 T3 T6 T7 T8 V I
(K)
(K) (K)
(K) (K) (K) (K) (K) (volts) (amps)

22
Guidance for Results and Discussion for Experiment 4
1. Tabulate all experimental data and derived results as above.

2. Plot a graph showing the temperature variation through the metal blocks vs. the
distance from thermocouple T1 (The temperature at T1 represents the
temperature at distance 0.00 mm).
Illustrate on the graph the temperature drops at the hot and cold interfaces.

3. Determine the temperature at each interface. Use the interface temperature to

calculate the thermal conductivity of each sample studied.

23