Chapter 2: ARCHITECTURES

.
Architectures
 Distributed systems are complex.
 In order to manage their intrinsic complexity, distributed
systems should be organized properly.
 Organization is mostly expressed in terms of its software
components.
 Different ways to look at organization of distributed
systems –two obvious ones:
 Software architecture – logical organization (of software
components and interconnections)
 System architecture – physical realization (the instantiation
of software components on real machines)

2
Architectural style
 A architectural style is formulated in terms of
 Components,
 The way that components are connected to each other,
 The data exchanged between components, and finally
 How these elements are jointly configured into a system.
 A component is a modular unit with well-defined
interfaces that is replaceable within its environment.
 A connector is a mechanism that mediates
communication, coordination, or cooperation among
components.
 It allows for the flow of control between components
 E.g., facilities for remote procedure call, message passing, or streaming
data.

3
Types of Architectural Styles
 Common architectural styles of distributed systems
• Layered architectures
• Object-based architectures
• Resource-centered architectures
• Event-based architectures

 The common technique:

 Organize your system into logically different components,
and distribute those components over the various
machines.
 Goal :
 Achieving (at a reasonable level) distribution transparency.

4
Layered architectural style
 It is hierarchical organization
 Components are organized in a layered fashion
 Component at layer Lj can make a down-call to a component at a lower-
level layer Li (with i < j) and generally expects a response.
 Only in exception, an up-call is made to higher level component
 Each layer exposes an interface to be used by above layers
 “Multi-level client-server”
 Each layer acts as a
 Server: service provider to layers “above”
 Client :service consumer of layer(s) “below”
 Communication protocol-stacks are a typical examples
 OSI Reference model
 TCP/IP

Figure 2-1. The (a) layered architectural style

5
Con’t
 The three common cases

6
Con’t
 Essentially, layered architectural style contains three
logical levels commonly know as application layers
 The application(user)-interface level
 The processing level
 The data level

7
Object-Based Architectures
 Components are objects
 Objects are easy to be replaced so long as the interface is not touched
 It is less structured and hence a relatively loose organization
 The calling object might not run on the same machine as the
called object
 Connectors are RPC and RMI

8
Con’t
 Note:
 Object-based architectures are attractive because they provide a
natural way of encapsulating data (called an object’s state) and the
operations that can be performed on that data (which are referred
to as an object’s methods) into a single entity.

9
Resource-based architectures
 Viewed as a huge collection of resources that are individually
managed by components.
 Resources may be added or removed by (remote) applications, and
likewise can be retrieved or modified.
 This approach has now been widely adopted for the Web and is
known as Representational State Transfer (REST) [Fielding,
2000].
 There are four key characteristics of what are known as RESTful
architectures [Pautasso et al., 2008]:
1. Resources are identified through a single naming scheme
2. All services offer the same interface, consisting of at most four
operations, as shown in the following figure.
3. Messages sent to or from a service are fully self-described
4. After executing an operation at a service, that component forgets
everything about the caller(stateless execution)

10
Con’t
 The four operations available in RESTful architectures.

 Components
 Resources
 Components, that interact with the resource
 Connectors
 Queries

11
Event–based Architecture
 Event based architecture supports publish-subscribe communication
 Publisher: components that announce data to be shared
 Subscriber: components register their interest for published data.
 Decouples sender and receiver (asynchronous communication)
 Both parties don’t need to be up at the time of communication
 Event can be considered as “a significant change in state”

12
Con’t
 Components:
 Can be an instance of a class or simply a module.

 Connectors:
 Event buses

13
System Architectures
 The software components, their interactions, and their
placement leads to an instance of a software architecture,
also called a system architecture.
 System architecture are of three types:
 Centralized - most components located on a single machine
 Decentralized - most machines have approximately the same
functionality
 Hybrid - some combination

14
Centralized Architecture
 In the basic client-server model, processes in a distributed system are
divided into two (possibly overlapping) groups.
 Server:- is a process implementing a specific service E.g File server
 Client:-is a process that requests a service
 Clients and servers can be on different machines
 Clients follow request/reply model with respect to using services

 Figure General interaction between a client and a server.

15
Cont...
 Communication between a client and a server can be implemented by :
 Connectionless protocol when the underlying network is fairly reliable
like local-area networks (UDP)
 Connection-oriented protocol in WANs, (TCP)

 Connectionless communication is efficient

 Simply packages a message for the server, identifying the service it wants, along
with the necessary input data

 But, it is hard for a sender to detect if the message is successfully received

 Failure of any sort means no reply

 Possibilities:
 Request message was lost
 Reply message was lost
 Server failed either before, during or after performing the service

16
 Cont ...
 Common approach to lost request in connectionless communication:
 Re-transmission (resending request )
 Good for idempotent operations, i.e., operations that could be repeated more
than once without harm. E.g., “Return current value of X”
 Not good for non idempotent operations like “ increase value of x by 100”
 Because, may result in performing the operation twice
 In this case reporting an error is appropriate, than resending

 For these reason many distributed systems use connection-oriented protocols

 Not good enough in LAN as it is slow
 However, it fits the unreliable WAN environment
 Example,Virtually all internet applications are based on TCP/IP connections

17
Logical Architecture vs. Physical Architecture
 Layer and tier are roughly equivalent terms, but
 Layer typically implies software and
 Tier is more likely to refer to hardware.
 Logical organization is not physical organization.
 Physical architecture may or may not match the logical architecture.
 Meaning, logically separate components might reside on single machine or
on different machines
 Clients and servers could be placed on the same node, or be
distributed according to several different topologies.
 Single-Tier Architecture: dumb terminal/mainframe configuration
 Two-Tier Architecture: client/single server configuration
 Three-Tier Architecture: each layer on separate machine
 Two-tier and three-tier are the most common

18
Two-Tiered Architecture
 Where are the three application-layers placed?
 On the client machines, or on the server machines?
 A range of possible solutions:
 Thin-Client- A client machine only implements (part of) the user-
interface level
 A server machine implementing the rest, i.e, the processing and data
levels
 Pros: easier to manage, more reliable, client machines don’t need to be so
large and powerful
 Con: perceived performance loss at client
 Fat-Client - All user interface, application processing and some data
resides at the client
 Pros: reduces work load at server;
 More scalable
 Cons: harder to manage by system admin,
 Less secure
 Other solutions in between thin-client and fat-client

19
Two-tiered Architectures

Thin client -------- Fat-client

20
Three-tiered
 The server tier in two-tiered architecture becomes more and more
distributed
 A single server is no longer adequate for modern information systems
 This leads to three-tiered architecture
 Server may acting as a client
 Three-tiered: each of the three layers corresponds to three separate
machines.

21
Decentralized Architectures
 Placing logically different components on different machines is
called vertical distribution(VD)
 User-interface, Processing components and a data level are on
different machine
 It is similar with the concept of vertical fragmentation in distributed
database where
 Tables are split into column wise and distributed on different machines
 The advantage of VD is that each machine can be tailored for
specific type of function

22
Cont…
 An alternative to VD is horizontal distribution(HD)
 A client or server may be physically split up into logically equivalent
parts
 Each part operates on its own share of the complete data set,
 This results in balanced work load
 Again this one is similar with that of horizontal fragmentation in
distributed database where
 Tables are split row wise, and subset of rows distributed onto
different machines
 Peer-to-peer systems are a class of modern architectures
that support horizontal distribution.
 The functions that need to be carried out are represented by every
process that constitute the distributed system

23
Peer-to-peer systems
 P2P systems partitions tasks or work loads between
peers
 Often, the processes that constitute the system are all equal
 Nodes act as both client and server;
 Much of the interaction is symmetric.

 Advantages of peer-to-peer system

 Have better load balancing
 More resistant to denial-of-service attacks,
 But, harder to manage than client-server systems.

24
Overlay network
 Nodes of the P2P distributed system are connected using
overlay network
 It is network that is built on top of another network
 Nodes are formed by the processes of the network.
 Overlay networks in the P2P system:
 Define the structure between nodes in the system.
 Allow nodes to route requests to locations that may not be known at
time of request.
 The main question for peer-to-peer system is
 How to organize the processes in an overlay network
 Their organization can be:
 Unstructured P2P:
 Structured P2P:
 Hybrid P2P:

25
Unstructured P2P architecture
 Largely relying on randomized algorithm to construct the
overlay network
 Each node has a list of neighbours, which is more or less
constructed in a random way
 One challenge is how to efficiently locate a needed data
item
 The two common approaches are
 Flooding
 Random walk

26
Cont…
 Flooding:
 Issuing node u passes request for data d to all neighbors.
 Request is ignored when receiving node had seen it
before. Otherwise, v searches locally for d (recursively).
 Return d if found, Otherwise forward the request to the
neighbors
 However, this approach causes high signalling traffic
over the network
 May be limited by a Time-To-Live: a maximum number of hops.

27
Cont…
 Random walk:
 Issuing node u passes request for d to randomly chosen
neighbor, v.
 If v does not have d, it forwards request to one of its
randomly chosen neighbors, and so on.

28
Structured P2P
 Nodes are organized following a specific distributed data
structure.
 The most common one is distributed hash table (DHT)
 In such systems, each data item is uniquely associated with a key,
in turn used as an index.
 Each node is responsible to store data that are associated with
subset of these keys
 P2P system now responsible for storing (key, value) pairs
 Looking up data d with key k means routing request to node with
identifier k.
 Example
 chord

29
Hybrid Architectures
 Many distributed systems require properties from both client-
server and peer-to-peer architectures.
 So, they put together features from both centralized and
decentralized architectures, resulting in hybrid architectures.
 Some nodes are appointed special functions in a well
organized fashion
 Examples
 Edge-server systems: placed at the edge of enterprise network
 E.g., ISPs, which act as servers to their clients, but cooperate with
other edge servers to host shared content
 Collaborative distributed systems:
 E.g., BitTorrent, which supports parallel downloading and uploading
of chunks of a file.
 First, interact with client-server system to download the torrent file,
and then operate in decentralized manner.

30
End of Chapter 2