INTRODUCTION OF PSYCHOLOGY - Irrational: Actions done without apparent

reason or explanation.
Psychology originated from the Greek words
- Voluntary: Done with full will and discretion.
psyche (mind and soul) and logos (word),
- Involuntary: Automatic actions like
involving the study of the human mind and its
breathing, digestion, and circulation.
functions. As a social science, it differs from
Simple and Complex: Behavior may be
other disciplines like sociology, humanities,
considered simple or complex.
political science, history, and economics.

Fields Related to Psychology:

Aims and Goals:

1. Biopsychology: Applies biological

- Describe: Presents a detailed principles to psychology, investigating mental
characterization of a phenomenon for further processes and behavior.
study
-Understand: Involves organizing facts about 2. Physiological Psychology: Studies brain
behavior, developing reasons, and systems in humans, involving direct
establishing principles and paradigms. manipulation of perception and behavior in
- Predict: Enables psychologists to anticipate controlled experiments, including nonhuman
future actions of individuals. animal brains.
- Control: Involves altering an individual's
behavior, traits, ideas, and beliefs. 3. Psychiatry: Branch of medicine focused on
studying, preventing, and treating mental
Types of Behavior: disorders in humans.

- Overt: Observable and manifested 4. Psychotherapy: Involves applying

outwardly (e.g., walking, playing, writing). specialized psychological methods to treat
- Covert: Not directly visible (e.g., lying, diagnosed mental disorders or address
thinking, learning). problems in a person's daily adjustment.
- Conscious: Actions within one's awareness
(e.g., solving maths problem
s mentally, emotional feelings).
- Unconscious: Actions done without
awareness (e.g., striving for hunger and
thirst).
- Non-conscious: Bodily activities detectable
by instruments (e.g., blood pressure, pulse
rate).
- Rational: Manifested through actions within
the realm of sanity and adequate reason
(e.g., admiring an athlete for physique).
 responses, influencing psychology for the
next 50 years.
Historical overview of psychology
7. B.F. Skinner: Developed operant
The history of psychology is marked by conditioning theory, highlighting the impact
influential figures who shaped the field with of punishment and reinforcement on
their groundbreaking ideas and theories: behavior, contributing to the behaviourist
perspective.
1. Rene Descartes: Established dualism,
positing that the mind and body are distinct 8. Carl Rogers: A humanistic psychologist
entities interacting to form human known for theories on personality, self-
experience. actualization, and the therapeutic
relationship. Emphasised free will and self-
2. Wilhelm Wundt: Pioneered scientific determination in his approach.
research methodologies, emphasising the
connection between physiology and
psychology. Published "Principles of COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Physiological Psychology" in 1873 and
opened the first psychology laboratory in The cognitive revolution in psychology
1879. emerged in the 1950s and 1960s, replacing
psychoanalysis and behaviorism. It focused
3. Edward Titchener: Founded structuralism, on understanding internal mental processes
breaking human consciousness into smaller alongside observable behaviors. Cognitive
elements through introspection, where psychology has persisted as a major area of
volunteers analysed their responses to research, exploring perception, memory,
fundamental sensations. decision-making, problem-solving, intellect,
and language.
4. William James: Regarded as the father of
American psychology, authored "The Advancements in brain imaging, like MRI and
Principles of Psychology." PET scans, have allowed deeper exploration
of the human brain. Since 1960, psychology
5. Sigmund Freud: Revolutionised psychology has evolved, incorporating new concepts
with his psychoanalytic theory, emphasising and perspectives. Current research spans
the significance of the unconscious mind. His biological influences on behavior to the
impact extended to mental health, art, impact of social and cultural factors. Modern
literature, and popular culture. psychologists often adopt an eclectic
approach, drawing from various theoretical
6. Ivan Pavlov: Introduced behaviorism, backgrounds, resulting in the emergence of
focusing on the conscious and unconscious novel ideas that will shape psychology for
mind. Demonstrated the conditioning years to come.
process, linking external stimuli with natural
RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY

SCIENTIFIC METHOD
a process of inquiry that has defined natural Contemporary Psychological Theories:
science since the 17th century, comprising - Definition of Theories: Explanation-oriented
methodical observation, measurement, and supposition or system of ideas based on
experimentation as well as the creation, universal principles, not specific to the object
examination, and revision of hypotheses: being explained.

RELIABILITY - Psychological Theories: Descriptions of

relates to a measure's consistency. If we human behavior phenomena grounded in
consistently obtain the same result from a empirical evidence.
test, it is said to be reliable. Two Parts of Psychological Theory:
VALIDITY 1. Describing a behavior.
the condition of being in compliance with 2. Predicting future human actions.
the law
Behavioral Theories:
TYPES OF RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY
- Focuses on the idea that all actions and

1. Causal or Experimental Research: reactions result from prior conditioning.

- Examines how factors impact outcome

variables. - Behaviorism: Views human behavior as

- Determines if one variable influences the responses to environmental stimuli,

occurrence or change of another. emphasising controlled, scientific study of

responses for understanding human nature.

2. Descriptive Research:
- Aims to portray the existing state of a Types of Behaviorism:

population or group.
- Includes case studies, observational 1. Methodological Behaviorism: Advocates

research, and polls as techniques. studying behavior through observable

phenomena, disregarding mental states and

3. Relational or Correlational Research: cognitive processes.

- Investigates the relationship between two

or more variables. 2. Radical Behaviorism: Emphasizes
examining past, present, and environmental

- Typically involves a group or population influences on behavior, with B.F. Skinner as a

where the variables being compared prominent figure.

already exist.
Two Types of Conditioning:

1. Classical Conditioning: Involves associating

a neutral stimulus with a naturally occurring
one, leading to a similar response in the Stages of Cognitive Development
absence of the natural stimulus.
1. Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to around age
two, learning through senses and
2. Operant Conditioning: Involves
movements.
reinforcement and punishment, with
behaviors becoming more likely if 2.Preoperational Stage: Ages two to seven,
accompanied by a favorable result. marked by symbolic play and language
development.

Reinforcement: 3. Concrete Operational Stage: Ages 7 to 11,

logical reasoning develops, but abstract
- Continuous Reinforcement: Rewards every
thought remains challenging.
instance of a behavior, often used at the
beginning of operant conditioning. 4. Formal Operational Stage:Age 12 and
beyond, significant improvement in abstract
- Partial Reinforcement: Rewards after a thinking and deductive reasoning.
certain number of responses or time,
Humanistic Theories:
sometimes on a variable schedule,
- Emphasise the full person, free will, self-
enhancing the learned behavior.
efficacy, and self-actualization.

Cognitive Theories: Two types:

- Focus on internal processes such as drive,
problem-solving, decision-making, thinking, Religious Humanism (integrated into certain
and attention. religious traditions)

- Aim to explain how the mind processes

Secular Humanism (rejecting all religious
information and how thoughts influence
beliefs, emphasizing logic and reason).
emotions and actions.
Theorists in Humanistic Theory:
Jean Piaget:
- Renowned for the theory of cognitive 1. Carl Rogers: Notable for client-centered
development, analyzing intellectual growth therapy and contributions to humanistic
psychology.
in children throughout childhood.
2. Abraham Maslow: Formulated a hierarchy
of needs, explaining human motivation and
- Significantly contributed to the progression toward higher-level needs.
establishment of developmental psychology
as a distinct subfield. Major Psychological Theories:

1. Psychodynamic Theory: Emphasizes

- A trailblazer of the constructivist theory,
unconscious motivations influencing adult
asserting that individuals actively create their
personality and relationships, rooted in
understanding of the world through the childhood experiences.
interplay of ideas and experiences. 2. Biological Theory: Attributes human
emotion and behavior to biological reasons,
supporting the nature side of the nature vs. - Underlying biological processes in the
nurture debate. nervous system contributing to behavioral
expression and regulation.
Four Categories of Psychological Theory:

2. Human Development:
1. Developmental Theories:
- Process of growth and maturation
- Frameworks for understanding human
throughout the lifespan, encompassing
learning, development, and growth.
physical, cognitive, and emotional changes.
- Offer guiding principles that characterize
- Key stages: Infancy, childhood,
and clarify human growth.
adolescence, adulthood, and old age.

2. Grand Theories:
3. Heredity and Environment:
- Attempt to explain a large portion of
- Heredity: Sum total of potentialities
human behavior.
inherited at birth.
- Considered by some as outdated and
- Environment: All conditions affecting an
inadequate but still used as a framework for
individual's development.
investigation alongside smaller theories.

- Role of Heredity:
3. Mini Theories:
- Physical Development: Greater impact
- Explain specialised behaviors, such as the
on physical and motor development.
formation of self-esteem or early socialisation.
- Intellectual Development: Sets limits for
- Do not aim to fully explain and
intelligence enhancement or retardation.
characterize human behavior and
- Personality Development: Certain traits
development.
genetically determined.
- Structural Levels of Environment: Micro,
4. Emergent Theories:
Exo, Meso, and Macro systems.
- Recently produced theories.
- Created by systematically combining
4. Heredity and Genetics:
different mini-theories.
- Heredity: Passing of traits from parents to
- More focused than grand theories,
offspring through genetic information.
drawing from research and concepts across
- Genetics: Scientific study of genes,
disciplines.
heredity, and variation in living organisms.

Evolutionary Theories:
5. Inherited Abnormalities:
- Study how survival and reproduction-related
- Examples like Down's syndrome, Turner's
pressures have shaped the human mind.
syndrome, etc.

Report G1 NEUROBIOLOGICAL BASES OF

6. Genetic Factors in Behavior:
BEHAVIOR
- Kinship Studies, Twin Studies, Adoption
Studies to understand genetic influences on
1. Neurobiological Bases of Behavior:
traits and behavior.
 - Symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and
7. Mechanism of Heredity: struggle with others' perspectives.
- Ericson's psychosocial development
theory, prenatal development, mating, - Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11
growth, chromosomes, genes, and chance Years):
factors. - Use of logical rules, understanding
conservation, improvement in inclusion tasks.
- Logical thinking about concrete events.
8. Prenatal Development:
- Defined as growth and development - Formal Operational Stage (11 Years and
within the womb from fertilization until birth. Up):
- Process involves the zygote growing into - Abstract thinking and reasoning about
an embryo and then a fetus. hypothetical problems.
- Deductive logic and theoretical
9. Nature vs. Nurture: reasoning about moral, philosophical,
- Examines the role of heredity (nature) and ethical, social, and political issues.
environment (nurture) in shaping behavior.
3. Erickson's Psychosocial Development
10. Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory: Theory:
- A frmework for understanding cognitive - Eight stages of development from infancy
growth and development in individuals. to older adults, each facing goals and
challenges.
1. Prenatal Development:
- Nature vs. Nurture debate: Nature refers to - Example stages: Trust vs. Mistrust,

hereditary/genetic influences, while Nurture Autonomy vs. Shame, Initiative vs. Guilt, etc.

refers to experiential/environmental
influences. 4. Kohlberg's Moral Development Theory:
- Three levels with two stages each.

- Overview of Piaget's Cognitive - Level 1 (Preconventional Morality):

Development Theory. Obedience to avoid punishment and self-

interest.

2. Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory: - Level 2 (Conventional Morality):

Concerned with being "good," pleasing

- Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years): others, and maintaining social order.

- Learning through sensory experiences - Level 3 (Postconventional Morality):

and object manipulation. Recognition of conflicts between moral

- Realization of object permanence. standards and personal judgment based on

- Understanding of cause and effect. principles of right, fairness, and justice.

- Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 Years): 5. Conclusion:

- Emergence of language.
 - Overview of prenatal development,
nature vs. nurture, Piaget's theory, Erickson's Perception and Consciousness:-
theory, and Kohlberg's theory. Perception: The act or faculty of
apprehending through senses or the mind.
Adolescence & Puberty: - Consciousness: Awareness of oneself and
- Adolescence (10-21 years): A crucial the world.
developmental stage marked by physical,
psychological, and social changes, including
puberty, identity development,
independence, and societal exploration.
- Puberty: A biological process involving Altered States of Consciousness:
physical and sexual maturation, influenced - Change in mental state due to trauma,
by hormonal changes and brain signals. accident, meditation, drugs, or other
influences.
Stages of Adolescence:
1. Early Adolescence (Ages 10 to 13): Sensory System:
- Rapid growth. - Divided into modalities: hearing, smell, taste,
- Increased need for privacy. touch, and vision.
- Concrete, black-and-white thinking. - Includes somatovisceral categories like
mechanoreception, proprioception,
2. Middle Adolescence (Ages 14 to 17): thermoreception, and nociception.
- Continued physical changes from
puberty. Signal Detection:
- Interest in romantic and sexual - Important framework for modeling
relationships. perceptual decisions in forced-choice tasks.
- Ongoing brain maturation. - Decisions based on stochastic
representation of stimuli in the brain.
3. Late Adolescence (Ages 18 to 21):
- Values identification. Absolute Threshold:
- Improved impulse control. - The smallest detectable stimulus level.
- More stable relationships. - Applies to stimuli in various senses.

Adulthood and Old Age: Transduction:

- Adulthood: A period of slowed physical, - Receptor cells innervated by primary
cognitive, and psychosocial development, afferent neurons.
reaching its highest levels. - Encode amplitude and frequency of
- Old Age (from age 65 until death): electrical signals.
- Retirement from work and reduced Sensory Coding:
caregiving responsibilities. - Involves representation of stimuli in the
- Physical decline in stamina, strength, reflex brain.
time, and senses. - Utilizes stochastic or probabilistic concepts.
 Mental experiences during sleep involving
Sense of Sight: images, thoughts, or feelings.
- Anatomy of the Eye. - Depth of Perception in Dreams: Dreams can
- Photoreceptor Cells: Role in vision, color involve all senses, with variations in color
vision, afterimages. perception and sensory experiences based
- Color Blindness categories: Monochromat, on individual characteristics and
Dichromat, Trichromat. experiences.

Recalling long-term memories involves

constructive processes influenced by the
Sense of Hearing: meaning attached to moments or events.
Constructive processes are those that allow
- Auditory Perception. our memories to be shaped by the
- Range of Hearing. significance we attribute to experiences.
- Types of Hearing Loss: Conductive and
Sensorineural Schemas, which are packets of knowledge
about places, people, or events, play a
Perception: crucial role in impacting how we perceive
- Absolute Thresholds: The smallest and remember things.
detectable stimulus level.
- Space Perception: Awareness of relative Long-term memory consists of declarative
positions, providing cues for movement and memory, responsible for storing and retrieving
orientation. information about specific events, people,
places, and concepts. Within declarative
- Form Perception: Recognition of visual memory, there are two components:
elements through the eyes, influenced by semantic memory, which stores general
various factors. knowledge and facts about the world, and
episodic memory, which stores personal
- Perceptual Constancy: Ability to perceive experiences and events tied to a specific
familiar objects as unchanging despite time and place.
variations.
- Culture, Experience, and Perception: Additionally, there is nondeclarative memory,
Influence of beliefs, values, traditions, and referring to memories of which people are
societal norms on how a person views the not consciously aware but can influence
world. subsequent performance and behavior.
- Depth of Perception: The ability to perceive
depth and distance, influenced by various In the neuroscience of memory, the
visual cues. hippocampus plays a key role in encoding
and organizing information from short-term
Sleep and Dreams: memory into long-term memory storage.
- Dreams: Simultaneously, the amygdala is primarily
associated with processing and regulating 1. Availability Heuristics: An example is when
emotions, particularly fear, and memories. a person stuck in traffic impulsively decides to
"Forgetting" refers to memories influencing take an unfamiliar route.
behavior without conscious awareness. In the 2. Anchoring and Adjustment
neuroscience of memory, "encoding failure" Heuristics:Illustrated by a salesman initially
leads to partial or complete memory loss, offering a high price and eventually settling
with retrograde (old memories) and on a fair value with the customer.
anterograde (new memories) amnesia. 3. Common Sense Heuristics: For instance,
bringing an umbrella when it's raining outside.
Strategies to improve memory include 4. Familiarity Heuristics: Demonstrated by a
feedback, rehearsal, maintenance, driver taking a familiar route daily despite the
elaborative recitation, selective organization, existence of a faster alternative.
progressive part learning, spaced practice,
sufficient sleep, and mnemonic techniques Moving on to intelligence and assessment:
like memory rhymes, acronyms, and acrostic - Intelligence: Defined by scientists as the
mnemonics. ability to think, learn from new experiences,
plan, reason, solve problems, and adapt to
The exploration of "thinking" describes it as various situations using mental abilities.
the cognitive process of manipulating - Assessing Intelligence: Different
information for problem-solving. Various types perspectives from Francis Galton, Alfred
of thinking are detailed, including creative, Binet, David Wechsler, and scientists highlight
analytical, critical, concrete, abstract, intelligence as a combination of purposeful
divergent, and convergent thinking. action, rational thinking, and effective
dealing with the environment.
A "mental image" is defined as a mental
representation of an object or event. Exploring the difference between
Algorithms, step-by-step procedures for psychological testing and psychological
problem-solving (e.g., sorting, traffic signals), assessment:
are explained. Heuristics, problem-solving
approaches considering prior knowledge, - Psychological Test: Primarily aims to gain

are introduced with examples like availability, deeper insight into an individual's behavior.

anchoring and adjustment heuristics. - Psychological Assessment: Strives to reveal

strengths and weaknesses, identify cognitive

The discussion concludes with the definition and emotional issues, and provides

of "heuristics" as an approach to problem- recommendations for treatment or

solving that incorporates prior knowledge remediation using various tools.

and personal experience. Examples include

availability heuristics and anchoring and Finally, understanding how intelligence is

adjustment heuristics. measured:

Types of heuristics include:

- Intelligence Test: A standardized assessment - Kaufman Adolescent and Adult
designed to measure human intelligence. Intelligence Test (KAIT):* Measures
intelligence for ages 11 to 85.
Types of Intelligence Tests: Include Individual - Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT): A
Tests, administered to one person at a time, brief assessment for intellectual functioning in
and Group Tests, administered to a large individuals aged 4 to 90.
number of people simultaneously.There are
various types of intelligence tests: - Wechsler Scale: Developed by David
Wechsler, includes three intelligence tests:
1. Verbal Test: Assess linguistic ability. - Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS):
2. Non-verbal Test: Designed to assess - Wechsler Intelligence Test Scale for
intelligence without relying on language- Children (WISC):*
based questions. - Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of
Intelligence (WPPSI).
Different methods to scale intelligence
include:

- Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale: Developed

in 1905 by French psychologists Alfred Binet
and Theodore Simon, it was the first
intelligence test. It evaluates mental age and
IQ by measuring cognitive skills for children
aged 3 to 13.

- IQ Formula: IQ = mental age ÷

chronological age × 100.

- Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale:Translated

and adapted by Lewis Terman and
associates at Stanford University in 1917. It is
used to determine intellectual functioning
based on five cognitive factors and can be
administered to individuals aged 2-85.

- Kaufman Scale: Developed by Alan

Kaufman and Nadeen Kaufman, including:
- Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children
(K-ABC): Assesses processing and cognitive
abilities in children aged 2-12.