CLASS 12

MISCONCEPTS/
ALERT POINTS/
REMEMBRING
TOPIC: RELATION

Reflexive: A relation R is called reflexive

if (a, a) ∈ R, for every a∈ A,
Symmetric: A relation R is called symmetric
If ∀ (a, b) ∈ R we have (b,a) ∈ R
Transitive: A relation R is called transitive
If ∀ (a, b) and (b,c) ∈ R we have (a,c) ∈ R
Equivalence relation: A relation R in a set A is said to be an equivalence relation if R is reflexive, symmetric
and transitive.
If you know nothing about solution of given question write the
above conditions in place of solution

Equivalence Class: Collection of all elements those are related to given elements by defined relation.
Ex. Consider a set A = {1,2,3,4,5, }, A relation R:A→A, define as R = {(a, b) : a + b= even , a,b ∈ A }

Que: Write equivalence class of 2

ANS: Equivalence class of 2 = {2,4}

➢ If n(A) = p and n(B) = q then

➢ Total number of relation exists from A→B = 2𝑝𝑞
2
➢ Total number of relation exists from A→A = 2𝑝
➢ Total number of reflexive relation = 2𝑛(𝑛−1)
𝑛(𝑛+1)
➢ Total number of symmetric relation = 2 2
➢ Total number of Transitive Relation = No general formula
➢ The total number of equivalence relations on the set A = No general formula
➢ The smallest equivalence relation in a set is an Identity relation.

To show the fail in either reflexivity or symmetry or transitivity , we

have to give one example number .
Que: Show that the relation R in the set R of real numbers, defined as R = {(a, b) : a ≤ b3 } is neither reflexive
nor symmetric nor transitive
1
Ans: here 2 ∈ 𝑅
1 1 1 1
≰ ⇒ (2 , 2) ∉ 𝑅 ⇒ R is not reflexive
2 23

Relaions should be modify before proving

Relation R defined by
➢ (a,b)R(c,d)=a+d=b+c on A×A modified (a,b)R(c,d) : a−b = c−d
𝑎 𝑐
➢ a,b)R(c,d)=ad = bc modified (a,b)R(c,d) : 𝑏 = 𝑑
1 1 1 1
➢ (a,b)R(c,d)=ad(b+c) = bc(a+d) modified (a,b)R(c,d) : 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑐 − 𝑑

TOPIC: FUNCTION

A function f : A → B is defined to be one-one (or injective),

if for all 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝐴,
if we have f (𝑥1 ) = f (𝑥2 ) implies 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 .
one-one (or injective), if Each element has a unique image
A function f : A →B is said to be onto (or surjective),
if for every y∈ 𝐵, there exists an element x in A such that f (x) = y.
No element is free in co-domain
A function f : A →B is said to be one-one and onto (or bijective), if f is both one-one and onto.

➢ Consider the set A containing n elements. Then, the total number of injective (one-one) functions from
A onto itself is = n!
➢ The total number of injective mappings from the set containing 3 elements into the set containing 4
elements is 4𝑃 3 = = 4! = 24.
➢ Let A = {1, 2, 3, ...n} and B = {a, b}. Then the number of surjections (onto) from A into B is = 2𝑛 − 2
➢ If the set A contains 5 elements and the set B contains 6 elements, then the number of one-one and onto
mappings from A to B is = 0 (i.e. no of element in B > no of element in A.)

Give only example number for such type of problems

1. The Greatest Integer Function f : R→R, given by f (x) = [x], is neither one-one nor onto,
2. The Modulus Function f : R→R, given by f (x) = | x |, is neither one-one nor onto,
1 , if x > 0
3. The Signum Function f : R→R, given by f(x)={ 0, if x = 0 is neither one-one nor onto.
−1, if x < 0
n+1
, if n is odd
4. Show that the function f:N→ N defined by f(x)={n2 , State whether f(x) is bijective. Justify
, if n is even
2
your answer
x − 1, if n is odd
5. Show that f : W→W, given by f(x)={ is Show that f is invertiable and find inverse of
x + 1, if n is even
f.

Type of regular questions (using f (𝒙𝟏 ) = f (𝒙𝟐 ) implies 𝒙𝟏 = 𝒙𝟐 . For one –one and f (x) = y. for onto )

4 4x
1. Let f:R− {− 3} → R, defined by f(x) = 3x+4, show that f is one-one but not onto.
 x−1
2. Let A=R−{2} and B=R−{1}. Consider the function f:A→B defined by f(x) = x−2. Show that f is one-one
and onto

ALERT …………………in quadratic

functions
1. Consider the function f:R+→ (−5, ∞) given by f(x)=9x2+6x−5. Show that f is one-one but not onto.
2. Consider the function f:R+→ [4, ∞) given by f(x)=x2+4. Show that f is one one and onto
3. Consider the function f:R+→ (−9, ∞) given by f(x)=5x2+6x−9. Show that one-one and onto.
4. A function f: [– 4, 4] → [0, 4] is given by f(x) = √16 − 𝑥 2 . Show that f is an onto function but
not a one-one function. Further, find all possible values of ‘a’ for which f(a) = √7

Topic: Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Remember

Principal Value Branch ex

S. No. Function Principle value branch
1 sin−1 x [− π/2, π/2]
2 cos −1 x [ 0, π ]
3 tan−1 x (−π/2, π/2)
4 csc −1 x [−π/2, π/2] – {0}
5 sec −1 x [0, π] – {π/2}
6 cot −1 x (0, π)

➢ sin−1 (−x) = −sin−1 x

➢ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝟏 (−𝐱) = 𝛑 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝟏 x (only in 2nd ) . cos −1 (−
1
) = π − cos−1 ( )
1
➢ tan−1 (−x) = −tan−1 x √2 √2
➢ cot −1 (−x) = − cot −1x
➢ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 −𝟏 (−𝐱) = 𝛑 − 𝐬𝐞𝐜 −𝟏 x (only in 2nd )
➢ cosec −1 (−x) =− cosec −1x

Common Error
2π 3π π π
Evaluate the following: sin−1 (sin 3 ) + cos −1 (cos 4 ) =sin−1 [sin (π − 3)] + cos −1 [cos (π + 4)]

π π
= sin−1 [sin 3] + cos −1 [−cos 4]

WRONG
 2π 3π π 3π
sin−1 (sin 3 ) + cos −1 (cos 4 ) = sin−1 [sin (π − 3)] + cos−1 [cos ( 4 )] CORRECT
π 3π
= sin−1 [sin 3 ] + cos−1 [cos ]
4
π 3π 4𝜋+9𝜋 13𝜋
= + = =
3 4 12 12

To find domain

Find domain of: cos −1(2𝑥 − 1) Use Principal Value branch of cos −1 𝑥 𝑖. 𝑒. [ 0, π ]

⟹ 0 ≤ cos −1(2𝑥 − 1) ≤ 𝜋
⟹ 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 ≤ (2𝑥 − 1) ≤ cos𝜋
⟹ 1 ≤ (2𝑥 − 1) ≤ −1
⟹ 2 ≤ (2𝑥) ≤ 0
⟹2≤x≤0

Continuity:

A real valued function f(x) is said to be continuous at x = a if

R.H.L. = L.H.L. = f(a)
lim lim
i.e. h→0 f(a + h)= h→0 f(a − h)= f(a)

Remember
Helpful when proving continuity/Discontinuity

THREOMS
➢ Polynomial functions are always continuous.
➢ Constant functions f(x) = k are always continuous.
➢ The identity function f(x) = x is continuous everywhere
➢ The modules function f(x) = |𝑥| is continuous everywhere
➢ The greatest integer function f(x) = [x] is discontinuous at all integral points
➢ All trigonometrically functions are continuous in their restricted domain.

ALZEBRA OF CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

➢ If f(x) and g(x) are two continuous functions then
➢ f(x) + g(x) and f(x) – g(x) are also continuous
f(x)
➢ f(x) × g(x) and g(x) are also continuous

ALERT …………………in modulas functions

(need to be modify)

Ex. Discuss /Check/ find all points of discontinuity of the function f(x) = |x −1| + |x −2|
 This method is also using in
4
Evaluate: ∫1 [|x − 1| + |x − 2| + |x − 4|]dx

In Duel nature Problems

1−coskx
x≠0
xsinx
Ex. For what value of k for which the function define as f(x)={ 1 is continuous at x=0
x=0
2

𝐿𝑖𝑚 1
No need to find RHL and LHL just find 𝑥→0 𝑓(𝑥) and equate it with 2
DIFFERENTIABILITY

Remember

Continuity is necessary but not sufficient condition for differentiability

A real valued function f(x) is said to be differentiable at x = a if

R.H.D. = L.H.D.
lim f(a+h)−f(a) lim f(a−h)−f(a)
i.e. h→0 = h→0
h −h

Important theorem for ASSERTION-REASON based questions

THREOM: A real valued function f(x) is differentiable at x=a iff it is continuous, but the converse is not true.
SOME IMPORTANT RESULS
d
➢ dx(xn) = nxn-1
d
➢ (x) = 1
dx
d 1 −n
➢ ( ) = xn+1
dx x
 d 1
➢ (√x) = 2 x
dx √
d 1
➢ (logx) = x
dx
d
➢ (ex ) = ex
dx
d
➢ (ax ) = ax log e a
dx
d
➢ (k) = 0
dx
d
➢ (sinx) = cosx
dx ALZEBRA OF DERIVATIVES
d
➢ (cosx) =−sinx d d d
➢ dx{f(x)+g(x)} = dxf(x)+ dxg(x)
dx
d
➢ (tanx) = sec 2 x ➢
d d
{f(x)−g(x)} = dxf(x)− dxg(x)
d
dx
d dx
➢ (cotx)=−cosec 2 x ➢
d d
{f(x)×g(x)}=f(x) dxg(x)+g(x) dxf(x)
d
dx
d dx
➢ (secx) = secx .tanx d f(x) g(x)
d d
f(x)−f(x) g(x)
dx
d ➢ ( )= dx
(g(x))2
dx
➢ (cosecx) =−cosecx.cotx dx g(x)
dx d d
d −1 1 ➢ {kf(x)} = k dxf(x)
➢ (sin x) = √1−x2 dx
dx
d −1
➢ (cos −1 x) = √1−x2
dx
d 1
➢ (tan−1 x) = 1+x2
dx
d −1
➢ (cot −1 x) = 1+x2
dx
d 1
➢ (sec −1 x) =
dx x√x2 −1
d −1
➢ (cosec −1 x) =
dx x√x2 −1

ALERT IN DIFFERENTIATION

d
Coefficient Rule :dx sin(2x + 3) = cos(2x + 3) × 2 When variable is a linear function of x

d d
Chain Rule: dx sin(2x 3 + 3) = cos(2x 3 + 3) × dx (2x 3 + 3) When variable is not a linear function of
x

Common Error
 1+tanx dy
Que. If y=log√1−tanx , then prove that =sec2x
dx
dy 1 d 1+tanx
Ans: Start ⟹ = × dx √1−tanx
dx 1+tanx
√
1−tanx
And continued………………………….
Wrong method

Correct solution is
1 1+tanx 1 𝜋
y = 2log(1−tanx) = 2 log[𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 4 + 𝑥)] now differentiate and get solution

Note: Always use proper deductions before differentiation /integration

2x
Ex. 2 Find derivative of y = sin- 1 (1+ x2)

➢ Following are some improper deductions

θ
➢ 1+ cos2θ =2cos2θ OR 1+ cosθ = 2cos22
θ TATTOO………………..
➢ 1− cos2θ =2sin2θ OR 1− cosθ = 2sin22
θ θ
➢ sin2θ = 2sinθ.cosθ OR sinθ = 2sin2 cos2
cos θ+sin θ 1+tan θ π
➢ = = tan ( + θ)
cos θ−sin θ 1−tan θ 4
cos θ−sin θ 1−tan θ π
➢ = = tan (4 − θ)
cos θ+sin θ 1+tan θ

➢ (1+sin 2 θ)= sin2θ + cos2θ + 2sinθ.cosθ = (sinθ + cosθ )2 ⇒ √(1 + sin 2 θ) = sinθ + cosθ
➢ (1− sin 2 θ)= sin2θ + cos2θ − 2sinθ.cosθ = (sinθ − cosθ )2 ⇒ √(1 − sin 2 θ) = sinθ − cosθ
θ θ θ θ θ θ 2 θ θ
➢ (1+ sinθ) = sin22 + cos22 +2sin2 cos2 =(sin 2 + cos 2) ⇒ √(1 + sinθ) = sin 2 + cos 2
θ θ θ θ θ θ 2 θ θ
➢ (1− sinθ) = sin22 + cos22 − 2sin2 cos2 =(sin 2 − cos 2) ⇒ √(1 − sinθ) = sin 2 − cos 2

Remember Trigonometric Identities

➢ sin(A+B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B , sin(A−B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B
➢ cos(A+B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B cos(A−B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tan A+tan B tan A− tan B
➢ tan(A + B) = 1−tan A tan B , tan(A − B) = 1+tan A tan B

➢ sin(A + B) sin(A − B) = sin2 A − sin2 B = cos2 B − cos 2 A

➢ cos(A + B) cos(A − B) = cos2 A − sin2 B = cos2 A − sin2 B
C+D C−D
➢ sin C + sin D = 2sin cos
2 2
 C+D C−D
➢ sin C − sin D = 2 cos sin
2 2
C+D C−D
➢ cos C + cos D = 2 cos cos
2 2
C+D D−C
➢ cos C − cos D = 2sin sin
2 2

➢ 2sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A − B)

➢ 2cos A sin B = sin(A + B) − sin(A − B)
➢ 2cos A cos B = cos(A + B) + cos(A − B)
➢ 2sin A sin B = cos(A − B) −cos(A + B)
➢ sin2θ + cos2θ=1
➢ 1+ tan2θ= sec2θ
➢ 1+ cot2θ= cosec2θ
θ
2 tan θ θ θ 2 tan
➢ sin2θ = 2sinθ.cosθ = OR sinθ = 2sin cos = 2
θ
1+tan2 θ 2 2 1+tan2
2

1−tan2 θ
➢ cos2θ = cos2θ − sin2θ = 2cos2θ −1 = 1−2sin2θ = 1+tan2 θ
OR
θ
θ θ θ θ 1−tan2
cosθ = cos22 − sin22 = 2cos22 −1 = 1−2sin22 = 2
θ
1+tan2
2

θ
2tanθ 2tan
➢ tan2θ = 1−tan2θ OR tanθ = 2
θ
1−tan2
2
➢ sin 3 θ = 3 sin θ − 4 sin3 θ
➢ cos 3θ = 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ
3 tan θ−tan3 θ
➢ tan 3 θ= 1−3 tan2 θ
1−cos 2θ 1+cos2 θ 1−cos 2θ 1−cos 2θ
➢ = tan θ , = cot θ , = tan2 θ , √ = tan θ
sin 2θ sin 2θ 1+cos 2θ 1+cos 2θ
1−cos θ θ 1+cos θ θ 1−cos θ θ 1−cos θ θ
➢ = tan 2 , = cot 2 , = tan2 2 , √ = tan 2
sin θ sin θ 1+cos θ 1+cos θ

Common Error

Que. Derivative Using log properties y = esinx + (tanx)x

Ans. Taking log on both sides

logy = log esinx + log(tanx)x Wrong Step

 Correct Step is

let y = u +v
dy du dv
then dx = + ……………………………………(1)
dx dx

here u = esinx, and v = (tanx)x

taking log on both sides and the differentiate separately

Differentiation of a function with respect to another function

√1+ x2 − 1
Ex. differentiate tan – 1 ( ) w.r.t. tan -1 x
x
√1+ x2 − 1 du du dx
Let u = tan – 1 ( ) and v = tan -1 x and here we have to find = ×
x dv dx dv

Second Order Derivative:

sin−1 x d2 y dy
If y= then show that (1−x2) dx2 − 3xdx −y=0
√1−x2
dy
Sol. = division rule ????????????????????? ??? NO
dx

First write √1 − x 2 × 𝑦 = sin−1 x now start differentiation using product rule in LHS

Common Error
Second Order Derivative in parametric functions:
d2 y π
If x=𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and y= asinθ then find the value of dx2 at θ = 6
dx dy 𝑑𝑦 dy d𝜃
= −asin𝜃 and d𝜃 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = d𝜃 × dx = −cot𝜃
d𝜃
d2 y
Now = −[−cosec 2 𝜃] Major mistake……………what
dx2

Correct is

d2 y dθ
dx2
= −[−cosec 2 θ] × dx (we are here differentiating with respect to x)
Application of derivatives

Rate of change:
➢ Area of rectangle : A = 𝑥 × 𝑦, Perimeter: P = 2(𝑥 + 𝑦)
➢ Area of circle :A= 𝜋𝑟 2 Circumference : 2𝜋𝑟
➢ Volume of Cube : V = 𝑥 3 Surface Area of cube: 6𝑥 2
➢ Volume of cuboids : V = A = 𝑥 × 𝑦 × ℎ Surface Area of cuboids S: 2(𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦ℎ + 𝑥ℎ)
➢ Volume of cylinder : V = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ Surface Area of cylinder S : 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
4
➢ Volume of Sphere :V = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 Surface Area of Sphere S : 4𝜋𝑟 2
1
➢ Volume of Cone :V = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 ℎ Surface Area of Cone S : 4𝜋𝑙, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑙 =
√ℎ2 + 𝑟 2

Always keep in in mind about close or

open object
𝑑𝑦
Derivative 𝑑𝑥 ⟹Rate of Change in y with respect to x
𝑑𝐶 𝑑𝑅
Marginal cost = 𝑑𝑥 and Marginal Revenue: 𝑑𝑥
INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIOS
Steps:
• Find f/(x)
• Put f/(x) and find critical points
• Mark critical points on real line
Observation :

In which interval f/(x) is positive ⟹ f(x) is increasing

In which interval f/(x) is positive⟹ f(x) is decreasing

A function y =f(x) is said to be always increasing if its derivative is always (+)ve

A function y =f(x) is said to be always decreasing if its derivative is always (−)ve

Ex. Prove that the function given by f(x) = x3 – 3x2 + 3x – 100 is increasing in R.
Ex. Show that the function f given by f(x) = x2 – 3x2 + 4x, x ∈ R is strictly increasing on R.

ALERT when find f/(x) (don’t disturb

the factors, use product rule)

Ex. Find the intervals in which the following functions f(x)= (x + 1)3 (x – 3)3 are strictly increasing or
decreasing
MAXIMA MINIMA

LOCAL MAXIMA AND LOCAL MINIMA

Remember

First derivative test

Working:
➢ Find f / (x)
➢ Put f / (x) = 0, and find all critical points
➢ Plot these critical points on a number lines.
➢ If sign of derivate changes from +ve to – 𝑣e , then it is point of local maxima
➢ If sign of derivate changes from −ve to +𝑣e , then it is point of local minima
➢ If there is no change in sign of derivative then it is point of inflection.
➢ By putting such critical points in f(x) we get absolute maxima and absolute minima in given interval
including boundary points .

Ex. Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of a function f given by f (x) = 2𝑥 3 – 15𝑥 2 + 36x +1 on
the interval [1, 5].

2nd derivative test

Working:
➢ Make an objective function f(x) in one variable (to be optimize)
➢ Find f / (x)
➢ Find f // (x)
➢ Put f / (x) = 0, and find all critical point
➢ Check Find f // (x) at this point
➢ If f // (x) is negative ⟹ f(x) is maximum at critical point
and If f // (x) is positive ⟹ f(x) is minimum at critical pont
➢ Now find optimum value from objective function

Ex. A magazine seller has 500 subscribers and collects annual subscription charges of Rs.300 per subscriber.
She proposes to increase the annual subscription charges and it is believed that for every increase of Re 1, one
subscriber will discontinue. What increase will bring maximum income to her? Make appropriate assumptions
in order to apply derivatives to reach the solution.
MATRIX AND DETERMINANTS

Recall
Theorem (1): For any square matrix A with real number entries,
(A + A′) is a symmetric matrix
(A – A′) is a skew symmetric matrix.

Theorem (2): Any square matrix can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix.
1 1
Such that: P + Q = 2(A + A′) + 2(A - A′) = A
i.e. P (symmetric) + Q(Skew-symmetric) = A
NOTE: (1) All positive integral powers of a symmetric matrix are symmetric.
(2) All odd positive integral powers of a skew-symmetric matrix are skew-symmetric
(3) if A and B are two symmetric matrices then AB−BA is a skew symmetric matrix.

Remember these for MCQs

Properties of Adjoint of a Matrix:

➢ A(AdjA) = (AdjA)A=|A|I
➢ Adj(kA) = kn-1(AdjA)

Singular Matrix: A matrix A is said to be singular if |A|=0

Properties of Inverse of a Matrix:

➢ (AT )−1 = (A−1 )T
1
➢ (kA)−1 = k A−1
➢ (AB)−1 = B −1 A−1

Important: If A is a square matrix of order n× n, then

➢ |kA| = k n |A|
1
➢ |A−1 | = |A|
➢ |A(AdjA)| = |A|n
➢ |AdjA|=|A|n−1
➢ |AT | = |A|
➢ |AB| = |A||B|
➢ |An | = |A|n

➢ Area of a triangle:
If (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), and (x3 , y3 ) are the vertices of a triangle then area of triangle is given by
1 x1 y1 1
∆= |x2 y2 1|
2 x y 1
3 3

➢ Condition of collinearty of there points: Three points (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), and (x3 , y3 ) will be collinear if
∆= 0
x1 y1 1
⟹ |x2 y2 1| = 0
x3 y3 1

Three different situations for inverse of a

matrix

1 −2
➢ A=[ ], find matrix B such that AB = I
4 3
1 0 2
➢ If A = [0 2 1] , Show that: A3 − 6A2 + 7A + 2I = O, hence find A−1
2 0 3
➢ Solve the following systems of equations by matrix method:
2 3 10 4 6 5 6 9 20
+ + = 4; − + = 1 and + − = 2.
x y z x y z x y z

3 −2 3
➢ If A=[2 1 −1], find A-1 and hence solve the system of linear equations
4 −3 2
3 x−2y+3z=8
2x+y−z=1
4x−3y+2z=4
−4 4 4 1 −1 1
➢ If A= [−7 1 3 ] and B= [ 1 −2 −2] are two square matrices , find AB and hence solve the
5 −3 −1 2 1 3
system of linear equations x−y+z=4 , x−2y−2z=9, and 2x+y+3z=1
Integrals
SOME IMPORTANT RESULTS
xn+1
• ∫ x n dx = +C
n+1
x2
• ∫ xdx = 2 + C ALZEBRA OF INTEGRATION
• ∫ dx = x + C
•
1 −1
∫ xn dx = (n−1)xn−1 + C • ∫[f(x) + g(x)]dx = ∫ f(x)dx + ∫ g(x)dx + C
1 • ∫[f(x) − g(x)]dx = ∫ f(x)dx − ∫ g(x)dx + C
• ∫ xdx = logx + C • ∫ Kf(x)dx = K∫ f(x)dx + C
1
• ∫ √xdx = 2√x + C •
1
∫ f(ax + b)dx = 𝑎 ∫ f(ax + b)dx + C
• ∫ ex dx = ex + C
ax
• ∫ ax dx = loga + C
• ∫ sinxdx = −cosx + C
• ∫ cosxdx =sinx + C
• ∫ tanxdx = logsecx =−logcosx + C
• ∫ cotxdx = logsinx + C
• ∫ secxdx = log(secx+tanx) + C
• ∫ cosecxdx = log(cosecx−cotx) + C
• ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 xdx= tanx + C
• ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 xdx= −cotx + C
• ∫ secx.tanxdx = secx + C
• ∫ cosecx.cotxdx = −cosecx + C
1
• ∫ √1−x2dx = sin−1 x + C
−1
• ∫ √1−x2dx = cos −1 x + C
1
• ∫ 1+x2dx = tan−1 x + C
−1
• ∫ 1+x2dx = tan−1 x + C
1
• ∫ x√x2−1dx = sec −1 x + C
−1
• ∫ x√x2−1dx = 𝑐𝑜sec −1 x + C

➢ Direct using Identities:

1
Ex. ∫ sec 2 (7 − 4x)dx, ∫ sin2xcos2x dx (After simplification)
➢ By Substitution:
sin√x 𝑥
Ex. ∫ dx (visible) ∫ √1−𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (non visible)
√x
➢ 9 Particular Integrals
1 1 𝑥−𝑎
• ∫ 𝑥 2 −𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑎 log |𝑥+𝑎| + 𝑐
1 1 𝑎+𝑥
• ∫ 𝑎2 −𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = log |𝑎−𝑥| + 𝑐
2𝑎
1 x
• ∫ √a2 −x2dx = sin−1 a + C
1 1 x
• ∫ a2 +x2dx = a tan−1 a + C
1
• ∫ √x2−a2 dx = log(x+√x 2 − a2) + C
1
• ∫ √x2+a2 dx = log(x+√x 2 + a2) + C
• x a2 x
∫ √a2 − x 2 dx = 2 √a2 − x 2 + sin−1 a + C
2
Very very important in Area of region
 x a2
• ∫ √a2 + x 2 dx = 2 √a2 + x 2 + log(x+√a2 + x 2 ) + C
2
x a2
• ∫ √x 2 − a2dx = 2 √x 2 − a2 + log(x+√x 2 + a2) + C
2
➢ Partial Fractions
(2x−1) 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
• Format 1 ∫ (x−1)(x+2)(x−3)dx = (𝑥−1) + (𝑥−2) + (𝑥−3)
(3x−2) 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
• Format 2 ∫ (x+1)2(x+3)dx = (𝑥+3) + (𝑥+1) + (𝑥+1)2
x 𝐴 𝐵𝑥+𝐶
• Format 3 ∫ (x2+1)(x−1)dx = (𝑥−1) + (x2+1)
2x 𝐴𝑥+𝐵 𝐶𝑥+𝐷
• Format 4 ∫ (2+x2)(3+x2)dx = (2+x2) + (3+x2)

Alert Here:
Always convert in form 1 by substitution 𝑥 2
or by replace 𝑥 2 = p

𝑥2
• Example of replacement: ∫ (𝑥 2 +4)(𝑥 2+1)dx
x
• Example of substitution : ∫ (𝑥 2+2)(𝑥 2+4)dx
Examples that are convertible in different type of partial fractions
cosx
• ∫ (2+sinx)(1+sinx)dx
sec2 x
• ∫ (2+tanx)(3+tanx)dx
sin2x
• ∫ (1+sinx)(2+sinx)dx
1
• ∫ x(xn +1)dx (MULTYPLY AND DIVIDE BY 𝑥 𝑛−1 )

Note: Always divide first if degree of Numerator ≥ Degree of Denominator

x3 +x+1 (𝑥 2 +1)(𝑥 2 +4)

• Ex. ∫ dx , ∫ (𝑥 2 +3)(𝑥 2−5)dx
x2 −1

➢ By Parts: 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑒

𝑑
Rule: ∫ 𝐹1 × 𝐹2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹1 × ∫ 𝐹2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ [𝑑𝑥 𝐹1 × ∫ 𝐹2 𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑥

• Ex. ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥dx (Always start every integral by writing I= )

𝑑
I = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 × ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ [𝑑𝑥 sinx × ∫ ex 𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑥

Use ILATE key in selection of first function

I= inverse Trigonometric function
L = log function
A= algebraic function
T = Trigonometric Functions
E = Exponential Function
 (Note: Take 1 as 2nd Function 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑒)

Very Important format in Partial fraction (for 1 OR 2 OR 3 marks according to level of question)
I = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 [(𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓 / (𝑥)] = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐

• ∫ ex (tanx + logsecx)dx

ex (1−x)2
• Ex. ∫ (1+x2 )2
dx
Other Examples convertible in by parts after substitution
𝑥 cos−1 𝑥
❖ ∫ √1−𝑥 2
dx
𝑥 2 sin−1 𝑥
❖ ∫ 3 dx
(1−𝑥 2 )2
𝐛
➢ Definite Integrals: ∫𝐚 𝐟(𝐱)𝐝𝐱 = [𝐅(𝐱) + 𝐜]𝐛𝐚 where F(x) is integral of f(x) = F(b)−F(a)

Note: it is not compulsory to search a property to evaluate a definite Integral

π xtanx
❖ Evaluate: ∫0 secx cosecx dx

❖ PROPERTIES OF DEFINITE INTEGRAL

a
❖ ∫a f(x)dx = 0
b b
❖ ∫a f(x)dx = ∫a f(t)dt
b a
❖ ∫a f(x)dx = − ∫b f(x)dx
b c b
❖ ∫a f(x)dx = ∫a f(x)dx + ∫c f(x)dx where a <c<b (for modules functions)
3
❖ Evaluate ∫0 f(x)dx, where f(x) = |x| + |x − 1| + |x − 2|
1 1 − 2x, x≤0
❖ Evaluate: ∫−1 f(x)dx, where f(x) = { .
1 + 2x, x≥0
b b
❖ ∫a f(x)dx = ∫a f[(a + b) − x]dx
𝜋
1
❖ Evaluate∫𝜋3 1+ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
√ 6

a a
❖ ∫0 f(x)dx = ∫0 f(a − x)dx
π xtanx
❖ Evaluate: ∫0 dx
secx cosecx

a a
❖ ∫−a f(x)dx = 2∫0 f(x)dx if f(−x) = f(x) i.e. f(x) is even
=0 if f(−x) = −f(x) i.e. f(x) is odd
𝜋
❖ Evaluate ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛7 𝑥𝑑𝑥 2
𝜋
−
2
2a a
❖ ∫0 f(x)dx = 2∫0 f(x)dx if f(2a−x) = f(x)
=0 if f(2a−x) = −f(x)
2π 5
❖ ∫0 cos xdx
Application of Integrals

Remember it
Usual Coordinate Geometry
• x = 0 (Y axis)
• y =0 (X axis)
• x = a (line parallel to Y axis)
• y =a line parallel to X axis)
• y = mx (line passing through origin)
• ax +by+c =0 (General equation of line)

• 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 Parabola

• 𝑥 2 = 4𝑎𝑦

x y
• + b = 1 OR 2x+3y =6 (Intercept form of line OR can be convert in intercept form)
a
• Equation of Circle : x2+y2=𝑎2 𝑂𝑅 𝑦 = √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2
x2 y2 4
• Equation of Ellipse : + 16 = 1 OR 16x2 +9y2=144 OR y = 3 √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2
9

Note: In Evaluation of area enclosed X or Y axis is natural base

Exemplar Problems
• Using integration, find area enclosed by the parabola 4y =3x 2 and the line 2y =3x+12
• Using integration find the area of triangular region whose vertices are (2, −2), (4,3) and (1,2)
• Using integration find the area of triangular region whose sides have equations. y=2x+1, y=3x+1 and
x=4
• Find the area of the region bounded by curves {(x, y) :x 2 + y 2 ≤ 4,x + y ≥ 2}
• Sketch the region bonded by curves y = √5 − x 2 and y = |x − 1| and using integration find its area.

•
Differential Equations

Order of differential Equation: Order of highest Ordered derivative in differential Equation

Degree of differential Equation : Integral power of ordered derivative
2
d2 y dy 2
• Find product of order and degree of differential equations x (dx2 ) + (dx) + y 2 = 0

Degree not define untill differential equation is not free from radicals (fractional powers)
dy dy 2
• Write the order and degree of the differential equation y = xdx + a√1 + (dx) .

Degree not define untill differential equation involves derivative as variable of trigonometric, log or exponential
functions
d4 y d3 y
• Write the order and degree of the differential equation + sin ( ) = 0.
dx4 dx3
𝑑𝑦
• Find the general solution of the differential equation log(𝑑𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 + 4𝑦

Types Differential Equations:

➢ First Identify Homogeneous

• Find the particular solution of the following differential equations(x 2 − y 2 )dx+2xydy=0 given that
y=1 when x=1
y π
• Solve the differential equation (xsin2 ( ) − y)dx+xdy=0 given y= when x=1
x 4
𝑑𝑦
Solution : separate 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
Put y =vx and hence change 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣
Now proceed to solution

➢ 2nd Identify Variable separable

dy
• Find the solution of the differential equation dx = x 3 e−2y
Shift function of x along dx and function of y with dy
,then Integrate
➢ 3rd Indentify linear
dy
• First form dx + py = q
𝑑𝑦
Write the integrating factor of the differential equation √𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑒 −2√𝑥 and solve it

I.F = e∫ Pdx
Use elogm = m, if appears
And solution is fixed
y× 𝐼. 𝐹. = ∫ 𝑄 × 𝐼. 𝐹. 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐
dx
• 2nd form of linear differential equation: dy + px = q
 dy
Solve the differential equation: (y + x) dx = y

I.F = e∫ Pdy
Use elogm = m, if appears
And solution is fixed
𝑥 × 𝐼. 𝐹. = ∫ 𝑄 × 𝐼. 𝐹. 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑐
VECTORS

➢ POSITION VECTOR: Let P(x, y, z) be any point in 3-D space.

OP=xî + yĵ + zk̂ ,
Then position vector of point P is n ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Coordinate of point gives position vector ⟺ position vector gives coordinate of point

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐩, 𝐯, 𝐨𝐟 𝐐 − 𝐩, 𝐯, 𝐨𝐟 𝐏
➢ 𝐏𝐐

➢ MAGNITUDE OF A VECTOR: If a⃗ = xî + yĵ + zk̂ be a given vector then magnitude of a⃗ is denoted
by |a⃗| and given by
|a⃗|= √x 2 + y 2 + z 2 (gives length of vector)
➢ UNIT VECTOR: A vector a⃗ whose magnitude is unity ie 1 is called unit vector.It is denoted by â and
given by
⃗
a
â = |a⃗| (gives direction of vector)

̂)
➢ Unit vectors along x-axes, y-axes, z-axes (𝐢̂ , 𝐣̂ ,𝐤
|î|= |ĵ|= |k̂| =1

➢ COMPONENTs OF A VECTOR r = aî + bĵ + ck̂

a, b ,c are considered as DIRECTION

➢ M.M,M. important point RATIOS OF A VECTOR

RELATION BETWEEN DIRECTION COSINES(dc’s) AND DIRECTION RATIOS(dr’s):

a b b
l = 2 2 2 , m= 2 2 2 , n= 2 2 2
√x +y +z √x +y +z √x +y +z

If a vector makes angle α, β and γ with the positive directions of X-axis, Y-axis, Z-axis respectively, then
Direction cosines are given by

l = cosα, m=cos β and n= cosγ

Note: 𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 = 1
 Remembering Points

PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS

➢ dot product or scalar product:
⃗ =|a⃗||b
a⃗.b ⃗ | cos θ

To find angle between two vectors use

this as
⃗
a⃗. b
cos θ =
|a⃗||b⃗|

Important result
➢ If two vectors a⃗ and ⃗b are parallel directional ratios are equal or proportional
➢ If two vectors a⃗ and ⃗b are perpendicular i.e.θ=900, Then cos θ=0
Thus, a⃗.b ⃗ =0
➢ If a⃗ = ⃗b ( i.e. dot product of a vector to it-self then .θ=0,)
a⃗ . a⃗ =|a⃗||a⃗| =|a⃗| = a2 (𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 2 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 2
2

OR (a⃗)2=|a⃗|2
➢ Dot(Scalar ) product of unit vectors
î.î + j.̂ ĵ + k.̂ k̂ =1
î .ĵ =ĵ. k̂ = k̂.î =0

Actual dot product:

If a⃗=a1î + b1ĵ +c1k̂ , and b
⃗ = a2î + b2ĵ +c2k̂ are two vectors, then
⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 𝑏2 + 𝑐1 𝑐2
a⃗.b

➢ PROJECTION OF A VECTOR ON ANOTHER VECTOR: Let a⃗ and ⃗b are two vectors and θ be the
angle between them, Then
⃗ .b
a ⃗
Projection of a vector a⃗ on vector ⃗b = ⃗
|b|
⃗
⃗ .b
a
Projection of a vector ⃗b on vector a⃗ = |a⃗|

➢ Application of dot product: work done = resultant force applied. Displacement vector

W = ⃗F.d
➢ CROSS PRODUCT OR VECTOR PRODUCT: The cross or vector product of two vectors a⃗ and ⃗b is
defined as
a⃗ x⃗⃗⃗⃗b =|a⃗||b
⃗ | sin θ n̂
➢ Important result
➢ If two vectors a⃗ and b ⃗ are parallel i.e.θ=0, Then sin θ=0
Thus, , a⃗ x ⃗b =|a⃗||b ⃗ |sin0 =0
➢ If two vectors a⃗ and ⃗b are perpendicular i.e.θ=900, Then sin θ=1
Thus, a⃗ x ⃗b =|a⃗||b ⃗ |=ab If a = ⃗b
➢ If a = ⃗b ( i.e. cross product of a vector to it-self then .θ=0,)
a x a =|a||a|sin0 =0
➢ Cross(vector ) product of unit vectors
îxî + ĵxĵ + k̂ xk̂ =0
̂i x ̂j =k̂ , ̂jx k̂ =î, k̂ x ̂i =ĵ
➢ The angle between two vectors a and b⃗ is given by
⃗
axb
➢ sinθ =|a||b⃗
|
a x ⃗b =− ⃗bxa
➢ ̂j x ̂i=−k̂ , k̂ x ̂j =−î , ̂i x k̂ =−ĵ

Actual cross product

➢ If a=a1̂i + a2̂j +a3k̂ , and ⃗b = b1̂i + b2̂j +b3k̂ are
two vectors, then
î ĵ k̂
⃗
➢ a x b =|a1 a2 a3 |
b1 b2 b3

➢ AREA OF A PARALLELOGRAM: Area of a parallelogram whose two adjacent sides are given by
a and ⃗b
=|a x b⃗ |
𝟏
➢ = |d⃗⃗⃗⃗1 x ⃗⃗⃗⃗
d2 | here ⃗⃗⃗⃗
d1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
d2 are diagonal vectors of parallelogram
𝟐

𝟏
➢ AREA OF A TRIANGLE: = 𝟐 |a x b⃗ |
3-D GEOMETRY: line

EQUATION OF VERIOUS FORMS OF LINES IN 3-D SPACE:

➢ Equation of a line passing through a point and parallel to a given line

⃗ is
Vector Form: Equation of a line passing through a point whose position vector is a⃗ and parallel to vector b
given by ⃗
r=a⃗ + λb

➢ Cartesian form: Equation of a line passing through a point A(x1,y1,z1) and parallel to a line whose
direction ratio’s are a,b,c is given by
x− x1 y− y z− z
= b1= c1
a
This is standared form of line passing through (x1,y1,z1) and can say
itself dr’s are <a, b, c>
➢ Equation of a line passing through two points
⃗ is given by
Vector Form: Equation of a line passing through two point whose position vector are a⃗ and vector b
⃗ - a⃗)
r=a⃗ +λ(b

Cartesian form: Equation of a line passing through two points A(x1,y1,z1) and B (x2,y2.z2 ) is given by
x− x1 y− y z− z
= y − y1 = z − z1
x −x 2 1 2 1 2 1
➢ ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES:

When lines are given in Cartesian form

If a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2, c2 are direction ratios of the lines, then the angle θ between them is given by
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
Cos θ =
√a1 2 + b1 2 + c1 2 √a2 2 + b2 2 + c2 2

When lines are given in Vector form

⃗ 1 and r=a⃗2 + λb
Let the equations of lines are r=a⃗1 + λb ⃗ 2 then the angle θ between them, is given by
⃗ .b
b ⃗
Cos θ=| ⃗ 1. ⃗ 2 |
|b1 ||b2 |

Two lines are perpendicular if

a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0
OR If l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 0

Two lines are parallel if

a1 b c
=b1 =c1
a2 2 2

OR if l 1 = l2 , m1 = m2, n1 = n2
 ➢ SHORTEST DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO SKEW LINES :
When lines are given in Cartesian form
x− x1 y− y1 z− z1 x− x1 y− y1 z− z1
Let the equations of lines are = = and = =
a b 1 c 1 a b 1 2 2 c2

x2 −x1 y2 −y1 z2 − z1
| a1 b1 c1 |
a2 b2 c2
Then S.D.=
√(b1 c2 − b2 c1 )2 +(a1 c2 −a2 c1 )2 +(a1 b2 − a2 b1 )2

When lines are given in Vecor form -

⃗ 1 and r=a⃗2 + λb
Let the equations of lines are r=a⃗1 + λb ⃗ 2 then the shortest distance between them, is given by
( ⃗b1 X ⃗b2 ).( a
⃗ 1− a
⃗2)
S.D.=| ⃗1X b ⃗2|
|
|b
➢ Intersecting skew lines: If there shortest distance is zero
Note here first :
Whose drs are proportional are said to be parallel

➢ DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL LINES:

⃗ and r=a⃗2 + 𝛍b
Let the equations of lines are r=a⃗1 + λb ⃗
⃗b .( a
⃗ 2− a⃗1)
Then the distance between them is given by d=| ⃗ |
|
|b

➢ COPLANARITY OF TWO LINES:

When lines are given in Cartesian form

x− x1 y− y z− z1 x− x1 y− y1 z− z1
Let the equations of lines are = b 1= and = =
a 1 1 c1 a2 b2 c2
Then the lines are coplanar if
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
| a1 b1 c1 |=0
a2 b2 c2
When lines are given in Vecor form
Let the equations of lines are r=a1 + λb⃗ 1 and r=a2 + λb⃗ 2 then the lines are coplanar if
( a1 − a2 ).(b⃗ 1 X ⃗b2 ) =0

Note: ANY POINT ON A LINE CAN

BE TAKEN AS
x− x1 y− y z− z
are = b 1= c 1=k
a 1 1 1
⟹ 𝑥 = 𝑎1 𝑘 + 𝑥1
𝑦 = 𝑏1 𝑘 + 𝑦1
𝑧 = 𝑐1 𝑘 + z1

➢ The equation of a line are 5x-3=15y+7=3-10z. Write the direction cosine of line,
x y−1 z−2
➢ Find the image of the point (1,6,3) in the line 1 = 2 = 3 .Also write equation of the line joining the
given point and its image and find the length of the line segment joining the given point to it’s image.
x−8 y+19 z−10
➢ Find the equation of a line passing through (1,2,-4) and perpendicular to the lines 3 = −16 = 7
x−15 y−19 z−5
and = =
3 8 −5
 y−5 z−7 x+1
➢ An insect is crawling along the line 1 = = and another insect is crawling along the line =
−2 1 7
y+1 z+1
= . At what points on the lines should they reach so that the distance between them is the
−6
shortest? Find the shortest possible distance between them.
x+1 y+3 z+5 x−2 y−4 z−6
➢ Show that the lines = = and = = intersect. Also find their point of intersection
3 5 7 1 3 5
PROBABILITY

➢ Conditional probability: let A and B are two events associated with a sample space S. Then the
probability of occurrence of event B under the condition that A has already occurred such that P(A)≠0,
P(A⋂B)
is called the conditional probability of B and is denoted by P(B/A) P(A) .
Similarly
P(A⋂B)
conditional probability of A under condition B is given by P(A/B) = P(B) .

➢ Multiplication theorem of Probability: let A and B are two events associated with a sample space S.
Then, from above P(A⋂B)=P(A).P(B/A) where (P(A) ≠ 0).
If A and B are two independent events then P(A⋂B)=P(A).P(B)

If A,B and C are three independent events then P(A⋂B⋂C)=P(A).P(B).P(C)

If A,B and C are three independent events then P(A⋂B⋂C)=P(A).P(B).P(C)
➢ Theorem of addition: P(AUB) = P(A)+ P(B) –P(A∩B )

➢ If A and B are disjoint P(AUB) = P(A)+ P(B)

U for at least and for Or use

operation +
∩ for and or for both use operation ×

Remember points:
P(not A) = P(A/) =1−P(A)
P(not B) = P(B/) =1−P(B)
P(A) but not B = P(A∩B’)= P(A)−P(A⋂B)
P(B) but not A = P(B∩A’)= P(B)−P(A⋂B)
P(neither A nor B) = P(A/∩B/) = 1 −𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)/
P(notA or not B) = P(A/∪B/) = 1 −𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)/
Note : see carefully in problem, the events are independent or
not
➢ Some Important Results: If A and B are two independent events then
• A but not B = P(A∩B’)= 1−P(A⋂B)
• B but not A = P(A’∩B)= P(A’).P(B)
• Neither A nor B = P(A’∩B’)= P(A’).P(B’)
• P(A∩B)’= P(A’).P(B’)
• P(A⋃B)= 1−P(A’).P(B’)
• P (E1∪E2∪……∪ En) =1− P (E1′ ).P (E2′ ).P (E3′ ) ……………………..P (En′ )

➢ Theorem of total probability: If E1,E2,E3………..En be n mutually exclusive and exhaustive events

n
(i. e. Ei ∩ Ej = 0 and ∪ Ei = S) associated with sample space S, Suppose P (Ei) ≠0 (∀ i =
i=1
1,2,3…….n). Then for any event A of sample space S,
P (A) =∑ni=1 P(Ei )P(A/EI ) = P(E1 )P(A/E1 ) + P(E2 )P(A/E2 ) + ⋯ … + P(En )P(A/En ).
 ➢ BAYES’ THEOREM:

Let E1,E2,E3………..En be n mutually exclusive and exhaustive events associated with sample space S . Let X
be an arbitrary event which occurs with E1,E2,E3………..En and P(X)≠0, then the conditional probability of
occurrence of Ei given that X has already occurred, is given by
𝐏(𝐄𝐢 ).𝐏(𝐗/𝐄𝐢 )
P (Ei/X) = ∑𝐧 𝐏(𝐄 ).𝐏(𝐗/𝐄 )
where i=1,2,3,4,5……………..,n
𝐢=𝟏 𝐢 𝐢

Note here : ∑ 𝑃(𝐸𝑖 ) = 1

➢ Mean of a random variable:
Let X be a random variable whose possible values 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ………….𝑥𝑛 occur with probabilities 𝑝1, 𝑝2 , 𝑝3
……….𝑝𝑛 .respectively. Then the mean of X, denoted by 𝜇 and given by
E (X) = 𝛍 =∑𝐢=𝐧
𝐢=𝟏 𝐱 𝐢 𝐩𝐢 = 𝐱 𝟏 𝐩𝟏 +𝐱 𝟐 𝐩𝟐 +𝐱 𝟑 𝐩𝟑 +……..𝐱 𝐧 𝐩𝐧
The mean of a random variable X is also called the expectation of X, denoted by E(X)

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