Theory of Metal Cutting

ME306

Class code
nvennzk

Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),
Manufacturing Technology II By Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester
INTRODUCTION
In industry, metal components are made into different shapes and dimensions by using
various metal working processes.

Metal working processes are classified into two major groups. They are:

• Non-cutting shaping or chips less or metal forming process - forging, rolling, pressing,
etc.

Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),
 Rolling Process

Pressing Process

Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),
 Cutting shaping or metal cutting or chip forming process - turning, drilling, & milling

Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),
 Milling Process

Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),
 MATERIAL REMOVAL PROCESSES

Machining is an essential process of finishing by which work pieces are produced to the
desired dimensions and surface finish by gradually removing the excess material from the
preformed blank in the form of chips with the help of cutting tool(s) moved past the work
surface(s).
Purpose of machining
Most of the engineering components such as gears, bearings, clutches, tools, screws
and nuts etc. need dimensional and form accuracy and good surface finish for serving
their purposes.
Preforming like casting, forging etc. generally cannot provide the desired accuracy and
finish.
For that such preformed parts, called blanks, need semi-finishing and finishing and it is
done by machining and grinding.

Machining to high accuracy and finish essentially enables a product:

• Fulfill its functional requirements.

Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l1I9C9v0yAw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bUrp8JMRwx4
Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),
Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),
Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),
Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),
Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),
Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),
 Face

Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),
Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),
Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),
Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),
Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),
Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),
Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),
 A typical tool signature of a single-point cutting tool is 0-7-6-8-15-16-0.8.
Here this tool signature indicates that the tool has 0, 7, 6, 8, 15, 16
degrees back rake, side rake, end relief, side relief, end cutting edge,
side cutting edge angle, and 0.8 mm nose radius.
Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),
 Manufacturing Technology
Cutting Tool Materials
Carbon steels, High-speed steels
Cast carbides, Cemented carbides, Coated carbides
Cermets, Ceramic Tools
Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride (PCBN)
Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD)
Properties of Cutting Tool Materials
Harder than work piece.
High toughness
High thermal shock resistance
Low adhesion to work piece material
Low diffusivity to work piece material

Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),
1 Carbon Steels

Carbon steels have been used since the 1880s for cutting tools. However, carbon steels start to soften at a temperature of
about 180oC. This limitation means that such tools are rarely used for metal-cutting operations. Plain carbon steel tools,
containing about 0.9% carbon and about 1% manganese, hardened to about 62 Rc, are widely used for woodworking and they
can be used in a router to machine aluminum sheet up to about 3mm thick.

2 High Speed Steel (HSS)

HSS tools are so named because they were developed to cut at higher speeds. Developed around 1900 HSS are the most
highly alloyed tool steels. The tungsten (T series) were developed first and typically contain 12 - 18% tungsten, plus about 4%
chromium and 1 - 5% vanadium. Most grades contain about 0.5% molybdenum and most grades contain 4 - 12% cobalt.

It was soon discovered that molybdenum (smaller proportions)could be substituted for most of the tungsten resulting in a more
economical formulation which had better abrasion resistance than the T series and undergoes less distortion during heat
treatment. Consequently about 95% of all HSS tools are made from M series grades. These contain 5 - 10% molybdenum, 1.5
- 10% tungsten, 1 - 4% vanadium, 4% Chromium and many grades contain 5 - 10% cobalt.

HSS tools are tough and suitable for interrupted cutting and are used to manufacture tools of complex shape such as drills,
reamers, taps, dies and gear cutters. Tools may also be coated to improve wear resistance. HSS accounts for the largest
tonnage of tool materials currently used. Typical cutting speeds: 10 - 60 m/min.

Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),
3 Cast Cobalt Alloys

Introduced in early 1900s these alloys have compositions of about 40 - 55% cobalt, 30% chromium and 10 - 20% tungsten
and are not heat treatable. Maximum hardness values of 55 - 64 Rc. They have good wear resistance but are not as tough
as HSS but can be used at somewhat higher speeds than HSS. Now only in limited use.

4 Carbides

Also known as cemented carbides or sintered carbides were introduced in the 1930s and have high hardness over a wide
range of temperatures, high thermal conductivity, high Young's modulus making them an effective tool and die materials for
a range of applications.

The two groups used for machining are tungsten carbide and titanium carbide, both types may be coated or uncoated.
Tungsten carbide particles (1 to 5 micro-m) are bonded together in a cobalt matrix using powder metallurgy. The powder is
pressed and sintered to the required insert shape. titanium and niobium carbides may also be included to impart special
properties.

A wide range of grades are available for different applications .Sintered carbide tips are the dominant type of material used
in metal cutting. The proportion of cobalt (the usual matrix material) present has a significant effect on the properties of
carbide tools. 3 - 6% matrix of cobalt gives greater hardness while 6 - 15% matrix of cobalt gives a greater toughness while
decreasing the hardness, wear resistance and strength. Tungsten carbide tools are commonly used for machining steels,
cast irons and abrasive non-ferrous materials.

Titanium carbide has a higher wear resistance than tungsten but is not as tough. With a nickel-molybdenum alloy as the
matrix, TiC is suitable for machining at higher speeds than those which can be used for tungsten carbide. Typical cutting
speeds are: 30 - 150 m/min or 100 - 250 when coated.

Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),
 Coatings
Coatings are frequently applied to carbide tool tips to improve tool life or to enable higher cutting speeds. Coated tips
typically have lived 10 times greater than uncoated tips. Common coating materials include titanium nitride, titanium
carbide and aluminium oxide, usually 2 - 15 micro-m thick. Often several different layers may be applied, one on top
of another, depending upon the intended application of the tip. The techniques used for applying coatings include
chemical vapour deposition (CVD) plasma asfine-grained and physical vapour deposition (PVD). Diamond coatings
are also in use and being further developed.

6 Cermets

Developed in the 1960s, these typically contain 70% aluminium oxide and 30% titanium carbide. Some formulations
contain molybdenum carbide, niobium carbide and tantalum carbide. Their performance is between those of carbides
and ceramics and coatings seem to offer few benefits. Typical cutting speeds: 150 - 350 m/min.
7 Ceramics -
Alumina

Introduced in the early 1950s, two classes are used for cutting tools: fine-grained high purity aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
and silicon nitride (Si3N4) is pressed into insert tip shapes and sintered at high temperatures. Additions of titanium
carbide and zirconium oxide (ZrO2) may be made to improve properties. But ZrO2 improves the low tensile strengths.
Stiff machine tools and work setups should be used when machining with ceramic tips as otherwise, vibration is likely
to lead to premature failure of the tip. Typical cutting speeds: 150 - 650 m/min.

Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),
Silicon Nitride
In the 1970s a tool material based on silicon nitride was developed, these may also contain aluminium oxide, yttrium oxide and
titanium carbide. SiN has an affinity for iron and is not suitable for machining steels. A specific type is 'Sialon', containing the
elements: silicon, aluminium, oxygen and nitrogen. This has higher thermal shock resistance than silicon nitride and is
recommended for machining cast irons and nickel based superalloys at intermediate cutting speeds.

8 Cubic Boron Nitride (cBN)

Introduced in the early 1960s, this is the second hardest material available after diamond. cBN tools may be used either in the
form of small solid tips or or as a 0.5 to 1 mm thick layer of of polycrystalline boron nitride sintered onto a carbide substrate
under pressure. In the latter case the carbide provides shock resistance and the cBN layer provides very high wear resistance
and cutting edge strength. Cubic boron nitride is the standard choice for machining alloy and tool steels with a hardness of 50
Rc or higher. Typical cutting speeds: 30 - 310 m/min.

9 Diamond

The hardest known substance is diamond. Although single crystal diamond has been used as a tool, they are brittle and need to
be mounted at the correct crystal orientation to obtain optimal tool life. Single-crystal diamond tools have been mainly replaced
by polycrystalline diamond (PCD). This consists of very small synthetic crystals fused by a high-temperature high-pressure
process to a thickness of between 0.5 and 1mm and bonded to a carbide substrate. The result is similar to cBN tools. The
random orientation of the diamond crystals prevents the propagation of cracks, improving toughness.
Because of its reactivity, PCD is not suitable for machining plain carbon steels or nickel, titanium and cobalt based alloys. PCD
is most suited to light uninterrupted finishing cuts at almost any speed and is mainly used for very high speed machining of
aluminum-silicon alloys, composites, and other non-metallic materials. Typical cutting speeds: 200 - 2000 m/min.

10 Other Materials

To improve the toughness of tools, developments are being carried out with whisker reinforcement, such as silicon nitride
reinforced with silicon carbide whiskers.
Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),
Manufacturing Technology-II: prepared by Qasim Murtaza, PhD-Ireland, PDF-Manchester, Delhi Technological University (formerly DCE),