BEE304 Module-3_Synchronous Generators

Module-3
Synchronous Generators: Construction, working, Armature windings, winding factors, EMF
equation. Harmonics–causes, reduction and elimination. Armature reaction, Synchronous reactance,
Equivalent circuit.
Synchronous Generators Analysis: Open circuit and short circuit characteristics, Assessment of
reactance-short circuit ratio, Alternator on load. Voltage regulation. Voltage regulation by EMF and
MMF methods. Excitation control for constant terminal voltage. Numerical.

Introduction: An alternator is defined as a machine which converts mechanical energy to electrical

energy in the form of alternating current (at a specific voltage and frequency). Alternators are also known
as synchronous generators.
Alternators produce the power for the electrical systems of modern vehicles. Previously, DC generators
or dynamos were used instead. But after the development of the alternator, they replaced DC dynamos
since alternators are more robust and lightweight.

Advantages of Rotating Magnetic Field:

1. As the armature conductors are stationary, large space can be provided to accommodate a large
number of conductors and insulation.
2. The armature is protected from mechanical and electrical stresses.
3. It is easier to collect large currents at very high voltages from stationary armature.
4. The problem of sparking at the slip rings is avoided.
5. The field is a low inertia circuit hence easy to rotate.
6. Construction is very simple due to stationary armature.
7. Only two slip rings are required for rotating field
8. Ventilation arrangements can be easily provided.

Construction of Synchronous Generator:

In Synchronous generators or alternators, the stationary winding is called the ‘stator’ while the rotating
winding is called the ‘Rotor’.
Stator:
The stator in the synchronous generator is a stationary armature. This consists of a core and the slots to
hold the armature winding. The stator core uses a laminated construction. It is built up of special steel
stampings insulated from each other with varnish or paper. The laminated construction is basically to
keep down eddy current losses.
Generally choice of material is steel to keep down hysteresis losses. The entire core is fabricated in a frame
made of steel plates. The core has slots on its periphery for housing the armature conductors. The frame
does not carry any flux and serves as the support to the core. Ventilation is maintained with the help of
holes cast in the frame.

Rotor:
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The rotor carries the field winding which is excited from an external DC source to produce a stationary
rotor magnetic field. In order to reduce power loss due to eddy currents and hysteresis, the rotor core of
the synchronous generator is made up of laminated sheet steel.

The rotor core is keyed to a rotor shaft which is connected to a prime mover like a turbine, engine, etc. This
whole internal assembly is enclosed in a hollow cylindrical cover to provide mechanical strength to the
machine and protect it from external impacts.
There are two types of rotor.
1) Salient Pole Type
2) Smooth Cylindrical Type

Salient Pole Type Alternator:

This is also called project pole type as all the poles are projected out from the surface of the rotor. The
poles are built up of thick steel laminations. The poles are bolted to the rotor as shown in the figure above.
The field winding is provided on the pole shoe. These rotors have large diameters and small axial lengths.
The limiting factor for the size of the rotor is the centrifugal force acting on the rotating member of the
machine. As the mechanical strength of salient pole type is less, this is preferred for low-speed alternators
ranging from 125rpm to 500rpm. The prime movers used to drive such rotors are generally water turbines
and IC engines.

Smooth Cylindrical Type Rotor. (Non-Salient or Non Projected Pole Type):

The rotor consists of a smooth solid steel cylinder having a number of slots to accommodate the field coils.
These slots are covered at the top with the help of steel or manganese wedges. The unslotted portions of
the cylinder itself act as the poles.
The poles are not projecting out and the surface of the rotor is smooth which maintains a uniform air gap
between the stator and rotor. These rotors have small diameters and large axial lengths. This is to keep
peripheral speed within limits. The main advantage of this type is that these are mechanically very strong
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and thus preferred for high-speed alternators ranging from 1500 rpm to 3000 rpm. Such high-speed
alternators are called ‘turbo alternators’. The prime movers used to drive such types of rotors are steam
turbines and electric motors.

Working Principle of Synchronous Generator:

The alternators work on the principle of electromagnetic induction. When there is a relative motion between
the conductors and the flux, emf gets induced in the conductors.
In the synchronous generator, the rotor winding (field winding) is excited from a source of dc power to
develop alternate N and S poles in the rotor. Now, this rotor is rotated in an anticlockwise direction with
the help of a prime mover such as a turbine or engine. The speed of the rotation of the rotor is constant and
is equal to synchronous speed.
The rotating magnetic field of the rotor cuts the armature conductors. Consequently, an emf is induced in
the armature conductors due to electromagnetic induction. Since alternate N and S poles cut the armature
conductors in each rotation, hence the induced emf is alternating in nature. The induced EMF in the
armature is the result of the relative motion between the conductor and the field. The induced voltage is a
sinusoidal wave.
The direction of the generated EMF can be determined by the Fleming’s right rule and the frequency of it
is given by,

Where P is the number of rotor poles, NS is the synchronous speed in RPM (Revolution per Minute).
The magnitude of the generated voltage depends upon the speed of rotation of the rotor and the DC field
excitation current. For the balanced condition, the generated voltage in each phase of the winding is the
same but differ in phase by 120° electrical.

Winding Terminology:
1. Conductor: The part of the wire, which is under the influence of the magnetic field and responsible
for the induced e.m.f. is called the active length of the conductor. The conductors are placed in the
armature slots.
2. Turn: A conductor in one slot, when connected to a conductor in another slot forms a turn. So two
conductors constitute a turn.

3. Coil: As there are a number of turns, for simplicity the number of turns are grouped together to
form a coil. Such a coil is called a multiturn coil. A coil may consist of a single-turn coil.
4. Coil side: Coil consists of many turns. Part of the coil in each slot is called the coil side of a coil.

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5. Pole Pitch: It is center to centre distance between the two adjacent poles. We have seen that for
one rotation of the conductors, 2 poles are responsible for 3600 electrical of e.m.f., 4 poles are
responsible for 7200 electrical of e.m.f. and so on. So 1 pole is responsible for 180 0 electrical of
induced e.m.f.
Note: So 1800 electrical is also called one pole pitch. Practically how many slots are under one
pole which are responsible for 180oelectrical, are measured to specify the pole pitch.
e.g. Consider 2 pole, and 18 slots armature of an alternator. Then under 1 pole there are 18/2 i.e. 9
slots. So pole pitch is 9 slots or 1800 electrical. This means 9 slots are responsible to produced a
phase difference of 1800 between the e.m.f.s induced in different conductors. This number of
slots/poles is denoted as 'n'.

6. Slot angle (β): The phase difference contributed by one slot in degrees electrical is called slot
angle β. As slots per pole contribute 180o electrical which is denoted as 'n', we can write,

1 slot angle = 1800 /n

In the above example, n = 18/2 = 9, while β = 1800 /n = 200

Types of Armature Windings in Alternator:

The different types of armature windings in alternators are,
1. Single-layer and double-layer winding.
2. Full-pitch and short-pitch winding.
3. Concentrated and distributed winding.
1) Single Layer and Double Layer Winding : If a slot consists of only one coil side, winding is said to
be a single layer. This is shown in figure(a). While there are two coil sides per slot, one, at the bottom
and one at the top the winding is called double layer as shown in figure(b). A lot of space gets wasted in
single layer hence in practice generally double layer winding is preferred.

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2) Full Pitch and Short Pitch Winding: The one pole pitch is 180° electrical. The value of ‘n’, slots per
pole indicates how many slots are contributing 180° electrical phase difference. So if the coil side in one
slot is connected to a coil side in another slot which is one pole pitch distance away from the first slot, the
winding is said to be full pitch winding and coil is called full pitch coil. For example, in 2 poles, 18 slots
alternator, the pole pitch is n = 18/2 = 9 slots. So if coil side in slot No. 1 is connected to coil side in slot
No. 10 such that two slots No. 1 and No. 10 are one pole pitch or n slots or 180° electrical apart, the coil
is called full pitch coil. Here we can define one more term related to a coil called coil span.

Coil Span:

Full Pitch Coil

It is the distance on the periphery of the armature, between two coil sides of a coil. It is usually expressed
in terms of a number of slots or degrees electrical. So if the coil span is ‘n’ slots or 180° electrical the coil
is called a 180° full pitch coil. This is shown in the figure to the left. As against this if coils are used in
such a way that coil span is slightly less than a pole pitch i.e. less than 180° electrical, the coils are called,
short-pitched coils or fractional-pitched coils. Generally, coils are shorted by one or two slots.
So in 18 slots, 2 pole alternators instead of connecting a coil side in slot No 1 to slot No.10, it is connected
to a coil side in slot No.9 or slot No. 8, the coil is said to be short pitched coil, and winding are called short
pitch winding.

Short Pitch Coil

Advantages of Short Pitch Coils:

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1) The length required for the end connections of coils is less i.e. the inactive length of winding is less.
So less copper is required. Hence economical.
2) Short pitching eliminates high-frequency harmonics which distort the sinusoidal nature of e.m.f.
Hence waveform of an induced e.m.f. is more sinusoidal due to short pitching.
3) As high-frequency harmonics get eliminated, eddy current and hysteresis losses which depend on
frequency also get minimized. This increases efficiency.

Concentrated and distributed winding: Depending upon the total number of slots and number of poles,
we have certain slots per phase available under each pole. This is denoted as ‘m’.

m = Slots per pole per phase = n/number of phases

= n/3 (generally no. of phases is 3)

For example in 18 slots, 2 pole alternator we have, 8

n = 18/2 = 9

and m = 9/3
So we have 3 slots per pole per phase available. Now let ‘x’ number of conductors per phase are to be
placed under one pole. And we have 3 slots per pole per phase available. But if all ‘x’ conductors per
phase are placed in one slot keeping the remaining 2 slots per pole per phase empty then the winding is
called concentrated winding.

EMF Equation of Synchronous Generator or Alternator:

Let Φ = Flux per pole, in Wb

P = Number of poles

N = Synchronous speed in r.p.m

f = Frequency of induced emf in Hz

Z = Total number of conductors

Zph = Conductors per phase connected in series

Zph = Z/3 as number of phases = 3

Consider a single conductor placed in a slot.

The average value of emf induced in a conductor = dΦ/dt

For one revolution of a conductor,

Eavg per conductor = (Flux cut in one revolution / Time taken for one revolution)

The total flux cut in one revolution is Φ x P.

The time taken for one revolution is 60/Ns seconds.

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Substituting in above equation

Eavg per conductor = 2 f Φ volts

Z conductors are connected in series per phase,
𝐸(𝑎𝑣𝑔)/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 2𝑓𝑍𝛷 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠.
But Z=2T
𝐸(𝑎𝑣𝑔)/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 2𝑓𝛷2𝑇
= 4𝑓𝑇𝛷 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠.
Wkt,

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒/𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 1.11 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒.

Therefore 𝐸(𝑟𝑚𝑠/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒) = 4.44 𝑓𝑇𝛷 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

The above emf is derived assuming that the stator winding is full pitched and the emf’s induced
in the various conductors are equal in magnitude and does not have any phase difference. It is also assumed
that all the conductors per pole per phase are connected in a single slot. But, in practice, the coils are
short pitched. The conductors are uniformly distributed in all the slots of the stator. Due to these two
facts, the emf induced in the alternator gets reduced by a small quantity. The equation for induced emf is
modified as,
𝐸𝑝ℎ = 4.44𝐾𝑝𝐾𝑑 𝑓𝑍𝛷 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
Where KP=pitch factor
Kd= distribution factor

Pitch factor or coil span factor(Kp):

It is also known as coil span factor or chording factor. Pole pitch is the distance between two similar
points on adjacent poles and it is defined to be 180° electrical. Coil pitch or coil span is the distance
between two adjacent sides of a coil.

If the armature winding is so wound that the coil pitch equals the pole pitch then it is called a full-pitched
winding. But for practical reasons, we make the coil span less than the pole pitch by angle α where α is
called the chording angle(then the winding is said to be short pitched).
Due to this, the induced emf reduces by a pitch factor Kp, the pitch factor and 𝐾𝑝 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼/2)

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Distribution factor Kd : This is also known as the breadth factor or winding factor. Under the influence
of each pole, Z/P conductors belong to one phase. All these conductors can be accommodated in one
armature slot and we have to distribute them over two or more slots. This again reduces the induced emf
by a factor Kd.

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠/𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒.

= 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠/ (𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑥 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠)

Taking these two factors into account,

Voltage Regulation of an Alternator: The total change in terminal voltage of the alternator from
no load to full load, at constant speed and field excitation, is termed as voltage regulation.
[OR]
The voltage regulation of an alternator is the change in its terminal voltage when full load is removed
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keeping the field excitation and speed constant, divided by the rated terminal voltage.

Where E0= no-load terminal voltage.

V= full load terminal voltage.
The regulation is usually expressed as a % of the voltage drop from no load to full load w.r.t full load
terminal voltage.

Harmonics: When the uniformly sinusoidally distributed air gap flux is cut by either the stationary or
rotating armature sinusoidal emf is induced in the alternator. Hence the nature of the waveform of induced
emf and current is sinusoidal. But when the alternator is loaded waveform will not continue to be sinusoidal
or becomes non sinusoidal. Such non sinusoidal waveform is called a complex waveform. By using Fourier
series representation, it is possible to represent complex nonsinusoidal waveforms in terms of a series of
sinusoidal components called harmonics, whose frequencies are integral multiples of the fundamental
wave. The fundamental waveform is having the frequency same as that of the complex wave.
The waveform, which is of the frequency twice that of the fundamental is called second harmonic. The
one which is having the frequency three times that of the fundamental is called a third harmonic and so
on. These harmonic components can be represented as follows.
Fundamental: e1 = Em1 Sin (ωt ± θ1)
2nd Harmonic e2 = Em2 Sin (2ωt ± θ2)
3rd Harmonic e3 = Em3 Sin (3ωt ± θ3)
5th Harmonic e5 = Em5 Sin (5ωt ± θ5) etc.
In case of alternators as the field system and the stator coils are symmetrical the induced emf will also
be symmetrical and hence the generated emf in an alternator will not contain any even harmonics.

Slot Harmonics:

As the armature or stator of an alternator is slotted, some harmonics are induced into the emf which is
called slot harmonics. The presence of slot in the stator makes the air gap reluctance at the surface of the
stator non uniform. Since in case of alternators the poles are moving or there is a relative motion between
the stator and rotor, the slots and the teeth alternately occupy any point in the air gap. Due to this the
reluctance or the air gap will be continuously varying. Due to this variation of reluctance ripples will be
formed in the air gap between the rotor and stator slots and teeth. This ripple formed in the air gap will
induce ripple emf called slot harmonics.

Harmonics Minimization:
1. Distribution of armature windings : Instead of having concentrated type of windings, they
should be distributed in different slots. The distribution factor for harmonics is comparatively less
than that of the fundamental and hence magnitude of harmonic e.m.f. is small.
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2. Chording: The e.m.f. generated in the winding is proportional to cos (x  /2) where  is the
angle of chording and x is the order of harmonic. If the proper value of the angle of chording is
selected then harmonic e.m.f.s can be reduced significantly.
3. Fractional slot windings: The output voltage waveform will be free of harmonics by facilitating
the use of fractional slot windings as the distribution factor will be smaller compared to that with
the fundamental.
4. Skewing: Skewing the pole face will help eliminate the slot harmonics.
5. Large length of air gap: The reluctance will be increased by increasing the air gap and slot
harmonics can be reduced.

Effect of Harmonics on induced emf:

The harmonics will affect both the pitch factor and distribution factor and hence the induced emf. In
a well-designed alternator, the air gap flux density distribution will be symmetrical and hence can be
represented in the Fourier series as follows.
B = Bm1sin ωt + Bm3 sin 3ωt + Bm5sin 5ωt + ...................
The emf induced by the above flux density distribution is given by
e = Em1sin ωt + Em3 sin 3ωt + Em5sin 5ωt + ...................

The RMS value of the resultant voltage induced can be given as

And line voltage ELine = √3 x Eph

Effect of Harmonics of pitch and distribution Factor:

The pitch factor is given by Kp = cos α/2, where α is the chording angle.
For any harmonic say nth harmonic, the pitch factor is given by Kpn = cos nα/2
The distribution factor is given by Kd = (sin mβ/2) / (m sin β/2)
For any harmonic say nth harmonic, the distribution factor is given by
Kdn =sin m nβ/2) / (m sin nβ/2)

Operation of Alternators:
The rotor winding is energized from the DC exciter and alternate N and S poles are developed on the rotor.
When the rotor is rotated in the anti-clockwise direction by a prime mover, the stator or armature conductors
are cut by the magnetic flux of rotor poles. Consequently, EMF is induced in the armature conductors due
to electromagnetic induction.
The induced e.m.f. is alternating since N and S poles of rotor alternately pass the armature conductors. The
direction of induced e.m.f. can be found by Fleming right-hand rule and frequency is given by;

where N = speed of the rotor in r.p.m.

P = number of rotor poles
The magnitude of the voltage induced in each phase depends upon the rotor flux, the number and position
of the conductors in the phase, and the speed of the rotor.

When the rotor is rotated, a 3-phase voltage is induced in the armature winding. The magnitude of
induced e.m.f. depends upon the speed of rotation and the DC exciting current. The magnitude of e.m.f.
in each phase of the armature winding is the same. However, they differ in phase by 120° electrical.

Similar to the case of DC generator, the behavior of a Synchronous generator connected to an external load
is different than that at no load. To understand the performance of the Synchronous generator when it is
loaded, consider the flux distributions in the machine when the armature also carries a current. Unlike in

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the DC machine in alternators the emf peak and the current peak will not occur in the same coil due to the
effect of the power factor of the load. The current and the induced emf will be at their peaks in the same
coil only for upf loads. For zero power factor lagging loads, the current reaches its peak in a coil that falls
behind that coil wherein the induced emf is at its peak by 90 electrical degrees or half a pole-pitch. Likewise
for zero power factor leading loads, the current reaches its peak in a coil that is ahead of that coil wherein
the induced emf is at its peak by 90 electrical degrees or half a pole-pitch. For simplicity, assume the
resistance and leakage reactance of the stator windings to be negligible. Also, assume the magnetic circuit
to be linear i.e. the flux in the magnetic circuit is deemed to be proportional to the resultant ampere-turns -
in other words the machine is operating in the linear portion of the magnetization characteristics. Thus the
emf induced is the same as the terminal voltage, and the phase-angle between current and emf is determined
only by the power factor (pf) of the external load connected to the synchronous generator.

Armature Reaction:
Magnetic fluxes in alternators
There are three main fluxes associated with an alternator:
(i) Main useful flux linked with both field & armature winding.
(ii) Leakage flux linked only with armature winding.
(iii) Leakage flux linked only with field winding.
Armature reaction in alternator is defined as the effect of armature flux on the main flux produced by the
field poles.
An electric machine normally consists of field winding and armature winding. DC supply is given to the
field winding to produce magnetic flux. The armature conductor is rotated at a synchronous speed with the
aid of a prime mover.
When there exists a relative motion between the magnetic flux and armature winding, the armature
conductor cuts the field flux. Hence there will be a change in flux linkage in the conductor.
According to Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic induction, an emf is induced in the armature conductors.
When the load is applied to the armature terminals, the current starts flowing through the armature winding.
Since the current is alternating in nature, it induces a flux in the conductor, called armature flux.
The armature flux thus produced will react with the main field flux and distort the effect of the main flux,
called armature reaction in alternator or synchronous generator. Due to this distortion, the resultant flux
will either strengthen or weaken.
The distortion may depend on the type of load applied to the alternator. A DC Generator also has more or
less similar armature reaction effects. In this section, let us discuss the different armature reaction effects,
that can be seen at different loads in detail.

Armature reaction at unity power factor load:

When a resistive load with a unity power factor is connected to the alternator, the load current will start to
flow through the armature winding. As it is a pure resistive load, the armature current will be in phase with
the induced voltage.
The armature current will produce its own flux in the conductor, which will also be in phase with the
induced voltage. Since the induced emf lags behind the main field flux by 90 0, the armature flux produced
will also be delayed by 900 with respect to the main flux. The below shows the phasor diagram at unity
power factor load.

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As the armature flux act on the main field flux perpendicularly, the distribution of main field flux under a
pole face does not remain uniformly distributed. As you can see from the waveform that, the armature
flux will cross and distorts the main field flux at one point, thereby weakening the main flux. This is said
to be a cross magnetizing effect.
You can also notice, the armature flux also assists the main flux at another point. In this case, the armature
reaction strengthens the main field flux. Due to these effects, the main field flux will get distorted, without
causing much change to the generated voltage.
In other words, flux density at the trailing tip of the pole is increased while flux at the leading tip of the
pole decreases. Due to this, the armature reaction at resistive load is said to have a distorting effect
maintaining the constant average field strength.

Armature reaction at zero power factor lagging load

When a pure inductive load with zero lagging power factor is connected to the alternator, the load current
starts to flow through the armature conductors.
The armature current will be delayed by 900 and so the armature flux produced will also be shifted by 900
with respect to the poles.
There will be a phase difference of 900 between the armature flux and main field flux. It can be seen that
the armature flux will be in direct opposition to the main flux. The below shows the phasor diagram at
lagging power factor load.

Thus the main flux gets decreased in this loading condition. This effect of armature reaction on this load
is said to be a demagnetizing effect.
Due to this, the main field flux gets weaken and so the emf induced will be reduced. To maintain the same
value of generated emf, filed excitation will have to be increased to overcome the demagnetizing effect.

Armature reaction at zero power factor leading load:

When a pure capacitive load with zero leading power factor is connected, the load current starts to flow
through the armature conductors.

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In this load condition, the load current will be advanced by 900 and so the armature flux produced will also
be advanced by 900 with respect to emf induced. So the armature flux will be in phase with the main field
flux, resulting in strengthening of the field flux. Thus the main flux gets increased in this loading condition.
The below shows the phasor diagram at leading power factor load.

The armature reaction in this load is said to be a magnetizing effect. Due to this effect, the main field flux
gets weaken and so the emf induced will be reduced. To maintain the same value of generated emf, filed
excitation will have to be reduced to overcome the magnetizing effect.
For any intermediate power factor, the effect of armature reaction in alternator will be partly distorting and
partly demagnetizing.

From the explanations, we can summarize that

1. When an alternator supplies a load at the unity power factor, the effect of armature reaction is
partly cross magnetizing and partly distorting.
2. The effect of armature reaction is demagnetizing when an alternator supplies a load at a lagging
power factor.
3. When an alternator supplies a load at the leading power factor, the effect of armature reaction is
magnetizing.
4. When an alternator supplies a load at the intermediate power factor, the effect of armature
reaction is partly distorting and partly demagnetizing.
5. The effects of armature reaction may cause the generated emf to vary. In order to overcome that,
the main flux is varied to generate the rated voltage.

Synchronous Reactance and Impedance:

When an alternator is loaded, there will be a circulation of load current in the armature winding. Once
the load on the alternator is increased, the terminal voltage changes (for constant excitation) due to
the following reasons,
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Voltage drop due to armature resistance, IRa.

Voltage drop due to synchronous reactance.
Armature Resistance :
The armature resistance per phase Ra causes a voltage drop per phase of IRa which is in phase with
the armature current. The armature resistance per phase can be measured directly by voltmeter and
ammeter (ohm's law) method or by using a wheat stone bridge.
Synchronous Reactance :
The synchronous reactance of an alternator or synchronous generator is a combination of armature
leakage reactance and armature reaction reactance.
Armature Leakage Reactance (XL) :
When the current flows through the armature conductors the flux set up by the conductors do not
cross the air-gap, but complete its path in the armature through the air around the conductor itself.
Such a flux is known as leakage flux as shown below figure.

The leakage flux sets an emf leading the load current I by 90° and proportional to the load current I.
Hence, armature winding is assumed to possess leakage reactance XL (in addition to Ra) such that the
voltage drop due to this is IXL as shown in the below vector diagram.

Generated emf, E will be,

E = V + IRa + j IXL
= V + I (Ra + jXL)
Where, XL = Armature leakage reactance = 2π f L Ω/ph.

Armature Reaction Reactance (Xa) :

In an alternator or synchronous generator in addition to the armature winding resistance drop and
leakage reactance drop, there is a drop in terminal voltage due to armature reaction. Generally, the
load connected to the alternator is of inductive type. We know that the armature reaction is of
demagnetizing effect for inductive loads i.e., the armature flux due to armature current tries to
demagnetize the main flux.
In order to balance the terminal voltage by quantifying the voltage drop due to the armature reaction.
The effect of armature reaction is accounted for by assuming the presence of a fictitious reactance Xa
in the armature winding known as armature reaction reactance.

14
BEE304 Module-3_Synchronous Generators

Therefore, the sum of the fictitious armature reaction reactance Xa due to the effect of the armature
reaction and the leakage reactance XL of the armature is known as synchronous reactance Xs.
i.e., Xs = XL + Xar
Synchronous Impedance :
The synchronous impedance may be defined as the vector sum of the armature resistance and
synchronous reactance. It is denoted as Zs.

Where,

• Ra = Armature resistance
• Xs = Synchronous reactance (XL + Xa)
Therefore, the relationship between induced emf E and the terminal voltage V can be represented as,

Where,

• E = EMF induced on load.

• V = Terminal voltage. It is vectorially less than E o (no-load emf) by IZs.
• I = Armature current per-phase.
• IZs = Voltage drop in an alternator.
Generally, the alternator rotates at synchronous speed. Hence, when the alternator has loaded the
word 'Synchronous' is used to specify the reactance and impedance of the alternator. Since
synchronous reactance varies with variation in load condition and its power factor. This in turn also
changes the synchronous impedance.

Effect of Synchronous Impedance :

1. The following are the various effects of synchronous impedance,
2. Voltage drop increases.
3. Supply voltage decreases.
4. Power loss takes place (since impedance includes resistance).
5. Heat is produced.
6. Voltage regulation increases.
7. Efficiency decreases.
8. For large alternators cooling system is required

Equivalent Circuit of Synchronous Generator:

15
BEE304 Module-3_Synchronous Generators

The three important parameters of armature winding namely armature resistance Ra, leakage reactance XL
and armature reaction reactance Xar. If Eph is induced emf per phase on no load condition, then on load it
changes to E’ due to armature reaction. As current Ia flows through the armature, there are two voltage
drops across Ra and XL as Ia Ra and Ia XL respectively. Hence terminal voltage V is less than E’ by the
amount equal to the drops across Ra and XL.
The leakage reactance XL and the armature reaction reactance Xar are combined to get synchronous
reactance Xs.
Eph = Induced emf per phase on no load
Vph = Terminal voltage per phase on load
Iaph = Armature resistance per phase
Zs = Synchronous impedance per phase

Phasor diagram
In the phasor diagrams E is the induced emf /phase = Eph and V is the terminal voltage
/phase = Vph. From each of the phasor diagrams the expression for the induced emf Eph can
be expressed in terms of Vph, armature current, resistance, reactances and impedance of the
machine as follows.

Unity power factor load

16
BEE304 Module-3_Synchronous Generators

Zero power factor lagging

Zero power factor leading

17
BEE304 Module-3_Synchronous Generators

Synchronous Generator Analysis

Open Circuit and Short Circuit Characteristics of Synchronous Generator:
Open Circuit Test and Short Circuit Test are performed on a Synchronous Machine to find out the
parameters of Synchronous Machine and hence to have an idea of their performance. Open Circuit Test of
Synchronous Machine is also called No Load, Saturation or Magnetizing Characteristics for the reason
which will be clear after going through the post.
For getting the Open Circuit Characteristics of Synchronous Machine, the alternator is first driven at its
rated speed and the open terminal voltage i.e. voltage across the armature terminal is noted by varying the
field current. Thus Open Circuit Characteristic or OCC is basically the plot between the armature terminal
voltage Ef versus field current If while keeping the speed of rotor at rated value. It shall be noted that for
OCC, the final value of Ef shall be 125% of the rated voltage.

As clear from the figure above, an Ammeter is connected in series with the field circuit to measure the
field current and a Voltmeter is connected across the armature terminals to note down the voltage
generated. Figure (b) shows the plot between If and Ef. It can be seen from the graph that the relationship
between the field current Ifand no load generated voltage Ef is linear up to certain value of field current
but as the the field current increases the relationship no longer remains linear. The linear part of the
relationship is because, at small value of filed current the whole mmf is required by the air gap to create
magnetic flux but as the value of mmf exceeds some certain value, the iron parts get saturated and hence
the relationship between the flux (No load generated emf is proportional to flux) and field current no
longer remain linear.

Next assume that if there were no saturation (assuming no iron part is present rather only air gap is
present), the relationship between the field current and no load voltage would have been a straight line
and that is why the straight line ob in the figure is called Air Gap Line.

Thus we observe that because of saturation in iron parts of machine, the no load generated voltage Efdoes
not increase in the same proportion as the increase in field current.
Short Circuit Test of Synchronous Machine:
For performing Short Circuit Test on an Alternator, the machine is driven at rated synchronous speed and
the armature terminals are short circuited through an Ammeter as shown in figure below.

18
BEE304 Module-3_Synchronous Generators

Now the field current If is gradually increased from zero until the armature short circuit current reaches
its maximum safe value i.e. 125 to 150% of its rated current value. Readings of field current If and short
circuit current are noted and plotted.
If you see the above plot of Short Circuit Test, you notice that the short circuit characteristics of a
synchronous machine is a straight line.

Alternator on load:
Whenever the load on the alternator is varied, the terminal voltage will also vary. This variation in terminal
voltage is mainly due to three reasons: Voltage drop due to armature resistance IRa, Voltage drop due to
armature leakage reactance IXL and Voltage drop due to armature reaction.

Effect of Load on Alternator:

Voltage drop due to armature resistance: The armature winding resistance per phase will cause
a IRa voltage drop per phase. The voltage drop due to armature resistance is in phase with the armature
current I. Practically, this voltage drop is negligible.
Voltage drop due to armature leakage reactance: When current flows through armature
conductors, the flux will start to flow through the armature core. Some flux will take different paths and
do not cross the air gap and are called leakage flux.

19
BEE304 Module-3_Synchronous Generators

Here, the leakage flux depends on the current flowing through the conductor and its phase relationship
with the terminal voltage. This leakage flux will set up an emf because of self-inductance. This emf is
known as reactance emf, which leads the armature current I by 900. Thus, the armature winding is said to
possess a leakage reactance XL. The voltage drop due to this reactance is IXL. The generated emf has to
overcome the voltage drop due to leakage reactance to give its output.

The above phasor diagram is constructed as below,

• The voltage phasor is taken as the reference phasor.
• The armature current lags behind the voltage by an angle Φ. Hence the current phasor is drawn at
an angle Φ from the voltage phasor.
• The phasor for armature resistance drop is drawn parallel to the current phasor from the extremity
of Voltage phasor V.
• Leakage reactance drop is drawn perpendicular to the current phasor from the extremity of IRa
phasor.
• Join 0 and the extremity of IXL phasor to get Eb.

Voltage drop due to armature reaction

Armature reaction is the effect of armature flux on the main field flux. The effect of Armature reaction can
be seen in the DC generator as well.
But compared to the DC generator, the power factor of the load in an alternator has a considerable effect
on armature reaction. While we talk about the power factor on loading conditions, we consider three cases.
• Unity power factor load.
• Zero power factor lagging load
• Zero power factor leading load.
The armature reaction in the alternator produces different effects such as cross magnetizing effect,
demagnetizing effect, and magnetizing effect. These effects cause distortion in main field flux, thereby
affecting the generated emf.
The voltage drop due to armature reaction may be assumed as there is a presence of fictitious reactance
Xa called armature reactance reaction. The voltage drop due to armature reactance reaction is represented
as IXa.

The leakage reactance XL and armature reaction reactance Xa together called as synchronous
reactance XS.

Thus the voltage drop in an alternator under loaded conditions is the total sum of voltage drop due to
armature resistance, armature leakage reactance, and armature reaction reactance.

Where ZS is known as synchronous impedance of an alternator.

20
BEE304 Module-3_Synchronous Generators

From the discussions above, it is clear that the variation in load causes the terminal voltage of the
alternator to change. It is due to the synchronous impedance of the alternator.
Now let us look at the phasor diagrams of alternator for different load conditions.
Phasor diagrams of Alternator on Load
To draw the phasor diagrams, let us know the terms used in the below diagrams.
E0 is the no-load voltage. It is the maximum voltage induced in the armature without giving any load.
E is the load voltage. It is the induced voltage after overcoming the armature reaction. E is vectorially
less than the no-load voltage.
I is the armature current per phase
V is the terminal voltage. It is vectorially less than E by IZ and also vectorially less than E 0 by IZS.
Φ is the cosine angle between terminal voltage and current.
The impedances are given by

where XL is the leakage reactance, Xa is the armature reaction reactance and X S is the synchronous
reactance and ZS is the synchronous impedance.
Unity power factor load
Voltage phasor V is taken as the reference phasor.
1. For unity power factor load, V and I phasor are in phase. So the Current phasor I is drawn on the
2. voltage phasor V.
3. The phasor of Armature resistance drop IRa is drawn parallel to the current phasor from the
extremity of V phasor.
4. The armature leakage resistance drop IXL is drawn perpendicular to the current phasor, from the
extremity of IRa phasor.
5. Join V phasor and IXL phasor to get IZ phasor(shown as a dotted line).
6. Join O and the extremity of IZ to get E(shown as a pink colour line)
7. Draw the armature reaction reactance drop phasor IXS perpendicular to the current phasor from
the extremity of IXL phasor.
8. Join V phasor and IXS phasor to get IZS phasor(shown as a dotted line).
9. Join O and the extremity of IZS to get E0(shown as a pink colour line)

Lagging power factor load

21
BEE304 Module-3_Synchronous Generators

The only change is that here current lags behind the voltage by an angle Φ. So draw the current phasor at
an angle Φ with respect to voltage phasor V.
Leading power factor load

For the leading power factor load, the phasor diagram is also drawn similar to that of the unity power
factor. But the only difference is that here current leads the voltage by an angle Φ. So the current phasor
is drawn at an angle Φ with respect to voltage phasor V.

Excitation control for constant terminal voltage: (Students)

A change in the excitation of an alternator running in parallel with other affects only its KVA output; it
does not affect the KW output. A change in the excitation, thus, affects only the power factor of its
output.

Let two similar alternators of the same rating be operating in parallel, receivingequal power inputs from
their prime movers. Neglecting losses, their kW outputs are therefore equal. If their excitations are the
22
BEE304 Module-3_Synchronous Generators

same, they induce the same emf, and since they are in parallel their terminal voltages are also the same.
When delivering a total load of I amperes at a power-factor of cos f, each alternator delivers half the total
current.
I1 = I2 =0.5 I
Since their induced emfs are the same, there is no resultant emf acting around the local circuit formed by
their two armature windings, so that the synchronizing current, Is, is zero. Since the armature resistance
is neglected, the vector difference between E1 = E2 and V is equal to

this vector leading the current I by 90°,

where XS1 and XS2 are the synchronous reactances of the two alternators respectively. Now examine the
effect of reducing the excitation of the second alternator. E2 is therefore reduced as shown in Figure.This
reduces the terminal voltage slightly, so let the excitation of the first alternator be increased to bring the
terminal voltage back to its original value. Since the two alternator inputs are unchanged and losses are
neglected, the two kW outputs are the same as before. The current I2 is changed due to the change in E2,
but the active components of both I1 and I2 remain unaltered. It will be observed that there is a small
change in the load angles of the two alternators, this angle being slightly increased in the case of the
weakly excited alternator and slightly decreased in the case of the strongly excited alternator. It will also
be observed that I1 + I2 = I, the total load current.

Voltage Regulation:
When an alternator is subjected to a varying load, the voltage at the armature terminals varies to a
certain extent, and the amount of this variation determines the regulation of the machine. When the
alternator is loaded the terminal voltage decreases as the drops in the machine stars increasing and
hence it will always be different than the induced emf.
Voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the change in terminal voltage from no load to full
load expressed as a percentage of rated voltage when the load at a given power factor is removed with
out change in speed and excitation. Or The numerical value of the regulation is defined as the
percentage rise in voltage when full load at the specified power-factor is switched off with speed and
field current remaining unchanged expressed as a percentage of rated voltage.
Hence regulation can be expressed as

Methods of finding Voltage Regulation:

The voltage regulation of an alternator can be determined by
different methods. In case of small generators it can be determined by direct loading whereas in case
of large generators it can not determined by direct loading but will be usually predetermined by
different methods. Following are the different methods used for predetermination of regulation of
alternators.
1. Direct loading method
2. EMF method or Synchronous impedance method
3. MMF(Magneto Motive Force) method or Ampere turns method
4. ASA(American Standards Association) modified MMF method
5. ZPF(Zero Power Factor) method or Potier triangle method

Voltage Regulation by EMF method:

23
BEE304 Module-3_Synchronous Generators

Generally, we use this Synchronous Impedance Method for high-speed Alternators or synchronous
generator. This method is also known as EMF method. Before calculating the voltage regulation we need
to calculate the following data.
1.Armature Resistance per phase [Ra]

2.Open Circuit characteristics which is a graph between open circuit voltage [Vo.c.] and field current.

3.Short circuit characteristics which is a graph between short circuit current [Is.c.] and field current.

The alternator or synchronous generator is coupled with the prime mover to drive the alternator at
synchronous speed. The armature of the alternator or synchronous generator is connected to the TPST
switch. The three terminals of the switch are short-circuited by an ammeter.
The voltmeter is connected between two line terminals to measure the o.c voltage of the alternator. For
excitation, a DC supply is connected to field winding. A rheostat is also connected in series with the DC
supply which is used to vary the field current i.e. field excitation.
1. O.C test
Procedure:
1. By using the prime mover start the alternator or synchronous generator and adjust its speed to the
Synchronous speed.
2. Note that the rheostat should be in maximum position and switch on the D.C supply.
3. The T.P.S.T. switch should be kept open in the armature circuit.
4. Field current is varied from its min. value to the rated value using the rheostat. So now flux
increases, which leads to an increase in the induced e.m.f. The voltmeter now the actual line value
of open circuit voltage. For various values of field currents, voltmeter readings are noted in a table.

Now plot a graph between o.c phase voltage and field current. The graph obtained is called o.c.c .
2. S.C test
Procedure:
24
BEE304 Module-3_Synchronous Generators

1. After the o.c test, the field rheostat should be kept at max. Position, reducing field current to min.
value.
2. Now the T.P.S.T switch is closed.
3. The armature gets short-circuited because ammeter has negligible resistance. Now increase the field
excitation is increased gradually till full load current is obtained through armature windings.
4. 4)Now plot a graph between s.c armature current and field current.The graph obtained is called
S.C.C.

This is observed on the ammeter connected in the armature circuit. Tabulate the values of field current and
armature current values obtained.
The S.C.C. is a straight line passing through origin but o.c.c resembles a B.H curve of a magnetic material.

1. Determination of Impedance from O.C.C. and S.C.C.

The synchronous impedance of the alternator changes as load condition changes. O.C.C. and S.C.C.
can be used to determine Zs for any load and load p.f. conditions.
In short circuit test, external load impedance is zero. The short circuit armature current is circulated
against the impedance of the armature winding which is Zs. The voltage responsible for driving this
short circuit current is internally induced e.m.f. This can be shown in the equivalent circuit drawn in
the Fig.

From the equivalent circuit we can write,

Zs = Eph/ Iasc

25
BEE304 Module-3_Synchronous Generators

This is what we are interested in obtaining to calculate value of Zs. So expression for Zs can be modified
as

Voltage Regulation of synchronous generator Calculations:

Zs can be determined from O.C.C and S.C.C for any load condition.The value of Ra should be known
now.So it can be measured by applying d.c known voltage across the two terminals.

So now induced e.m.f per phase is calculated as follows:

Voltage regulation of alternator or synchronous generator is calculated by using the below formula,
Voltage Regulation Of Alternator Using Synchronous Impedance Method.

Voltage Regulation by MMF method:

This method of determining the regulation of an alternator is also called the Ampere-turn method or
Rothert's M.M.F. method. The method is based on the results of open circuit test and short circuit test on
an alternator.
For any synchronous generator i.e. alternator, it requires m.m.f. which is a product of field current and
turns of field winding for two separate purposes.
1. It must have an m.m.f. necessary to induce the rated terminal voltage on open circuit.
2. It must have an m.m.f. equal and opposite to that of armature reaction m.m.f.

The field m.m.f. required to induce the rated terminal voltage on open circuit can be obtained from open
circuit test results and open circuit characteristics. This is denoted as f1.
We know that the synchronous impedance has two components, armature resistance and synchronous
reactance. Now synchronous reactance also has two components, armature leakage reactance and
armature reaction reactance. In short circuit test, field m.m.f. is necessary to overcome drop across
armature resistance and leakage reactance and also to overcome the effect of armature reaction. But drop
across armature resistance and also to overcome the effect of armature reaction. But drop across armature
resistance and leakage reactance is very small and can be neglected. Thus in a short circuit test, field
m.m.f. circulates the full load current balancing the armature reaction effect. The value of ampere-turns
required to circulate full load current can be obtained from short circuit characteristics. This is denoted as
f2.

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BEE304 Module-3_Synchronous Generators

If the alternator is supplying full load, then total field m.m.f. is the vector sum of its two components f1
and f2. This depends on the power factor of the load which the alternator is supplying. The resultant field
m.m.f. is denoted as f.
Zero lagging p.f. : As long as the power factor is zero lagging, the armature reaction is completely
demagnetizing. Hence the resultant f is the algebraic sum of the two components f1 and f2. Field m.m.f. is
not only required to produce rated terminal voltage but also required to overcome completely
demagnetizing armature reaction effect.

Zero leading p.f. : When the power factor is zero leading then the armature reaction is totally magnetising
and helps main flux to induce rated terminal voltage. Hence net field m.m.f. required is less than that
required to induce rated voltage normally, as part of its function is done by magnetising armature reaction
component. The net field m.m.f. is the algebraic difference between the two components f1 and f2.

Unity p.f. : Under unity power factor condition, the armature reaction is cross-magnetising and its effect
is to distort the main flux. Thus and F are at right angles to each other and hence resultant m.m.f. is the
vector sum of f1 and f2.

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BEE304 Module-3_Synchronous Generators

The regulation of the alternator is found from the relation shown below:

Short Circuit Ratio: The short circuit ratio is the ratio of the excitation required to produce open circuit
voltage equal to the rated voltage to the excitation required to produce rated full load current under short
circuit.

The short circuit ratio can be calculated from the open-circuit characteristic (O.C.C) at rated speed and
the short circuit characteristic (S.C.C) of a three-phase

synchronous machine as shown in the figure below:

From open and short circuit test it is known that,

SCR = oa/od

28
BEE304 Module-3_Synchronous Generators

Since the triangles Oab and Ode are similar. Therefore,

SCR = oa/od = ab/de

The direct axis synchronous reactance Xd is defined as the ratio of open-circuit voltage for a given field
current to the armature short circuit current for the same field current. For the field current equal to Oa,
the direct axis synchronous reactance in ohms is given by the equation shown below:
𝑎𝑐
Xd = 𝑎𝑏
The per-unit value of Xd is given as:
Xd
Xd(p.u) =
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

But, the base impedance is:

Per phase rated voltage

Base Impedance =
Per phase armature rated current
ac
Base Impedance =
de
de
Xd(p.)u =
ab
1
SCR =
Xd

Significance of SCR:
1. For low value of SCR, the value of Xs is more hence the drop Ia Xs is more. Hence the machine
requires large changes in the field current (excitation) for the small changes in the load, to keep
terminal voltage constant.
2. A low value of SCR indicates smaller air gap and poor regulation due to large Ia Xs drop.
3. The synchronous power is inversely proportional to Xs. This is the power which keeps alternators
in synchronism during parallel operation and maintains the compensated by stability. Any
disturbances from equilibrium conditions are synchronizing power. For low value of SCR, Xs is
very large and synchronizing power is very low. As synchronizing power decreases, tendency of
alternators to remain in synchronism decreases. This decreases the stability. Thus low SCR puts
the stability limit.
4. The SCR can be increased by increasing the air gap but this needs more m.m.f. to obtain same
e.m.f. Hence the pole size increases which increases the overall size and cost of the machine.
5. Practically the SCR value is selected between 0.5 to 1.2.

The armature terminals are shorted through three ammeters. Care should we taken performing this test,
and the field current should first decrease to zero before starting the alternator. Each ammeter should

29
BEE304 Module-3_Synchronous Generators

have range greater than the full rated value. The alternator runs at synchronous speed. Then the field
current gradually increased in step, and the armature current is measured at each step.

30