BEE304 Module-1_ Single Phase Transformer

Module 1

Single phase Transformer

Module-1
Single-phase Transformers: Necessity of transformer, the principle of operation, Types, and construction,
EMF equation, equivalent circuit, Operation of the practical transformer under no-load and on-load with phasor
diagrams. Losses and methods of reducing losses, efficiency, and condition for maximum efficiency. Polarity
test, Sumpner’s test.
Open circuit and Short circuit tests, calculation of equivalent circuit parameters. Predetermination
of efficiency, voltage regulation, and its significance. Numerical.

Introduction
The transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another electrical circuit.
The two circuits may be operating at different voltage levels but always work at the same frequency. Basically,
the transformer is an electromagnetic energy conversion device, that is commonly used in electrical power
systems and distribution systems. It can change the magnitude of alternating voltage or current from one value
to another. This useful property of transformer is mainly responsible for the widespread use of alternating
currents rather than direct currents i.e., electric power is generated, transmitted, and distributed in the form of
alternating current. Transformers have no moving parts, rugged and durable in construction, thus requiring very
little attention. They also have a very high efficiency as high as 99%.

Necessity of transformers:

➢ For the power grid, transformers are essential for power transmission over long distances. Without them,
our power grid simply would not be able to scale up to meet growing demand. This is because long lines
enable power generation to be located at its energy or cooling source (a hydroelectric dam or nuclear
facility, say). The generated power can then be efficiently sent to where it's needed (major population
centres).
➢ Here's how it works. High-current low voltage AC power at the generator is stepped up with
transformers into high voltage /low current - 220 kilovolts or more at 100A or so - then sent down the
high-tension lines.
➢ The lower current is key: it allows practical wire sizes to be used in the overhead lines, and it reduces
wire losses (sometimes called I2R or voltage drop loss) and allows more of the generated power to make
it to the load and for lower cost.
➢ But 220kV voltage isn't practical to use in the home. So transformers are used to step the voltage back
down to manageable levels. This is done in two stages:
➢ Receiving substations use transformers to step down the voltage to 13kV – 430 V or so for local
distribution on utility poles or underground.
➢ Buildings take their feeds from still another set of transformers that take the utility voltage down to 430
to 220V. These transformers are the familiar canister-shaped devices mounted on the power poles.
➢ In electronics, small transformers perform a variety of duties: mixing, coupling. impedance matching,
isolation, and power supply. These jobs aren't quite as dramatic as those done by the large power grid
transformers but they're no less essential for dealing with AC in these systems.
Principle of operation:

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BEE304 Module-1_ Single Phase Transformer

The working principle of the transformer is It depends upon Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. Mutual
induction between two or more winding is responsible for transformation action in an electrical transformer.

The basic concept of the transformer: Whenever we apply alternating current to an electric coil, there will be
an alternating flux surrounding that coil. If we bring another coil near the first one, there will be an alternating
flux linkage with that second coil. As the flux is alternating, there will be a rate of change in flux linkage with
respect to time in the second coil. As per Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction an e.m.f will be induced
in it.

The winding which takes electrical power from the source, is known as primary winding of transformer. The
winding which the winding which gives the desired output voltage due to mutual induction in the transformer,
is known as secondary winding of transformer.

In open air very tiny portion of the flux of the first winding will link with second coil. The current that flows
through the closed circuit of second coil, will be so small in amount that it will be difficult to measure. The rate
of change of flux linkage depends upon the amount of linked flux with the second winding. We desire almost
all flux of primary winding to link with the secondary winding. This is effectively and efficiently done by
placing one low reluctance path common to both winding. This low reluctance path is core of transformer,
through which maximum number of fluxes produced by the primary is passed through and linked with the
secondary winding.

Construction of single-phase Transformer:

FIGURE

➢ There are two basic parts of a transformer:

1) winding 2) Magnetic core
➢ The core of the transformer is either rectangular or square in size.

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➢ The core is divided into i) Yoke ii) Limb

➢ Core is made up of silicon steel which has high permeability and low hysteresis co-efficient.
➢ The vertical portion on which the winding is wound is called Limb.
➢ The top and bottom horizontal portion is called Yoke.
➢ The core forms the magnetic circuit
➢ There are 2 windings i) Primary winding ii) Secondary winding which forms the Electric circuit. made
up of conducting material like copper.
➢ The winding which is connected to the supply is called primary winding and having 'N1' number of
turns
➢ The winding which is connected to a load is secondary winding and having 'N2' number of turns.
➢ Lamination of the core minimises eddy current loss.
➢ These laminations are insulated from each other by a thin coating of suitable varnish.
➢ The thickness of the lamination ranges from 0.35mm for a frequency of 25Hz to 0.5mm for a
frequency of 50Hz.
➢ The lamination strips are assembled, where the joints are staggered to avoid narrow gaps all through
the cross section of the core.
Types of transformers:

Transformers can be classified on different basis, like types of construction, types of cooling etc.

➢ Based on construction: 1. Core type transformer 2. Shell type transformer

➢ Based on their purpose 1. Step up transformer: 2. Step down transformer
➢ Based on type of supply 1. Single phase transformer 2. Three phase transformer
➢ Based on their use 1. Power transformer 2. Distribution transformer 3. Instrument transformer
➢ Based on cooling employed 1. Oil-filled self-cooled type 2. Oil-filled water-cooled type 3. Air blast
type (air cooled)

Core type transformer:

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➢ It has a single magnetic circuit.

➢ The core is rectangular having two limbs.
➢ The winding encircles the core.
➢ The coils used are of cylindrical type.
➢ The coils are wound in helical layer with different layers insulated from each other by paper or mica
➢ Both the coils are placed on both the limbs.
➢ The low voltage coil is placed inside, near the core while the high voltage coil surrounds the low
voltage coil.
➢ Core is made up of large number of thin laminations.
➢ As the windings are uniformly distributed over the two limbs the natural cooling is more effective.
➢ The coils can be easily removed by removing the lamination of the top yoke , for maintenance.
➢ Fig (a) shows the schematic representation of the core type transformer while(b) shows the view of
actual construction of the core type transformer.
Shell type transformer:

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BEE304 Module-1_ Single Phase Transformer

➢ It has a double magnetic circuit.

➢ The core has three limbs.
➢ Both the windings are placed on the central limb.
➢ The core encircles most part of the windings.
➢ The coils used a re generally multilayer disc type or sandwich coils.
➢ Each high voltage coil is in between low voltage coils and low voltage coils are nearest to top and
bottom of the yokes.
➢ The core is laminated.
➢ While arranging the lamination of the core, the care is taken that all the joints at alternate layers are
staggered.
➢ This is done to avoid narrow air gap at the joints, right through the cross section of the core. Such
joints are called overlapped or imbricated joints.
➢ Generally, for very high voltage transformers, the shell type construction is preferred.
➢ As the winding is surrounded by the core, the natural cooling does not exist.
➢ Fig (a) shows the schematic representation of the shell type transformer while (b)shows the view of
actual construction of the shell type transformer.
Comparison between Core and Shell type transformers:

EMF equation of a Transformer:

Let us consider a transformer having:

N1 = primary turns
N2 = secondary turns
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Øm= maximum value of the flux in the core linking both the windings
= BmA
Where maximum flux density in the core (Wb/ m 2)
A = area of cross-section of the core (m2)
f = frequency of AC input in hertz (Hz)
The induced emf in the primary winding of N1 turns is
ⅆ𝜙
𝑒1 = −𝑁1 …….(1)
ⅆ𝑡

As the primary applied voltage is sinusoidal in nature, the current it drives and the resulting flux produced are
also sinusoidal. The equation for the flux is given by,

𝜙 = 𝜙𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡……(2) 𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( − 𝜃)
2
Substituting this value of flux Ø in equation (1), we get
− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜋⁄2)
ⅆ(𝜙𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡)
𝑒1 = −𝑁1
ⅆ𝑡
= -N1Øm 𝜔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡

= 𝜔 N1Øm [sin⁡( 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜋⁄2)]

= 2𝜋𝑓 N1Øm [sin⁡( 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜋⁄2)] … … … (3)

From equation (2) & (3), we find that induced emf lags the flux by 90 0

The magnitude of the maximum value of the emf induced in the primary winding is given by,

𝑒1 =2𝜋𝑓 N1Øm
The rms value of the emf induced in the primary winding is given by,

𝑒1 2𝜋𝑓𝑁1 𝜙𝑚
𝐸1 = =
√2 √2

𝐸1 =4.44𝑓 N1Øm
Similarly the rs value of the emf induced in the secondary winding is given by

𝐸2 =4.44𝑓 N2Øm
Transformation ratio

The ratio of secondary voltage to the primary voltage is called the transformation ratio or turns ratio, K.

The rms value of the induced e.m.f E1 = 4.44 f T1ϕm

The rms value of this e.m.f is: E2 = 4.44 f T2ϕm

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Transformation ratio, K = E2/E1 = T2 / T1

• If transformation ratio, K > 1 the transformer is step up transformer.

• If transformation ratio, K < 1 the transformer is step up transformer.

Losses in Transformer: In transformer, 'loss' can be defined as the difference between input power and
output power. An electrical transformer is an static device, hence mechanical losses (like windage or friction
losses) are absent in it. The losses in a transformer are: iron losses and copper losses.

Iron loss or Core Loss (Pi): This is the power loss that occurs in the iron part. This loss is due to the
alternating frequency of the emf. Iron loss in further classified into two other losses.

a) Eddy current loss b) Hysteresis loss

The Iron losses are called as the constant losses.

Eddy current loss and hysteresis loss depend upon the magnetic properties of the material used for the
construction of core. These losses are known as core losses or iron losses.

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BEE304 Module-1_ Single Phase Transformer

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BEE304 Module-1_ Single Phase Transformer

Stray loss: The eddy currents, produced in the transformer by leakage flux, produce losses known as stray
losses. You may be familiar with the hum or buzzing noise near your machines. It is due to the stray fields
that cause the components of the tank to vibrate. This type of loss can be reduced by using thin sheets of
insulated iron.

Dielectric loss: Dielectric loss can be observed in the insulating materials of the transformer. If the oil gets
deteriorated or the solid insulation gets damaged it decreases the quality of the system. It also affects the
overall efficiency of the transformer. An effective way to reduce dielectric loss is to test the oil regularly and
also maintain the insulation quality.

Methods to reduces losses in the transformer:

Method to decrease Core losses:

• Eddy current losses within a transformer core can not be eliminated completely, but they can be
greatly reduced and controlled by reducing the thickness of the steel core.
• Instead of having one big solid iron core as the magnetic core material of the transformer or coil, the
magnetic path is split up into many thin pressed steel shapes called "laminations".
• The losses of energy, which appear as heat due both to hysteresis and to eddy currents in the magnetic
path, is known commonly as "transformer core losses".
Method to decrease Copper losses:

• Transformers with high voltage and current ratings require conductors of large cross-sections to help
minimize their copper losses.
• Increasing the rate of heat dissipation (better cooling) by forced air or oil, or by improving the
transformers insulation so that it will withstand higher temperatures can also increase a transformers
VA rating.

Efficiency of Transformer:
Due to the losses in a transformer, the output power of a transformer is less than the input power supplied

Therefore, Power output = Power input – total losses

Therefore, Power input = Power output + total losses

= Power output + Iron loss + Copper loss

= Power output + 𝑊𝑖 + 𝑊𝑐

The efficiency of any device is defined as the ratio of power output to power input. So for a transformer the
efficiency can be expressed as

Now power output = 𝑉2𝐼2𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø

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BEE304 Module-1_ Single Phase Transformer

Where 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 = load power factor

The transformer supplies full load of current 𝐼2 and with terminal voltage 𝑉2

Condition for Maximum Efficiency:

When a transformer works on a constant Input voltage and frequency then efficiency varies with the load. As
load increases, the efficiency increases. At a certain load current, it achieves a maximum value. If the
transformer is loaded further the efficiency starts decreasing.

Let us determine,

1. Condition for maximum efficiency

2. Load current at which 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 occurs.

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BEE304 Module-1_ Single Phase Transformer

Ideal Transformer

To understand the working of a transformer it is always instructive, to begin with the concept of an ideal
transformer with the following properties.
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BEE304 Module-1_ Single Phase Transformer

1. Primary and secondary windings have no resistance.

2. All the flux produced by the primary links the secondary winding i.e., there is no leakage flux.
3. Permeability 𝝁𝒓 of the core is infinitely large. In other words, to establish flux in the core vanishingly small
(or zero) current is required.
4. Core loss comprising of eddy current and hysteresis losses are neglected.

Practical transformer on no-load:

In a practical transformer, an iron core causes hysteresis and eddy current losses as it is subjected to alternating
flux. While designing the transformer efforts are made to keep these losses minimum by,
1. Using high-grade material such as silicon steel to reduce hysteresis loss.
2. Manufacturing core in the form of laminations or stacks of thin laminations to reduce eddy current loss.
Apart from this, there are iron losses in the practical transformer. Practically primary winding has a certain
resistance hence there are small primary copper loss present.
Thus the primary current under no load condition has to supply the iron loss, hysteresis loss, eddy current loss
and a small amount of primary copper loss. This current is denoted as I0
Now the no load input current I0 has two components.
1. A purely reactive component Im called a magnetizing component of no load current required to produce the
flux. is also called a wattless component.
2. An active component lc that supplies total losses under no load condition called a power component of no
load current. This is also called the wattful component or core loss component of I0.
The total no-load current I0 is the vector addition of Im and Ic.

In practical transformer, due to winding

resistance, no load current I0 is no longer at 900
with respect to V1. But it lags V1 by angle
which is less than Ø0. Thus cos 0 is called no
load power factor of practical transformer.
From the phasor diagram is shown in the
It can be seen that the two components of I0 are,

This is magnetising component lagging VI exactly by 900.

This is core loss component which is in phase with V1. The magnitude of the no load current is given by

while Ø0 = no load primary power factor angle

The total power input on no load is denoted as Wo and is given by

It may be noted that the current I0 is very small, about 3 to 5 % of the full load rated current. Hence the primary
copper loss is negligibly small hence I c is called core loss or iron loss component. Hence power input Wo on
no load always represents the iron losses, as copper loss is negligibly small. The iron losses are denoted as P i
and are constant for all load conditions.
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BEE304 Module-1_ Single Phase Transformer

Practical Transformer on Load (MMF Balancing on Load):

Ø2 opposes Ø Primary draws more current

When the transformer is loaded, the current I2 flows through the secondary winding. The magnitude and phase
of I2 is determined by the load. If load is inductive, I 2 lags V2 If load is capacitive, I2 leads V2 while for resistive
load, I2 is in phase with V2.

There exists a secondary m.m.f. N2 I2 due to which secondary current sets up its own flux Ø2. This flux opposes
the main flux Ø which is produced in the core due to magnetising component of no-load current. Hence the
m.m.f. N2 I2 is called demagnetising ampere-turns.

The flux Ø2 momentarily reduces the main flux Ø, due to which the primary induced emf E1 also reduces. Hence
the vector difference 𝑉̅1 − ̅̅̅
𝐸1 increases due to which primary draws more current from the supply. This
additional current drawn by primary is due to the load hence called load component of primary current denoted
as I2’

This current I2’ is in antiphase with I2. The current I2’ sets up its own flux Ø2’ which opposes the flux Ø2, and
helps the main flux Ø. This fiux Ø2’ neutralises the flux Ø2 produced by I2. The m.m.f. ie. ampere turns N1 I2’
balances the ampere turns N2 I2. Hence the net flux in the core is again maintained at constant level.

The load component current I2’ always neutralises the changes in the load. As practically flux in core is constant,
the core loss is also constant for all the loads. Hence the transformer is called constant flux machine.As the
ampere turns are balanced we can write,

N2 I2 = N1 I2’

𝑵𝟐
𝑰𝟏𝟐 = 𝑰 = 𝑲𝑰𝟐
𝒏′ 𝟐
Thus when transformer is loaded, the primary current I1 has two components:

1. The no load current I0 which lags V1 by angle Ø0. It has two components Im and Ic
2. The load component I2’ which is in antiphase with I2. And phase of I2 is decided by the load.
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BEE304 Module-1_ Single Phase Transformer

Hence primary current is vector sum of I0 and I2’.

𝑰̅𝟏 = 𝑰̅𝟎 + 𝑰̅′𝟐

Equivalent Circuit of Transformer:

For a transformer, no load primary current I0 has two components,

Im = I0 sin Ø0 = Magnetising component

Ic = I0 cos Ø0 = Active component

Im produces the flux and is assumed to flow

through reactance X0 called no load reactance while Ic
is active component representing core losses hence is
assumed to flow through the resistance R0. Hence
equivalent circuit on no load can be shown as in the
Fig. This circuit consisting of R0 and X0 in parallel is called
exciting circuit.
𝑉1 𝑉
𝑅0 = 𝑋0 = 𝐼 1
𝐼𝑐 𝑚

When the load is connected to the transformer then secondary current I 2 flows. This causes voltage drop
across R2 and X2. Due to I2, primary draws an additional current I2’= I2 / K. Now I1 is the phasor addition of
Io and I2’. This I1 causes the voltage drop across primary resistance R1 and reactance X1.

But in the equivalent circuit, windings are not shown and it is further simplified by transferring all the values
to the primary or secondary.

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R1 = Primary Winding Resistance.

R2= Secondary winding Resistance.

I0= No-load current.

Iµ = Magnetizing Component,
Iw = Working Component
This Iµ & Iw are connected in parallel across the primary circuit. The value of E1 ( Primary e.m.f ) is obtained
by subtracting vectorially I1 Z1 from V1 . The value of X0 = E1 / I0 and R0 = E1 /Iw. We know that the
relationof E1 and E2 is E2 /E1 = N2 /N1 = K , ( transformation Ratio )
So transferring secondary parameters to primary we get,

𝑅 𝑋 𝑍
𝑅2′ = 𝐾22 𝑋2′ = 𝐾22 𝑍2′ = 𝐾22
𝐸 𝑁
While 𝐸2′ = 𝐾 2 𝐼2′ = 𝐾𝐼2 where 𝐾 = 𝑁2
1

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BEE304 Module-1_ Single Phase Transformer

The total equivalent circuit of the transformer is obtained by adding in the primary impedance as
shown in –Fig.

And It can be simplified the terminals shown in above fig & further simplify the equivalent circuit is
shown in fig.

At last, the circuit is simplified by omitting I0 altogether as shown in fig-

Phasor Diagrams for Transformer on Load

Consider a transformer supplying the load as shown in the figure. The various transformer parameters are.

R1= Primary winding resistance, X1 = Primary leakage reactance

R2 = Secondary winding resistance, X2 = Secondary leakage reactance

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ZL = Load impedance, I1 = Primary current

I2 =Secondary current = IL = Load current

Now 𝑰̅𝟏 = 𝑰̅𝟎 + 𝑰̅′𝟐

I0 = No load current

I2’ = Load component of current decided by the load = K I2

The primary voltage V1 has now three components,

1. - E1, yje induced emf which opposes V1.

2. I1 R1, the drop across the resistance, in phase with I1.
3. I1 X1, the drop across the reactance, leading I1 by 900.

The secondary induced e.m.f. E2 has also three components,

1. V2, the terminal voltage across the load.

2. I2 R2, the drop across the resistance, in phase with I2.
3. I2 X2, the drop across the reactance, leading I2 by 900

The phasor diagram for the transformer on load depends on the nature of the load power factor.

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Unity Power Factor Load, cos Ø2 = 1

As load power factor is unity, the voltage V 2 and I2, are in phase.

1. Consider flux Ø as reference.

2. E1 lags Ø by 900. Reverse E1 to get – E1.
3. E1 and E2 are in phase.
4. Assume V2 in a particular direction.
5. I2 is in phase with V2.
6. Add I2 R2 and I2 X2 to V2 to get E2.
7. Reverse I2, to get I2’.
8. Add I0 and I2’ to get I1.
9. Add I1 R1 and I1 X1 to – E1 to get V1.
Angle between V1 and I1 is Ø1
and cos Ø1 is primary power factor.
Remember that I1 X1 leads I1
direction by 90° and I2 X2 leads I2
by 90° as Current through
inductance lags voltage across
inductance by 90°

Lagging Power Factor Load, cos Ø2

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As load power factor is lagging cos Ø2, the current I2 lags V2 by angle Ø2 . So only change in drawing the
phasor diagram is to draw I2 lagging V2 by Ø2 in step 5 discussed earlier. Accordingly directions of I2 R2,
I2 X2, I2’, I1, I1 R1 and I1 X1, will change. Remember that whatever may be the power factor of load, I2 X2
leads I2 by 90° and I1 X1, leads I1 by 900.

Leading Power Factor Load, cos Ø2

As load power factor is leading, the current I2 leads V2 by angle Ø2. So the change is to draw I2 leading

V2 by angle Ø2. All other steps remain same as before.

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Voltage Regulation:
Because of the voltage drop across the primary and secondary impedances it is observed that the secondary
terminal voltage drops from its no load value (E2) to load value (V2) as load and load current increases. This
decrease in the secondary terminal voltage expressed as a fraction of the no load secondary terminal voltage is
called regulation of a transformer.

Let, E2 = Secondary terminal voltage on no load

V2 = Secondary terminal voltage on given load

Then mathematically voltage regulation at given load can be expressed as,

The ratio ((E2 – V2 ) / V2) is called per unit regulation.

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The secondary terminal voltage does not depend only on the magnitude of the load current but also on the
nature of the power factor of the load. If V2 is determined for full load and specified power factor condition
the regulation is called full load regulation.

As load current IL increases, the voltage drops tend to increase and V2 drops more and more. In case of
lagging power factor V2 < E2 and we get positive voltage regulation, while for leading power factor E 2 < V2
and we get negative voltage regulation.

Expression for Voltage Regulation:

Open-Circuit or No-Load Test:

This test is conducted to determine the iron losses (or core losses) and parameters R 0 and X0 of the
transformer. In this test, the rated voltage is applied to the primary (usually low-voltage winding) while the
secondary is left open circuited. The applied primary voltage V 1 is measured by the voltmeter, the no load
current I0 by ammeter and no-load input power W0 by wattmeter as shown in Fig. As the normal rated voltage
is applied to the primary, therefore, normal iron losses will occur in the transformer core. Hence wattmeter
will record the iron losses and small copper loss in the primary. Since no-load current I0 is very small (usually
2-10 % of rated current). Cu losses in the primary under no-load condition are negligible as compared with
iron losses. Hence, wattmeter reading practically gives the iron losses in the transformer. It is reminded that
iron losses are the same at all loads.

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Under no load conditions the PF is very low (near to 0) in lagging region. By using the above data we can
draw the equivalent parameter shown in Figure

Thus open-circuit test enables us to determine iron losses and parameters R 0 and X0 of the transformer.

Short-Circuit or Impedance Test

This test is conducted to determine R1e (or R2e), X1e (or X2e) and full-load copper losses of the transformer. In
this test, the secondary (usually low-voltage winding) is short-circuited by a thick conductor and variable low

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voltage is applied to the primary as shown in Fig. The low input voltage is gradually raised till at voltage V SC,
full-load current I1 flows in the primary. Then I2 in the secondary also has full-load value since I1/I2 = N2/N1.
Under such conditions, the copper loss in the windings is the same as that on full load. There is no output from
the transformer under short-circuit conditions. Therefore, input power is all loss and this loss is almost entirely
copper loss. It is because iron loss in the core is negligibly small since the voltage VSC is very small. Hence, the
wattmeter will practically register the full load copper losses in the transformer windings.

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All Day Efficiency:

Heavy duty transformers are classified into power transformers and distribution transformers. Power
transformers are used at the power generation stations and are operated as per need. In a power station
there may be number of generators and transformers. Power transformers will be operated depending on
the power generated. Thus, in a particular instant all the power transformers may not be put in use.
Distribution transformers on the other hand are used in electrical network systems for power distribution.
These have to beoperated round the day (24 hours). There will be power loss due to operation of such
transformers. The energyefficiency of these transformers is measured considering a 24 hour operation and
is known as All day efficiency

Polarity Test of Transformer:

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Current flows from high voltage point to low voltage point due to the potential difference between them.
Here, electrical polarity comes into the picture. Electrical polarity simply describes the direction of the current
flow. When we look into DC system, we find that one pole is always positive and the other one is always
negative that imply that the current flows in one direction only. But when we look into an AC system, the
terminals are changing their polarity periodically, and the direction of the current also changes accordingly.
We use dot convention to identify the voltage polarity of the mutual inductance of two windings. The two
used conventions are:

1. If a current enters the dotted terminal of one winding, then the voltage induced on the other winding
will be positive at the dotted terminal of the second winding.
2. If a current leaves the dotted terminal of one winding, then the polarity of the voltage induced in the
other winding will be negative at the dotted terminal of the second winding.
When we look into the operations of the distribution transformers, we find that they need to work all the time
and also need to supply at high demand at peak times. So, to cope up with these situations, we connect the
transformers in parallel.

Paralleling is done by connecting same polarity terminals of the primary winding together. A similar
procedure is done for the secondary winding. Paralleling will increase the power supplying capacity and also
the reliability of the system. We do polarity test on parallel transformers to ensure that we connect the same
polarity windings and not the opposite ones. If we accidentally connect the opposite polarities of the
windings, it will result in a short circuit and eventually damage the machine.

We can categorise the polarity of the transformer to two types,

1. Additive Polarity
2. Subtractive Polarity
Additive Polarity: In additive polarity, the voltage (Vc) between the primary side (Va) and the secondary side
(Vb) will be the sum of both high voltage and the low voltage, i.e. we will get V c = Va + Vb

Subtractive Polarity:

In subtractive polarity, the voltage (Vc) between the primary side (Va) and the secondary side (Vb) will be the
difference of both high voltage and the low voltage, i.e. we will get V c = Va – Vb In subtractive polarity, if
Vc = Va – Vb, it is a step-down transformer and if Vc = Vb – Va, it is a step-up transformer.

25
BEE304 Module-1_ Single Phase Transformer

We use additive polarity for small-scale distribution transformers and subtractive polarity for large-scale
transformers.

Procedure of Polarity Test of Transformer:

Connect the circuit as shown above with a voltmeter (Va) across primary winding and another
voltmeter (Vb) across the secondary winding.
2. If available, take down the ratings of the transformer and the turn ratio.
3. We connect a voltmeter (Vc) between primary and secondary windings.
4. We apply some voltage to the primary side.
5. By checking the value in the voltmeter (Vc), we can find whether it is additive or subtractive
polarity.
If additive polarity – Vc should be showing the sum of Va and Vb.
If subtractive polarity – Vc should be showing the difference between Va and Vb.
Caution: Be careful that the max. measuring the voltage of voltmeter Vc should be greater than the sum of Va
(Primary winding) and Vb (Secondary winding) otherwise during the additive polarity, the sum of Va and Vb
comes across it.
Note: If we require additive polarity, but we have subtractive polarity, we can simply change it by keeping
any of the primary or secondary windings in the same fashion and reversing the winding connection of the
other one. Similarly, if we require subtractive polarity but have additive polarity, we could do the same
procedure as above.1

Sumpner’s test:
Sumpner's test or back to back test on transformer is another method for determining transformer
efficiency, voltage regulation and heating under loaded conditions. Short circuit and open circuit tests on
transformer can give us parameters of equivalent circuit of transformer, but they can not help us in finding the
heating information. Unlike O.C. and S.C. tests, actual loading is simulated in Sumpner's test. Thus the
Sumpner's test give more accurate results of regulation and efficiency than O.C. and S.C. tests.
Sumpner's test or back to back test can be employed only when two identical transformers are available. Both
transformers are connected to supply such that one transformer is loaded on another. Primaries of the two
identical transformers are connected in parallel across a supply. Secondaries are connected in series such that
emf's of them are opposite to each other. Another low voltage supply is connected in series with secondaries
to get the readings, as shown in the circuit diagram shown below.

26
BEE304 Module-1_ Single Phase Transformer

In above diagram, T1 and T2 are identical transformers. Secondaries of them are connected in voltage
opposition, i.e. EEF and EGH. Both the emf's cancel each other, as transformers are identical. In this case, as
per superposition theorem, no current flows through secondary. And thus the no load test is simulated. The
current drawn from V1 is 2I0, where I0 is equal to no load current of each transformer. Thus input power
measured by wattmeter W1 is equal to iron losses of both transformers.
i.e. iron loss per transformer Pi = W1/2.

Now, a small voltage V2 is injected into secondary with the help of a low voltage transformer. The voltage V2
is adjusted so that, the rated current I2 flows through the secondary. In this case, both primaries and
secondaries carry rated current. Thus short circuit test is simulated and wattmeter W 2 shows total full load
copper losses of both transformers.
i.e. copper loss per transformer PCu = W2/2.
From above test results, the full load efficiency of each transformer can be given as –

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Significance of voltage regulation of a transformer
Voltage regulation of a transformer is a critical aspect of its performance and
has significant implications for electrical systems. Here’s a detailed look at its
significance:

1. Maintaining Output Voltage

 Stable Supply: Voltage regulation ensures that the output voltage
remains stable despite variations in load. This is essential for the proper
functioning of electrical devices, which can be sensitive to voltage
fluctuations.
 Load Variations: As the load on the transformer changes, the voltage
can drop or rise. Good voltage regulation minimizes these changes,
ensuring that the voltage delivered to the load remains within
acceptable limits.

2. Efficiency of Power Distribution

 Reduced Losses: Proper voltage regulation helps in reducing losses in
the system. High voltage drop across the transformer can lead to
increased heat and energy losses, affecting overall efficiency.
 Optimized Performance: Efficient voltage regulation allows for better
performance of the electrical distribution system, ensuring that power is
delivered effectively to end-users.

3. Protection of Equipment
 Preventing Damage: Sensitive electrical equipment can be damaged
by voltage spikes or drops. Effective voltage regulation protects such
equipment by ensuring that they operate within their specified voltage
range.
 Longevity of Components: Consistent voltage levels can extend the
lifespan of transformers and connected devices by preventing
overheating and other stress-related issues.

4. System Reliability
 Increased Reliability: A transformer with good voltage regulation
contributes to the overall reliability of the electrical system. It helps in
maintaining the quality of power supplied to consumers.
 Reduced Outages: By maintaining steady voltage levels, voltage
regulation can help minimize the risk of outages and system failures.
5. Compliance with Standards
 Regulatory Compliance: Many electrical standards and regulations
require specific voltage levels. Good voltage regulation ensures
compliance with these standards, which is essential for utility
companies and industrial plants.

6. Economic Factors
 Cost Savings: Improved voltage regulation can lead to lower
operational costs by reducing energy losses and minimizing the need
for additional equipment to correct voltage issues.
 Better Load Management: With effective voltage regulation, utilities
can manage loads more effectively, enhancing the economic viability
of their operations.

Conclusion
In summary, the significance of voltage regulation in transformers encompasses
stability, efficiency, equipment protection, system reliability, compliance, and
economic benefits. It is a fundamental aspect of transformer design and
operation, impacting both the quality of power delivered and the overall
performance of electrical systems.