PCE Programming for Problem Solving (Unit-I) 1FY3-06

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEM

The word computer is derived from the word compute. Compute means to calculate. It
had the capacity to solve complex arithmetic and scientific problems at very high speed.
The set of instructions given to the computer to perform various operations is called as the
computer program. The process of converting the input data into the required output
form with the help of the computer program is called as data processing. The computers
are therefore also referred to as data processors.

The Hardware
The term hardware refers to all of the physical devices, or components, that a computer is
made of. The hardware is the machinery itself. It is made up of the physical parts or
devices of the computer system like the electronic Integrated Circuits (ICs), magnetic
storage media and other mechanical devices like input devices, output devices etc. All
these various hardware are linked together to form an effective functional unit.

The Software
The computer hardware itself is not capable of doing anything on its own. It has to be
given explicit instructions to perform the specific task. The computer program is the one
which controls the processing activities of the computer. The computer thus functions
according to the instructions written in the program. Software is a collection of programs
which utilize and enhance the capability of the hardware.

Stored Program Concept / Von Neumann Architecture

Von Neumann architecture was first published by John von Neumann in 1945. Von
Neumann architecture is based on the stored-program computer concept, where
instruction data and program data are stored in the same memory. His computer
architecture design consists of a Control Unit, Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU),
Memory Unit, Registers and Inputs/Outputs. The key elements of von Neumann
architecture are:
 Data and instructions are both stored as binary digits
 Data and instructions are both stored in primary storage
 Instructions are fetched from memory one at a time and in order (serially)
 The processor decodes and executes an instruction, before cycling around to
fetchthe next instruction
 The cycle continues until no more instructions are available.

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PCE Programming for Problem Solving (Unit-I) 1FY3-06

The basic parts of computer system are:

 Input Unit
 The Central Processing Unit
 Output Unit

Thus the functions of the input unit are:

 Accept information (data) and programs.

 Convert the data in a form which the computer can accept.
 Provide this converted data to the computer for further processing.

The Central Processing Unit

When a computer is performing the tasks that a program tells it to do, we say that the
computer is running or executing the program. The central processing unit, or CPU, is
the part of a computer that actually runs programs. The CPU is the most important
component in a computer because without it, the computer could not run software.
This is the brain of any computer system. In the earliest computers, CPUs were huge
devices made of electrical and mechanical components such as vacuum tubes and
switches. The central processing unit or CPU is made of three parts:
 The control unit.
 The arithmetic logic unit
 The primary storage unit

The Control Unit

The Control Unit controls the operations of the entire computer system. The control unit
gets the instructions from the programs stored in primary storage unit interprets these
instruction and subsequently directs the other units to execute the instructions. Thus it
manages and coordinates the entire computer system.

The Arithmetic Logic Unit

The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) actually executes the instructions and performs all the
calculations and decisions. The data is held in the primary storage unit and transferred to
the ALU whenever needed.

The Primary Storage Unit

 Stores data and programs during actual processing
 Stores temporary results of intermediate processing
 Stores results of execution temporarily

Output Unit
The output devices give the results of the process and computations to the outside world.
The output units accept the results produced by the computer, convert them into a human
readable form and supply them to the users.

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PCE Programming for Problem Solving (Unit-I) 1FY3-06

Primary and Secondary Storage Devices

Storage Unit: A storage unit is that part of the computer system which is used to store
the data and instructions to be processed. There are two types of storage:
1. Primary Storage
2. Secondary Storage
Primary memory is also known as internal memory. This is a section of the CPU which
holds program instructions, input data and intermediate results. Primary memory is also
known as main memory. You can think of main memory as the computer’s work area.
This is where the computer stores a program while the program is running, as well as the
data that the program is working with.
Secondary storage is a type of memory that can hold data for long periods of time, even
when there is no power to the computer. Programs are normally stored in secondary
memory and loaded into main memory as needed. Important data, such as word
processing documents, payroll data, and inventory records, is saved to secondary
storage as well.

Characteristics of Storage units

The storage units have special characteristics which decide the:
 Speed of operation of the computer,
 Its efficiency,
 Cost and
 The amount of data which the computer can store.
The storage unit of the computer is graded according to the following characteristics
(whether primary or secondary):
Access time: This is the time required to locate and retrieve a particular data from the
storage unit. A fast access to data and programs always yields higher efficiency.
Storage Capacity: Storage capacity is the amount of data that can be stored by a
storage unit. The smallest unit of data which the computer understands is the bit. A group
of 8 bits forms a byte. The storage capacity of a computer system is defined in terms of
bytes or words. Storage capacities of primary and secondary units are measured in
Kilobytes, megabytes, gigabytes.
Cost: Low cost storage media are always desirable.
Thus, storage units with faster access time, higher storage capacity and low costs are the
ones which are considered to be of a superior nature.

Word Length
The word length of the processor in a computer refers to the maximum number of bits it
can take as input. "Word size" refers to the number of bits processed by a computer's
CPU in one go (these days, typically 32 bits or 64 bits). Data bus size, instruction size,
address size are usually multiples of the word size. The length of the important registers
in the ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit) like “Program counter’, “Accumulator” are defined
by the word size. 16 bit word size means the register can store 16 ones and zeros in it,
and the biggest number is the decimal equivalent of that binary number. (2 raised to 16).

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PCE Programming for Problem Solving (Unit-I) 1FY3-06

PRIMARY STORAGE
Primary storage is characterized by faster access time, less storage capacity and higher
costs as compared to secondary storage units. Primary storage or main memory is that
part of the computer system which stores the programs, data and intermediate results
during the program execution.
The primary storage is volatile. Whenever the power is turned off the data is lost.
Primary storage is also called Random Access Memory (RAM). RAM means it is
possible to randomly select and use any storage location for storage and retrieval of data.
RAM is also called a read/write memory because data can both be read from and written
onto these units. When the power is switched off the data stored in the RAM is lost.
Primary Memory

RAM ROM

DRAM SRAM PROM

(DDR Generation) (Cache) EPROM
EEPROM
Flash

There are two types of RAM

DRAM: DRAM (Dynamic Random-Access Memory) is a type of RAM that is used for the
dynamic storage of data in RAM. In DRAM, each cell carries one-bit information. The cell
is made up of two parts: a capacitor and a transistor. DRAM chip can hold more data than
an SRAM chip of the same size. However, the capacitor needs to be continuously
refreshed to retain information because DRAM is volatile.

SRAM: SRAM (Static Random-Access Memory) is a type of RAM used to store static
data in the memory. It means to store data in SRAM remains active as long as the
computer system has a power supply.

Difference between SRAM and DRAM

S.No. SRAM DRAM
Flip-flop are used to store each bit Capacitors are used to store data in
1
of information in SRAM. DRAM.
To store information for a longer time,
Capacitors are not used hence no
2 contents of the capacitor needs to be
refreshing is required.
refreshed periodically.
SRAM is faster as compared to
3 DRAM provides slow access speeds.
DRAM.
4 These are expensive. These are cheaper.
5 These are used in cache memories. These are used in main memories.

6 It requires low power consumption. It requires more power consumption.

7 It has a complex structure. Its structure is simple.

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PCE Programming for Problem Solving (Unit-I) 1FY3-06

ROM
ROM is Read Only Memory. In this type of memory the data is permanently stored. The
information can only be read and new data cannot be written onto this memory. However
the contents of the ROM are not lost even when the power is turned off i.e. this memory is
non-volatile.

PROM: PROM is Programmable Read Only Memory. These are ROMs which can be
programmed. Once the chip has been programmed, information on the PROM cannot be
altered.

EPROM: Another type of memory is the Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. It
is possible to erase the data which has been previously stored on an EPROM and write
new data onto the chip.

Flash ROM: Flash memory is a non-volatile storage memory chip that can be
programmed in small units called Block or Sector. Flash Memory is an EEPROM form of
computer memory, and the data cannot be lost when the power source is turned off.

Cache Memory
This is a very special type of high speed memory. This memory cannot be accessed by
the user. The main function of this cache memory is to make the programs and data
available to the CPU very fast. Access time of memory is generally very high as compared
to the execution time of the GPU. Therefore a cache, which is a very small but fast
memory, is used between the CPU and the main memory.
A cache stores those segments of programs and data which are frequently needed. It
makes available this data to the CPU at a very fast rate thus increasing the efficiency.

Registers
Registers are used to retain information temporarily. These are special memory units
which are not actual parts of the main memory, but allow efficient movement of
information between the various units of the computer system. The registers receive
information, hold it temporarily and make it available as and when required.
A computer uses a number of registers, where each register performs a specific function.
Some of the common registers are:
 Memory Address Register (MAR): The function of this register is to hold the
address of the current or active memory location.
 Memory Buffer Register (MBR): This register holds the contents of the address
from which data is read or to which data has been written.
 Program Control Register: It holds the address of the next instruction to be
executed.
 Accumulator Register: It holds the initial data, the intermediate results and the
final data of the program under execution.
 Instruction Register: This register holds the current instruction being executed.
 Input/output Register: The function of this register is to communicate with the
Input/output devices.

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PCE Programming for Problem Solving (Unit-I) 1FY3-06

Difference between RAM and ROM

RAM ROM
It is a temporary memory of the computer. It is the permanent memory of the computer.
It is a read-write memory. The data can be It is a read only memory. The data can only
written and read. be read.
Stores the files even when the power is
Stores the files as long as the computer is turned off, such as game cartridge and BIOS
on and working. programs stored in the memory of a
computer, etc.
Data stored in RAM can be retrieved and We can only read the data stored in ROM. It
altered. cannot be altered.
It is faster than ROM as it is a high speed
It is slower than the RAM.
memory.
The data stored in RAM is used by the CPU The data stored in ROM is used by CPU only
in real-time to run the computer. when it is transferred to RAM.
It temporarily stores the files and data that It stores the BIOS program on the
the CPU needs to process the current motherboard of a computer, which is needed
instructions or work. to bootstrap the computer.
It is costlier than ROM. It is cheaper than RAM.
Examples: It is used as CPU cache, primary Examples: It is used as Firmware by micro-
memory in a computer. controllers.
Types: DRAM, SRAM Types: PROM, EPROM, EEPROM etc.

SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

Information stored on secondary storage devices can be accessed in following ways:
(Access Methods)
 Sequential Access
 Random Access and
 Direct Access

Sequential Access Devices

In sequential access data can be accessed only in the sequence in which it has been
stored. The time to access data in this type of method depends on the location of the
data. Typical sequential access storage device is the magnetic tape. These types of devices
are useful in applications like pay slip printing where the data is to be accessed one after the
other.
Punch Paper Tape: Punched paper tapes were the early devices of data storage. Data
is coded onto a paper tape as a combination of punched holes across the width of the
tape. Each row on the tape represents one character.
Magnetic Tape: A magnetic tape is a ribbon of Mylar which is coated with a thin layer of
iron oxide material on one side. A magnetic tape drive is used to read data from the tape
or write information to the tape. The tape drive has a read/write head to access or store
information respectively.

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PCE Programming for Problem Solving (Unit-I) 1FY3-06

Random Access Method

In random access method, data from any location of the memory can be accessed
randomly. The access to any location is not related with its physical location and is
independent of other locations. There is a separate access mechanism for each location.
In Random Access Each record or addressable location in memory has a unique address.
So any location can be selected at random and directly accessed and addressed.
Example: Main Memory and Cache memory.

Direct Access Method

Direct access method can be seen as combination of sequential access method and
random access method. Magnetic hard disks contain many rotating storage tracks. Here
each track has its own read or write head and the tracks can be accessed randomly.
But access within each track is sequential. In this method, individual blocks or records
have a unique address based on physical location. The access time depends on both
the memory organization and characteristics of storage technology. The access is
semi-random or direct. Example: Magnetic hard disks, Optical Disks etc.

Difference between Primary and Secondary Memory

S. No. Primary Memory Secondary Memory

It is also known as temporary
1 .It is also known as a permanent memory.
memory.
Data cannot be accessed directly by the
2 Data can be access directly.
by the processor or CPU.
Stored data can be a volatile or The nature of secondary memory is
3
non-volatile memory. always non-volatile.
It is more costly than secondary
4 It is less costly than primary memory.
memory.
5 It is a faster memory. It is a slower memory.
6 It has limited storage capacity. It has a large storage capacity.
Examples of secondary memory are CD,
Examples of primary memory are
7 DVD, HDD, magnetic, flash disks, pen
RAM, PROM and cache memory
drive, etc.

Accessing data on the disk requires the following:

 Seek Time: The read/write head is positioned to the desired track where the data is
to be read from or written to. The time taken to move the read/write head to the
desired track is called the seek time.
 Latency Time: Once the read/write head is at the right track, then the head waits
for right sector to come under it (disk is moving at high speed). The time taken for
desired sector of the track to come under read/write head is called the latency time.
 Data Transfer Rate: Once the read/write head is positioned at the right track and
sector, the data has to be written to disk or read from disk. The rate at which data is
written to disk or read from disk is called Data Transfer Rate.
 Access Time: The sum of seek time, latency time and time for data transfer is the
access time of the disk.

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