Module 2

APPLICATION OF BIOMOLECULES

[Carbohydrates in cellulose-based water filters production, PHA and PLA in bioplastics

production, Nucleic acids in vaccines and diagnosis, Proteins in food production, lipids in
biodiesel and detergents production, Enzymes in biosensors fabrication, food processing,
detergent formulation and textile processing]

Carbohydrates in cellulose-based water filters

Cellulose-based water filters are filters made from cellulose, a carbohydrate polymer
found in plant cell walls. They are used to remove impurities and contaminants from water
and are an alternative to traditional synthetic polymer filters. The high mechanical strength
and hydrophilic properties of cellulose make it an ideal material for water filtration. Cellulose
filters can effectively remove particles, pathogens, and other contaminants from water,
making it safer and more potable. Cellulose-based water filters are widely used in both
developed and developing countries for household, industrial, and agricultural applications.
They are also an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional filters, as they are
biodegradable and can be produced from renewable resources.

Properties of cellulose-based water filter

Cellulose-based water filters have several properties that make them an attractive
choicefor water filtration:

• High Porosity: Cellulose-based water filters have a high porosity structure, which
allows them to efficiently remove impurities and contaminants from water.

• Biodegradability: Cellulose-based water filters are made from a biodegradable material,

 cellulose, which reduces their impact on the environment compared to synthetic polymer
filters.

• Cost-effective: Cellulose-based water filters are often more affordable than traditional
synthetic polymer filters, making them accessible to a wider range of consumers and
communities.

• Renewable resource: Cellulose-based water filters are made from a renewable resource,
cellulose, reducing the dependency on non-renewable resources.

• Good mechanical strength: Cellulose-based water filters have good mechanical

strength, allowing them to maintain their structure and perform effectively over time.

• Chemical resistance: Cellulose-based water filters are resistant to most chemicals,

including acids and bases, and can be used in a wide range of water treatment
applications.

• Large surface area: Cellulose-based water filters have a large surface area, which
enhancestheir filtration capabilities and reduces the frequency of filter replacement.

Construction of cellulose-based water filters

1. Cellulose Material Selection: depend on the desired properties such as strength,

porosity, and chemical resistance. Common cellulose materials include paper, cotton,
and wood fibers.

2. Cellulose Preparation: The cellulose material is prepared by cutting it into small

pieces, washing it to remove impurities, and drying it for use.

3. Cellulose Layer Formation: The cellulose material is formed into a layer by either
stacking it or compacting it using heat and pressure.

4. Filter Medium Attachment: The cellulose layer is attached to a filter medium such as
a mesh or a support structure to provide stability and increase the filter surface area.

5. Chemical Treatment: The cellulose layer may be chemically treated to modify its
properties, such as increasing its hydrophilicity or adding antimicrobial agents.

6. Housing Assembly: The filter medium is assembled into a housing that provides a
means to attach it to a water source and to collect the filtered water.

7. Filter Testing: The completed filter is tested to ensure that it meets the desired
specifications, such as filtration efficiency and flow rate.
Importance of cellulose-based water filters

Cellulose-based water filters are important for several reasons:

• Safe and clean water: Cellulose-based water filters effectively remove impurities and
contaminants from water, making it safer and more potable for various applications,
including household, industrial, and agricultural use.
• Sustainability: Cellulose-based water filters are made from a renewable resource,
cellulose, and are biodegradable, reducing their impact on the environment and
promoting sustainability in water treatment processes.
• Affordability: Cellulose-based water filters are often more affordable than traditional
synthetic polymer filters, making them accessible to a wider range of consumers and
communities, especially in developing countries.
• Versatility: Cellulose-based water filters can be used in various types of filtration
systems and can be produced in different sizes and shapes to fit specific needs.
• Alternative to synthetic filters: Cellulose-based water filters provide an environmentally
friendly alternative to traditional synthetic polymer filters, reducing the dependency on
non- renewable resources and reducing waste.

Advantages of cellulose-based water filters

Cellulose-based water filters have several advantages that make them an attractive
option for water filtration:

• Environmentally friendly: Cellulose-based water filters are made from a renewable

resource, cellulose, and are biodegradable, reducing their impact on the environment
compared to synthetic polymer filters.
• Cost-effective: Cellulose-based water filters are often more affordable than traditional
synthetic polymer filters, making them accessible to a wider range of consumers and
communities.
• High porosity: Cellulose-based water filters have a high porosity structure, which
allows them to efficiently remove impurities and contaminants from water.
• Versatile: Cellulose-based water filters can be used in various types of filtration systems
andcan be produced in different sizes and shapes to fit specific needs.
• Good mechanical strength: Cellulose-based water filters have good mechanical
strength,allowing them to maintain their structure and perform effectively over time.
• Chemical resistance: Cellulose-based water filters are resistant to most chemicals,
including acids and bases, and can be used in a wide range of water treatment
applications.
 • Large surface area: Cellulose-based water filters have a large surface area, which
enhancestheir filtration capabilities and reduces the frequency of filter replacement.

Limitations of cellulose-based water filters

Cellulose-based water filters have some limitations that need to be considered when
choosing a water filtration solution:

• Low resistance to high temperature: Cellulose-based water filters have low resistance
to high temperature and can lose their structural integrity when exposed to high
temperatures.
• Low filtration efficiency for certain contaminants: Cellulose-based water filters may
not beefficient in removing certain contaminants, such as heavy metals, from water.
• Limited lifespan: Cellulose-based water filters have a limited lifespan and may need to
bereplaced more frequently compared to synthetic polymer filters.
• Difficult to sterilize: Cellulose-based water filters may be difficult to sterilize
effectively,increasing the risk of contamination.
• May clog easily: Cellulose-based water filters may clog easily when exposed to high
levels of contaminants, reducing their filtration efficiency and requiring frequent
replacement.
• May affect water taste: Cellulose-based water filters may affect the taste of water by
absorbing or releasing certain chemicals or minerals, reducing the quality of the purified
water.

Figure: Cellulose acetate material

PHA as Bioplastic

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are a class of biodegradable and biocompatible

polyesters produced by microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi. They are a type of
bioplastic. They are made from renewable resources, such as sugar and cornstarch, and are
considered to be an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional petroleum-based
plastics.

Figure: General representation and examples of PHAs

Properties of PHA

PHAs have several properties that make them ideal for use as bioplastics, including:

• Biodegradability: PHAs are biodegradable and can break down into water and carbon
dioxide, reducing their impact on the environment.
• Biocompatibility: PHAs are biocompatible and can be used in medical devices, such
assutures and implants, without causing adverse reactions in the body.
• Mechanical properties: PHAs have similar mechanical properties to traditional
petroleum-based plastics, making them suitable for various applications.
• Processing: PHAs can be processed using conventional plastic processing techniques,
suchas injection molding, blow molding, and extrusion.
Production of PHAs

1. Microbial Fermentation: Bacteria such as Cupriavidus necator, Pseudomonas spp.,

and Bacillus spp. synthesize PHAs under nutrient-limited conditions with excess
carbon sources.
2. Feedstocks: Can be derived from sugarcane, vegetable oils, industrial waste, and even
CO2.
3. Extraction & Processing: Harvested from bacterial cells and purified for plastic
production.

Engineering applications of PHA bioplastic

• Packaging: PHA is used in various forms of packaging such as food containers,

beveragecups, and clamshell containers.
• Medical Devices: PHA is biocompatible and can be used in the manufacture of
medicaldevices such as sutures, implants, and drug delivery systems.
• Textiles: PHA is used in the production of biodegradable textiles, as well as for the
production of biodegradable composites for use in construction and furniture.
• Agricultural Mulch Films: PHA is used in the production of biodegradable mulch
films for agriculture to reduce soil erosion and conserve moisture.
• Consumer Goods: PHA is used in the production of various consumer goods, such as
toys,phone cases, and water bottles.
• Automotive Parts: PHA is used for the production of biodegradable automotive parts
such asair ducts and headlamp covers.
• Electronic Devices: PHA is used for the production of biodegradable components in
electronic devices such as smartphones and laptops.
• Aerospace: PHA is used for the production of biodegradable parts in aerospace
applications,such as insulation and cable management.
• Sporting Goods: PHA is used for the production of biodegradable sporting goods
such asgolf tees and fishing lures.
• Construction: PHA is used for the production of biodegradable insulation and
soundproofingmaterials.
 PLA as Bioplastic

Polylactic Acid (PLA) is a biodegradable and bio-based plastic made from corn
starch, sugarcane, or other natural resources.

Figure: Molecular formula of PLA

It is commonly used as a sustainable alternative to traditional petroleum-based

plastics in various applications such as packaging, disposable tableware, and 3D printing.
However, it's important to note that while PLA is biodegradable in industrial composting
facilities, it may not break down in the environment as quickly as advertised and may still
have negative impacts on wildlife and ecosystems if not properly disposed of.

Properties of PLA as bioplastic

• Biodegradable: PLA can be broken down by microorganisms in industrial composting

facilities, reducing waste in landfills.
• Renewable: PLA is derived from renewable resources such as corn starch or sugarcane,
reducing dependence on finite petroleum resources.
• Clear/Transparent: PLA has a clear and transparent appearance, making it suitable for
packaging applications.
• Heat-resistant: PLA has a relatively low melting temperature and is not recommended
forhigh heat applications, but it can maintain its shape and stability up to 60°C.
• Biocompatible: PLA is non-toxic and biocompatible, making it suitable for food
packagingand medical devices.
• Stiffness and Strength: PLA has good stiffness and strength, but not as strong as
traditionalpetroleum-based plastics.
• Printability: PLA is commonly used in 3D printing due to its good printability and
ease of use.

Production of PLA

PLA is produced through a multi-step process involving the fermentation of plant-based sugars
and polymerization of lactic acid.
(a) Raw Material Selection

• Common feedstocks: Corn starch, sugarcane, cassava, beet sugar.

• These crops are rich in carbohydrates, which are converted into lactic acid.

(b) Fermentation Process

1. Hydrolysis: Starch or cellulose is broken down into simple sugars (glucose).

2. Fermentation: Bacteria such as Lactobacillus convert glucose into lactic acid.

(c) Polymerization Process

Lactic acid monomers are polymerized using one of the following methods:

• Direct Polycondensation: Water is removed during polymerization to form PLA (low

molecular weight).
• Ring-Opening Polymerization (ROP): Lactic acid is converted into lactide, which
undergoes polymerization to produce high-quality PLA.

(d) PLA Processing

PLA is processed into pellets, films, or fibers and used for manufacturing various plastic
products.

Engineering applications of PLA bioplastic

• Automotive parts: PLA is used for the production of biodegradable automotive parts
such asair ducts and headlamp covers.
• Electronic Devices: PLA is used for the production of biodegradable components in
electronic devices such as smartphones and laptops.
• Aerospace: PLA is used for the production of biodegradable parts in aerospace
applications,such as insulation and cable management.
• Sporting Goods: PLA is used for the production of biodegradable sporting goods
such asgolf tees and fishing lures.
• Construction: PLA is used for the production of biodegradable insulation and
soundproofingmaterials.
• Agricultural Equipment: PLA is used for the production of biodegradable parts in
agricultural equipment such as seed trays and greenhouse film.
• Medical Equipment: PLA is used for the production of biodegradable components in
 medical equipment such as diagnostic equipment and hospital beds.
Therefore, PLA is a promising biodegradable plastic with wide-ranging applications. While
it offers a sustainable alternative to fossil-fuel plastics, further advancements in recycling,
composting, and cost reduction are needed to enhance its viability in the long term.

Nucleic Acids:
DNA Vaccine
A DNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that uses a piece of viral or bacterial DNA to
stimulate an immune response against the pathogen. The vaccine works by introducing the
pathogen's DNA into the body, where it is taken up by cells and used to produce viral or
bacterial proteins. These proteins are then displayed on the surface of the cells, which triggers
an immune response and the production of antibodies against the pathogen. DNA vaccines are
being actively researched and developed for a range of diseases, including cancer, rabies,
influenza, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). While the technology is still in its early
stages, it has the potential to revolutionize the field of vaccine development and provide new
treatment options for a range of diseases.

DNA Vaccine for Rabies

A DNA vaccine for rabies is a type of vaccine that uses a piece of rabies virus DNA to
stimulate an immune response against the virus. The vaccine works by introducing the rabies
virus DNA into the body, where it is taken up by cells and used to produce viral proteins. These
viral proteins are then displayed on the surface of the cells, which triggers an immune response
and the production of antibodies against the rabies virus.

Importance of DNA vaccine for rabies DNA vaccines offer several advantages over
traditional vaccines, including their ability to stimulate a strong and long-lasting immune
response with fewer doses required, as well as their ease of manufacture and storage. These
advantages make DNA vaccines particularly useful for preventing the spread of infectious
diseases like rabies. In the case of rabies, DNA vaccines have several key advantages:
 • Efficacy: DNA vaccines have been shown to be highly effective in preventing
rabies infection in both animal and human trials. In one study, a DNA vaccine
was found to be as effective as a traditional vaccine in protecting dogs against
rabies.
• Long-lasting protection: DNA vaccines can stimulate a strong and long-lasting
immune response, which means that they can provide protection against rabies
for extended periods of time.
• Ease of administration: DNA vaccines are easy to administer, as they can be
given via injection or even delivered orally, which can be particularly useful in
areas where access to medical facilities is limited.
• Cost-effective: DNA vaccines are relatively inexpensive to produce compared to
traditional vaccines, which can make them more accessible in areas where
resource are limited.
• Reduced risk of side effects: DNA vaccines do not contain live virus particles,
which means that they are generally safer and have a lower risk of side effects
compared to traditional vaccines.

RNA Vaccines
RNA vaccines are a type of vaccine that use genetic material from a pathogen, in the
form of RNA, to stimulate an immune response against the disease. The vaccine works by
introducing the pathogen's RNA into the body, where it is taken up by cells and used to produce
viral or bacterial proteins. These proteins are then displayed on the surface of the cells, which
triggers an immune response and the production of antibodies against the pathogen.
RNA vaccines have several advantages over traditional vaccines, including faster
production time and the ability to target multiple antigens. RNA vaccines can be manufactured
quickly, making them a good option for emergency situations where large numbers of people
need to be vaccinated quickly. RNA vaccines are also thought to be safer than traditional
vaccines, as they do not contain any live virus or bacteria that could cause disease. RNA
vaccines are currently being developed and tested for a range of diseases, including COVID
19, influenza, and cancer.

RNA Vaccines for Covid19

RNA vaccines for COVID 19 are a type of vaccine that use genetic material from the SARS-
CoV-2 virus, in the form of RNA, to stimulate an immune response against the virus. The
vaccine works by introducing the virus's RNA into the body, where it is taken up by cell and
used to produce viral proteins. These proteins are then displayed on the surface of the cells,
which triggers an immune response and the production of antibodies against the virus.

The first RNA vaccine for COVID 19, the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine, was authorized for
emergency use in December 2020 and has been administered to millions of people
worldwide. Another RNA vaccine, the Moderna vaccine, was also authorized for emergency
use in December 2020.

Importance of RNA vaccine for Covid 19

RNA vaccines have emerged as a promising tool for preventing the spread of COVID-
19, offering several key advantages over traditional vaccine approaches. Here are some
of the main reasons why RNA vaccines are important in the fight against COVID-19:
• High efficacy: RNA vaccines have been shown to be highly effective at
preventing COVID-19 infections. The Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna mRNA
vaccines, for example, have reported efficacy rates of around 95% in clinical
trials.
• Rapid development: RNA vaccines can be rapidly developed and manufactured
making them particularly useful in the context of a pandemic. The Pfizer-
BioNTech vaccine, for instance, was developed in under a year, and went from
the initial discovery of the viral genome to emergency use authorization in less
than 11 months.
• Easy to modify: RNA vaccines can be easily modified to target new strains of
variants of the virus. This means that if a new variant emerges that is resistant to
the existing vaccines, it is possible to quickly modify the vaccine to provide
protection against the new strain.
• Safe: RNA vaccines are generally considered safe, as they do not contain any live
virus particles. They work by instructing cells to produce a harmless piece of the
virus (in this case, the spike protein), which triggers an immune response that
provides protection against the virus.
 • Potential for broader use: RNA vaccines have the potential to be used in the
prevention of other infectious diseases, such as influenza, HIV, and Zika, as well
as in the treatment of cancer.

Proteins as Food
Proteins are essential nutrients that provide the body with amino acids, which are the
building blocks of the body's tissues. Proteins are found in many different foods, including
meat, poultry, fish, dairy products, beans, lentils, tofu, and eggs.
Proteins are a vital component of a healthy diet, as they help to build and repair tissues, support
immune function, and regulate various metabolic processes. The body also uses proteins as a
source of energy when carbohydrates and fats are not available.
The quality of proteins in food is determined by the types of amino acids they contain,
as well as the amount of each type of amino acid. To ensure adequate protein intake, it is
important to consume a variety of protein-rich foods and to include both complete and
incomplete protein sources in the diet. It is also important to consume sufficient amounts of
other nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, and vitamins and minerals, to support overall health
and well-being.

Whey protein as food

Whey protein is a type of protein derived from the liquid that separates from milk during
the cheese-making process.
It is a complete protein, meaning it contains all of the essential amino acids the body needs to
build and repair tissues.
Whey protein is widely used as a dietary supplement, particularly by athletes,
bodybuilders, and people looking to increase their protein intake. It is commonly added to
smoothies, shakes, and other beverages, and is also available in powder form that can be mixed
into other foods or beverages. Compared to other types of protein, whey protein is rapidly
absorbed by the body and is high in branched-chain amino acids, which are essential for muscle
growth and repair. It is also a good source of essential nutrients, including calcium, potassium,
and vitamins B2 and B12.
 However, it is important to note that not all whey protein products are equal in terms
of quality, purity, and nutrient content. Some whey protein supplements may contain added
sugars, artificial sweeteners, or other ingredients that can be harmful to health. It is therefore
important to choose a reputable brand and to carefully read the ingredient list before
purchasing.

Preparation of Whey Protein

Whey protein is extracted from milk during the cheese-making process. Here’s how it is
prepared step by step:

1. Milk Separation (Cheese Production Process)

• Fresh cow’s milk is pasteurized to remove harmful bacteria.

• A coagulant (such as rennet or an acid like lemon juice) is added to the milk, causing
the casein (solid part) to separate from the whey (liquid part).
• The solid curds are used to make cheese, while the leftover liquid is whey.

2. Filtration and Purification

• The whey is filtered through microfiltration or ultrafiltration to remove fats, lactose,

and excess water.
• Different levels of filtration determine the type of whey protein:
o Whey Protein Concentrate (WPC): Lightly filtered, retains some fats and
lactose.
o Whey Protein Isolate (WPI): More refined, removing most fats and lactose.
o Whey Protein Hydrolysate (WPH): Pre-digested for faster absorption.

3. Drying (Powder Formation)

• The purified whey is dried using spray drying to turn it into a fine powder.
 • At this stage, flavoring agents, sweeteners, or additional nutrients may be added.

4. Packaging and Distribution

• The powdered whey protein is packed into containers and distributed for commercial
use.

Use of whey protein as food

Whey protein is a type of protein derived from cow's milk and is commonly used as a food
supplement. There are several uses of whey protein as food, including:
• Sports nutrition: Whey protein is often used by athletes and fitness enthusiasts to help
build and repair muscle tissue, support recovery after intense exercise, and increase
overall muscle mass.
• Weight management: Whey protein can be used to help manage weight by increasing
satiety and reducing appetite. It can also help with weight loss by preserving muscle
mass while reducing body fat.
• Health promotion: Whey protein is rich in essential amino acids and has been shown
to have various health benefits, including improved immune function, lower blood
pressure, and reduced risk of cardiovascular disease.
• Meal replacement: Whey protein can be used as a meal replacement, either as a drink
or in a variety of food products. It provides a quick and convenient source of protein,
making it a popular option for people with busy schedules or limited access to fresh
foods.
Whey protein is available in a variety of forms, including powders, bars, and drinks. It is
often added to smoothies, baked goods, and other food products to increase the protein content.
When using whey protein as food, it is important to choose a high-quality product that is free
of artificial sweeteners, flavours, and other additives. It is also important to talk to a healthcare
professional before starting to use whey protein, especially when one have any medical
conditions or allergies.

Meat analogs of protein

Meat analogs, also known as meat substitutes or meat alternatives, are plant-based
foods designed to mimic the taste, texture, and appearance of meat. They are made from a
variety of ingredients, including soy protein, wheat protein, pea protein, and other plant-based
ingredients, and are often fortified with vitamins and minerals to provide a similar nutritional
profile to meat.
 Meat analogs are a popular alternative to meat for many people, including vegetarians,
vegans, and those who are looking to reduce their meat consumption for health or ethical
reasons. They can be a good source of protein and can help to meet the body's protein needs.
There are many different types of meat analogs available, including burgers, sausages,
meatballs, deli slices, and more. Some are designed to mimic specific types of meat, such as
chicken, beef, or pork, while others are marketed as a more generic "meat-like" product. When
choosing meat analogs, it is important to look for products that are high in protein and low in
added sugars, fats, and other ingredients that can be harmful to health. It is also important to
consider the texture and taste, as some meat analogs can be more appealing than others.

Examples of meat analogs of protein as food

• Tofu: Made from soybeans, tofu is a versatile meat analog that can be used in a variety
of dishes, including stir-fries, salads, and smoothies.

Tofu
• Tempeh: Another soy-based product, tempeh is made from fermented soybeans and
has a nutty flavor and firm texture. It can be sliced and used in sandwiches or salads,
or crumbled and used as a meat substitute in tacos or spaghetti sauces.

Tempeh
• Seitan: Also known as wheat meat or wheat protein, seitan is made from wheat gluten
and has a chewy, meat-like texture. It can be used as a substitute for beef or pork in a
variety of dishes.

Seitan
• Veggie burgers: Made from a variety of plant-based ingredients, including soy protein,
grains, and vegetables, veggie burgers are a popular meat analog that can be grilled or
baked and served on a bun.

Veggie burgers
• Meatless meatballs: Made from plant-based ingredients such as soy protein, grains,
and vegetables, meatless meatballs are a tasty and protein-rich alternative to traditional
meatballs.
 Meatless meatballs

• Plant-based sausages: Made from soy protein, pea protein, or other plant-based
ingredients, plant-based sausages are a convenient and protein-rich alternative to
traditional sausages.

Plant-based sausages

These are just a few examples of meat analogs of protein as food. There are many other
products available that can provide a similar taste, texture, and nutritional profile to meat,
making it easier for people to reduce or eliminate their meat consumption for health or ethical
reasons.

1.3.2 Plant Based Proteins

Plant-based proteins are proteins derived from plant sources, such as legumes, grains, nuts,
and seeds. They are becoming increasingly popular as a alternative to animal-based proteins,
especially for those following a vegetarian or vegan diet. Here are some benefits of plant-based
proteins:
• Sustainable: Plant-based protein sources are more environmentally sustainable than
animal based sources, as they require fewer resources to produce and generate fewer
greenhouse gas emissions.
• Nutrient-rich: Many plant-based protein sources are also rich in other essential
nutrients, such as fibre, vitamins, and minerals.
• Versatile: Plant-based proteins can be used in a variety of ways, including as a protein
supplement, in smoothies, or as an ingredient in various recipes.
• Hypoallergenic: Plant-based proteins are often better tolerated than animal-based
proteins, making them a good option for people with food allergies or sensitivities.
 • Cost-effective: Plant-based protein sources are often more affordable than animal-
based sources, making them a more accessible option for many people.
Examples of plant-based proteins include soy protein, pea protein, lentil protein, chickpea
protein, and hemp protein.
It is important to choose a high-quality product that is free of artificial additives and
preservatives, and to consult a healthcare professional before starting to use any new protein
supplement.

Uses of plant-based proteins

Plant-based proteins are commonly used in a variety of ways, including:
• Dietary supplements: Plant-based proteins are often sold as powders, bars, and other
supplements, making them a convenient way to add protein to a diet.
• Food products: Plant-based proteins are used as ingredients in a variety of food
products, including plant-based meat analogs, protein bars, and smoothies.
• Health and wellness: Plant-based proteins are often marketed as a healthier alternative
to animal-based proteins, due to their lower saturated fat and cholesterol content.
• Vegetarian and vegan diets: Plant-based proteins are a popular source of protein for
people following a vegetarian or vegan diet, as they do not contain animal products.
• Fitness and sports nutrition: Plant-based proteins are also used by athletes and fitness
enthusiasts to support muscle recovery and growth.
It is important to choose a high-quality plant-based protein product, and to consult a
healthcare professional before starting to use any new protein supplement. It is also important
to remember that plant-based proteins may not contain all of the essential amino acids found
in animal-based proteins, so it may be necessary to consume a variety of plant-based protein
sources to ensure adequate protein intake.

Lipids:

Lipids as Biodiesel
Lipids can be converted into biodiesel, which is a renewable source of energy. Biodiesel is
typically produced by transesterifying vegetable oils or animal fats with an alcohol, such as
methanol, to form methyl esters. The resulting biodiesel can be used as a drop-in replacement
for traditional diesel fuel in internal combustion engines.

Advantages
 • Renewability: Lipids are a renewable resource, and they can be produced from a
variety of sources, such as vegetable oils, animal fats, and microalgae.
• Reduced emissions: Biodiesel produces fewer emissions compared to traditional
diesel fuel, reducing the impact on the environment and public health.
• Improved performance: Biodiesel can improve engine performance, increasing fuel
efficiency and reducing engine wear and tear.
• Biodegradability: Biodiesel is biodegradable, which reduces the risk of environmental
contamination in the event of a spill.

However, there are also some limitations to the use of lipids as biodiesel, such as higher
production costs compared to traditional diesel fuel and the need for more efficient and cost-
effective processing methods. Nevertheless, the use of lipids as biodiesel has the potential to
play an important role in the transition towards a more sustainable energy system.

The Process of Obtaining Biodiesel from Lipids

1. Raw material preparation: The lipids, such as vegetable oils or animal fats, are
collected and purified to remove impurities.
2. Transesterification: The purified lipids are mixed with an alcohol, such as methanol,
and a catalyst, such as sodium hydroxide, to produce fatty acid methyl esters (FAME),
which are the main components of biodiesel. This process is known as
transesterification.
3. Separation: The reaction mixture is then separated into two layers: the upper layer
contains the FAME (biodiesel) and the lower layer contains the glycerol (byproduct).
4. Washing and drying: The biodiesel is washed with water to remove any residual
alcohol and soap that was formed during the transesterification reaction. The biodiesel
is then dried to remove any remaining moisture.
 5. Purification: The biodiesel is further purified to remove any impurities and improve
its quality.
6. Final product: The purified biodiesel is then stored and distributed for use as a fuel.

It is important to note that the exact process can vary depending on the specific type of lipid
and the desired quality of the final product. Further research is needed to improve the efficiency
and cost-effectiveness of the biodiesel production process.

Lipids as Cleaning Agents/Detergents

Lipids as Cleaning Agents/Detergents

Lipids, particularly surfactant-based lipids, play a crucial role in cleaning agents and
detergents. While natural fats and oils are not directly used as detergents, their derivatives—
such as fatty acids, phospholipids, and glycerides—are essential in soap and detergent
production.

1. How Lipids Work in Cleaning

Lipids are amphiphilic molecules, meaning they have both:

• Hydrophobic (water-repelling) tails – Dissolve grease and oil.

• Hydrophilic (water-attracting) heads – Interact with water for easy rinsing.

This dual nature allows lipid-based detergents to break down grease, oils, and dirt,
suspending them in water so they can be washed away. The following are their uses,

• Personal care products: Lipids, such as fatty acids and glycerides, are commonly used
as emulsifiers and surfactants in personal care products, such as shampoos, soaps, and
lotions.
• Industrial cleaning: Lipids can be used as cleaning agents in various industrial
applications, such as metal cleaning, degreasing, and stain removal.
• Laundry detergents: Lipids, such as fatty acids and glycerides, are used as ingredients
in laundry detergents to improve their cleaning and sudsing performance.
• Cleaning agents for hard surfaces: Lipids can be used as cleaning agents for hard
surfaces, such as floors, countertops, and walls, to remove dirt and grime.
 Lipids have several properties that make them suitable as cleaning agents, including their
ability to emulsify and dissolve grease and oils. Additionally, lipids can form micelles, which
are tiny spherical structures that can surround and trap dirt particles, making it easier to remove
them.
However, it is important to note that not all lipids are equally effective as cleaning agents and
that the specific properties of each lipid can impact its performance. Further research is needed
to optimize the use of lipids as cleaning agents and to identify new and more effective
lipids for this purpose.

Examples of lipids used as cleaning agent

• Soap: Soap is a traditional cleaning agent made from the reaction of an alkali with a
fat or oil. Soaps are made from various types of lipids, including animal fats and
vegetable oils.
• Fatty acids: Fatty acids, such as stearic acid, can be used as cleaning agents in personal
care products, such as bar soaps and shampoos.
• Glycerol: Glycerol is a byproduct of soap production and can be used as a cleaning
agent in a variety of applications, including household cleaners and industrial cleaning
solutions.
• Fatty alcohols: Fatty alcohols, such as lauryl alcohol, can be used as cleaning agents
in personal care products and industrial cleaning solutions.

These are a few examples of lipids that are used as cleaning agents. There are many other lipids
with different properties that can be used for cleaning, depending on the specific requirements
of each application.

Advantages of lipids as cleaning agents/detergents

➢ Biodegradability: Lipids are derived from natural sources, such as plants and animals,
and are biodegradable, which makes them more environmentally friendly than many
synthetic cleaning agents.
➢ Renewable resources: Lipids can be obtained from renewable resources, such as crops,
and are not based on finite fossil fuels like some synthetic cleaning agents.
➢ Effectiveness: Lipids have excellent grease-cutting and emulsifying properties,
making them effective cleaning agents.
➢ Mildness: Lipids are typically mild and gentle, making them suitable for use in
personal care products, such as soaps and shampoos, and for cleaning delicate
materials, such as silk and wool.
 ➢ Cost-effective: Lipids can be less expensive than synthetic cleaning agents, especially
when obtained from low-cost feedstocks, such as vegetable oils.
➢ Customizability: Lipids can be modified and customized to improve their cleaning
performance and to meet specific application needs.

However, it is important to note that not all lipids are equally effective as cleaning agents
and that the specific properties of each lipid can impact its performance. Further research is
needed to optimize the use of lipids as cleaning agents and to identify new and more effective
lipids for this purpose.

Limitations of lipids as cleaning agents/detergents

• Stability: Some lipids can be susceptible to oxidation and degradation, which can
reduce their effectiveness as cleaning agents over time.
• Compatibility: Some lipids may not be compatible with certain surfaces or materials,
and may cause staining or damage.
• Cost: Although lipids can be less expensive than synthetic cleaning agents, the cost
can vary depending on the source of the lipids and the processing methods used.
• Availability: The availability of lipids for use as cleaning agents may be limited by the
availability of feedstocks, such as crops and animal fats, and the need for processing
and refining.
• Performance: The cleaning performance of lipids can vary depending on the specific
properties of each lipid and the type of soil or stain being removed. Some lipids may
not perform as well as synthetic cleaning agents in certain applications.
• Regulation: The use of lipids as cleaning agents is regulated by government agencies,
and specific requirements may vary from country to country.

Overall, further research and development are needed to overcome these limitations and to
optimize the use of lipids as cleaning agents and detergents.

Working principle of lipids as cleaning agent

The working principle of lipids as cleaning agents or detergents is based on their ability
to dissolve grease and oils. Lipids are composed of hydrophobic (water-fearing) and
hydrophilic (Water-loving) regions, which allows them to surround grease and oils, effectively
breaking them down into smaller particles that can be more easily removed. This is why lipids
are commonly used in cleaning products such as soaps, shampoos, laundry detergents, and
dishwashing liquids.
 When a lipid-based cleaning agent is applied to a surface, the hydrophobic regions of
the lipid molecule surround and dissolve grease and oils, while the hydrophilic regions interact
with water, allowing the mixture to be rinsed away. The combination of the lipid and water
also forms an emulsion, which helps to suspend and remove dirt and debris.
In addition, some lipids have additional properties, such as foaming or lathering
capabilities, that can enhance their cleaning performance. For example, fatty alcohols can be
used as foaming agents in shampoos, while soap is known for its lathering properties. These
additional properties can help to loosen and remove dirt and debris, making the cleaning
process more effective.

Enzymes:

Biosensors

Figure: Schematic representation of the working of different biosensors

Biosensors are analytical devices that combine a biological recognition element with a
transducer to detect and quantify target analytes. The biological recognition element can be a
target analyte. The transducer converts the biological response into an electrical signal that can
be quantified and interpreted.
Biosensors have a wide range of applications in the fields of medicine, environmental
monitoring, and food safety. For example, biosensors can be used to monitor blood glucose
levels in patients with diabetes, detect contaminants in water and food, and monitor
environmental pollutants. Biosensors have several advantages over traditional analytical
methods, including rapid response time, high sensitivity, specificity, and portability.
Additionally, they can be designed to be disposable and cost-effective, making them a useful
tool in various industries and applications.
Enzymes Used in Biosensors
Enzymes are commonly used in biosensors as the biological recognition element. Here are
some examples of enzymes used in biosensors:
• Glucose oxidase (GOx): Used in blood glucose monitoring for people with diabetes.
The enzyme oxidizes glucose to gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide, which is then
detected by a transducer to quantify glucose levels in the blood.
• Lactate oxidase (LOx): Used in the determination of lactate levels in biological fluids,
such as blood and urine. LOx oxidizes lactate to pyruvate, which is then detected by a
transducer.
• Cholinesterase (ChE): Used in the detection of organophosphorus pesticides and
nerve agents. ChE hydrolyzes acetylcholine, and the decrease in acetylcholine levels
is detected by a transducer to quantify the presence of the toxic substances.
• Alkaline phosphatase (ALP): Used in the detection of inorganic phosphates, such as
those found in wastewater and fertilizers. ALP catalyzes the hydrolysis of phosphates
to produce a signal that can be quantified.
• Urease: Used in the detection of urea levels in biological fluids, such as urine. Urease
catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea to produce ammonium and carbon dioxide, which can be
quantified by a transducer. These are just a few examples of the many enzymes that can be
used in biosensors to detect and quantify a wide range of target analytes.

Advantages of Biosensors
• Sensitivity: Biosensors are highly sensitive and can detect target analytes at low
concentrations, making them useful in applications that require precise quantification.
• Specificity: Biosensors can be designed to specifically recognize a target analyte,
which minimizes interference from other substances in the sample.
• Rapid response time: Biosensors can provide results in real-time, making them useful
in situations where quick results are required.
• Portability: Biosensors can be designed to be small and portable, making them useful
in field applications and remote locations.
• Cost-effectiveness: Biosensors can be manufactured at a low cost, making them an
attractive alternative to more expensive analytical methods in some applications.

Limitations of Biosensors
 1. Stability: Biosensors can be affected by environmental conditions, such as temperature
and pH, which can lead to degradation of the biological recognition element and loss
of sensitivity.
2. Interferences: Biosensors can be affected by other substances in the sample, which can
interfere with the performance of the biosensor.
3. Calibration: Biosensors may require frequent calibration to ensure accuracy, which
can increase the time and cost associated with using the biosensor.
4. Limited shelf-life: Biosensors have a limited shelf-life, and the biological recognition
element may degrade over time, leading to decreased sensitivity and specificity.
5. Complexity: Biosensors can be complex to manufacture and use, requiring specialized
equipment and expertise to operate effectively.

Despite these limitations, biosensors have proven to be a valuable tool in various industries
and applications, and research is ongoing to improve their performance and reduce limitations.

Lignolytic Enzyme in Bio-Bleaching

Bio-Bleaching: An Eco-Friendly Alternative to Chemical Bleaching
1. What is Bio-Bleaching?

Bio-bleaching is the process of using microbial enzymes instead of harsh chemicals to remove
color and impurities from materials like paper pulp, textiles, and laundry. This eco-friendly
method reduces the use of chlorine and other toxic substances, making it a sustainable
alternative in industries.

2. How Bio-Bleaching Works

Microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) produce enzymes that break down natural pigments,
lignin, and stains. The most commonly used enzymes are:

Laccases – Break down lignin in wood pulp and remove stains from textiles.

Xylanases – Help in bleaching paper pulp by breaking hemicellulose.

Manganese Peroxidases & Lignin Peroxidases – Degrade lignin, making bleaching more
effective.
Proteases & Lipases – Used in detergent formulations to remove protein- and fat-based
stains in laundry.
3. Applications of Bio-Bleaching
A. Paper & Pulp Industry

• Replaces chlorine-based bleaching agents (like chlorine dioxide or hypochlorite).

• Improves the brightness of paper while reducing pollution.
• Reduces toxic by-products like dioxins and furans.

B. Textile Industry

• Used for whitening cotton, wool, and synthetic fabrics.

• Removes natural pigments from plant fibers like cotton and flax.
• Less fiber damage compared to traditional chemical bleaching.

C. Laundry & Cleaning Products

• Enzyme-based detergents help remove stains without harsh chemicals.

• Better stain removal from clothes (e.g., sweat, blood, food stains).
• Reduces energy and water consumption as enzymes work at lower temperatures.

4. Advantages of Bio-Bleaching

1. Eco-Friendly: Reduces harmful chemical waste and pollution.

2. Energy Efficient: Works at lower temperatures and pH levels.
3. Less Fabric Damage: In textiles, prevents fiber weakening compared to chemical
bleaching.
4. Improved Paper Quality: Gives brighter and stronger paper with reduced chemical
residue.
5. Safer for Workers: Lowers exposure to toxic chemicals in industries.

5. Challenges of Bio-Bleaching

1. Higher Initial Costs: Enzyme production can be expensive.

2. Optimization Required: Needs specific conditions (pH, temperature) for efficiency.

3. Slower Process: Chemical bleaching is often faster, but bio-bleaching is more sustainable.

Advantages of Bio-Bleaching
 • Sustainability: Bio-bleaching uses biological agents, such as enzymes, which are
renewable and biodegradable, reducing the environmental impact compared to
traditional chemical bleaching methods.
• Improved product quality: Bio-bleaching can result in higher brightness and a more
uniform color compared to traditional chemical bleaching, leading to improved
product quality.
• Reduced energy consumption: Bio-bleaching typically requires lower energy input
compared to chemical bleaching methods, reducing energy consumption and
associated costs.
• Elimination of hazardous chemicals: Bio-bleaching eliminates the use of harsh
chemicals, such as hydrogen peroxide and chlorine, which can be hazardous to
workers and the environment.
• Lower production of harmful by-products: Bio-bleaching reduces the formation of
harmful by-products, such as dioxins, that can be produced during traditional chemical
bleaching methods.

Limitations of Bio-bleaching
1. High cost of enzyme production: The cost of producing enzymes used in bio-bleaching
can be high, making the process more expensive compared to traditional chemical
bleaching methods.
2. Low efficiency compared to chemical bleaching: Bio-bleaching can be less efficient
compared to traditional chemical bleaching methods, requiring longer processing
times and higher enzyme doses.
3. Need for further research: Bio-bleaching is still in the early stages of development,
and further research is needed to optimize the process and improve efficiency.
4. Lack of widespread implementation: The widespread implementation of bio-
bleaching is limited by factors such as the high cost of enzyme production, low
efficiency compared to chemical bleaching, and the need for further research to
optimize the process.

Lignolytic Enzyme in Bio-Bleaching

Lignolytic enzymes, such as laccases, peroxidases, and manganese peroxidases, are usedcin
bio-bleaching to remove color and brighten fibers, paper, and textiles. These enzymes catalyze
the oxidation of colored impurities in the fibers, resulting in a brighter and more uniform color.
 • Laccases are copper-containing oxidases that catalyze the oxidation of lignin, a
complex polymer found in plant cell walls, as well as other compounds such as phenols
and aryl alcohols.
• Peroxidases are enzymes that use hydrogen peroxide to oxidize organic compounds.
• Manganese peroxidases are enzymes that use hydrogen peroxide to oxidize lignin and
other compounds.
The lignolytic enzymes used in bio-bleaching are typically produced by fungi or bacteria, and
are immobilized on a support, such as a ceramic bead or a cellulosic matrix, to ensure stability
and prolonged activity. The immobilized enzymes are then added to the fibers, where they
catalyze the oxidation of colored impurities, resulting in a brighter and more uniform color.

Enzymes in Food Processing

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in food processing,
improving texture, flavor, and shelf life. They are widely used in industries like dairy, baking,
brewing, and meat processing to enhance efficiency and product quality.

1. Major Types of Enzymes Used in Food Processing

A. Carbohydrases (Break Down Carbohydrates)
Enzyme Function Applications

Amylase Breaks starch into sugars Baking, brewing, syrup production

Invertase Converts sucrose into glucose & fructose Candy, soft drinks, honey processing

Lactase Breaks lactose into glucose & galactose Dairy industry (lactose-free milk)

Pectinase Breaks down pectin (plant cell walls) Juice clarification, wine-making

Cellulase Decomposes cellulose into glucose Juice extraction, coffee processing

B. Proteases (Break Down Proteins)

Enzyme Function Applications

Rennet (Chymosin) Coagulates milk proteins Cheese-making

Papain & Bromelain Break down meat proteins Meat tenderizers, marinades

Trypsin & Pepsin Improve protein digestion Infant formulas, dietary supplements
C. Lipases (Break Down Fats)
Enzyme Function Applications

Breaks triglycerides into fatty acids Dairy (cheese flavor enhancement),

Lipase
& glycerol bakery products

Modifies fats for better

Phospholipase Egg processing, mayonnaise
emulsification

D. Oxidoreductases (Affect Oxygen Reactions)

Enzyme Function Applications

Prevents spoilage in baking, extends

Glucose Oxidase Reduces oxygen levels
shelf life

Breaks hydrogen peroxide into water Dairy (removes hydrogen peroxide

Catalase
& oxygen from milk)

Polyphenol
Enhances color changes Tea and coffee processing
Oxidase

3. Benefits of Enzymes in Food Processing

• Enhance flavor, texture, and appearance

• Increase efficiency and yield
• Reduce processing time & costs
• Improve nutritional value (e.g., lactose-free products)
• Eco-friendly (reduces chemical use in food production)

4. Challenges

• Sensitive to temperature and pH

• High production cost for some enzymes
• Potential allergenicity (e.g., proteases in bakery)

Application of Enzymes in Detergent Industry

Enzymes find use as functional ingredients in detergents and contribute to cleaning of laundry
and dishes in an efficient, environmentally mild, and energy-saving manner. Proteases, lipases,
amylases are the major class of detergent enzymes, each provides specific benefits for
application in laundry and automatic dishwashing. Proteases are the first to be used extensively
in laundry detergents, which not only raise the level of cleaning, but also provide environmental
benefits. Lipases and amylases are joined proteases in improving detergent efficacy, especially
for household laundering at lower temperatures and, in industrial cleaning operations, at lower
pH levels. Cellulases contribute to overall fabric care by rejuvenating or maintaining the new
appearance of washed garments.

Detergent mechanism based on enzymes

From an enzyme point of view, detergents on the international market contain principal
ingredients that operate by almost identical detergency mechanisms. Soil and stains are
removed by mechanical action assisted by surfactants, builders, and enzymes. Alkaline
proteases, amylases, or lipases in heavyduty detergents hydrolyze and solubilize substrate soil
attached to fabrics or hard surfaces. Cellulases clean by hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds which
removes particulate soils attached to cotton microfibers. Key effects of cellulases are to soften
and improve the color brightness of worn textile surfaces. Surfactants lower the surface tension
at interfaces and enhance the repulsive force between the original soil, enzymatically degraded
soil, and the fabric. Builders act to chelate, precipitate or ion-exchange calcium and magnesium
salts, to provide alkalinity, to prevent soil redeposition, to provide buffering capacity, and to
inhibit corrosion.

Proteases

Proteases are the most widely used enzymes. In laundry detergents, protein stains such as grass,
blood, egg, and human sweat are removed through proteolysis. In ADD, proteases secure the
removal of proteinaceous food films, which are a particular problem with glassware and
cutlery. Serine proteases are the most important group for detergent applications. Proteases
catalyze the hydrolytic cleavage of the peptide chain. The most important parameters for the
hydrolysis reaction are surface-available substrate S, E/S, pH, reaction time, and temperature.
Together with the specificity and properties of the enzyme itself, these parameters are
responsible for the course of reaction on a given protein stain.

Amylases

Native starch is only slowly degraded by α-amylases. Gelatinization and swelling are needed
to make the starch susceptible to enzymatic breakdown. For most foods, various degrees of
gelatinization result from cooking. Therefore, in detergents for laundry and automatic
dishwashing, amylases facilitate the removal of starch-containing stains, e.g., pasta, potato,
gravy, chocolate, and baby food. Amylases also prevent swollen starch from adhering to the
surface of laundry and dishes that may otherwise act as a glue for particulate soiling.
Complexes or reaction products between protein, starch, and/or fat are usually found in
prepared foods. In such cases, enzyme synergy effects make it possible to remove soil even
more efficiently than with single enzyme systems.

Cellulases

Cellulases cleave β-1,4-glucosidic bonds in cellulose and operate directly on the natural cotton
fibers or cotton/flax blends and on the cellulose portion in synthetic fibers. Cellulases are
applied in detergents to make cotton fabrics regain and maintain clear colors, a smooth surface,
and softness. Cellulases provide these effects by shaving off the fuzz and pills of cotton fibrils
that are generated on the fabric by normal wear and washing. Cellulases are unique in providing
these effects.

Lipases

Because of their strong hydrophobicity, fats and oils are difficult to remove from laundry at
low temperatures. Lipases hydrolyze triglyceride to more hydrophilic mono- and diglycerides,
free fatty acids, and glycerol. These hydrolysis products are all soluble in alkaline conditions.
In laundering, the effects of lipases are seen only after several wash cycles.

Application of Enzymes in Textile Industry

Enzymes, such as cellulases, catalase, and laccase, are commonly used in the textile industry.
These enzymes are used to removing the starch, degrading excess hydrogen peroxide,
bleaching textiles and degrading lignin. Because of the highly specific, efficient, non-toxic,
and eco-friendly characteristics, the use of enzymes in the textile industry is rapidly growing.
The application of cellulases for denim finishing and lactases for decolorization of textile
effluents and textile bleaching are the most recent commercial advances. Furthermore, the use
of enzymes results in reduced process times, energy and water savings, improved product
quality and potential process integration.

Properties of enzymes used in textiles

Firstly, the enzyme accelerates the reaction by lowering the activation energy and remains
intact at the end of the reaction by acting as a catalyst. Secondly, enzymes operate under a
milder condition. Enzymes can be used in catalytic concentrations at low temperatures and at
pH-values near to neutral. Thirdly, enzymes are the best alternative to toxic, hazardous, and
polluting chemicals. Fourthly, enzymes act only on specific substrates, for example, enzymes
used in desizing do not affect cellulose hence there is no loss of strength of cotton. Fifthly,
enzymes are easy to control because their activity depends upon optimum condition. Sixthly,
enzymes are biodegradable. At the end of the reaction in which enzymes used we can simply
drain the remaining solution because enzymes are biodegradable and do not produce toxic
waste on degradation hence there is no pollution.

Enzymes used in textile processing

Enzymatic desizing
Amylases are used to remove starch-based size for improved and uniform wet processing in
the textile industry. An amylase enzyme can be used for desizing processes at low-temperature
(30-60ºC) and optimum pH is 5.5-6.5. The advantage of these enzymes is that they are specific
for starch, removing it without damaging to the support fabric.

Enzymatic Scouring
Scouring is the removal of non-cellulosic material present on the surface of the cotton. In
generally cellulase and pectinase are combined and used for Bioscouring. In this pectinase
destroy the cotton cuticle structure by digesting the pectin and removing the connection
between the cuticle and the body of cotton fiber whereas cellulase can destroy cuticle structure
by digesting the primary wall cellulose immediately under the cuticle of cotton.

Enzymatic Bleaching
The purpose of cotton bleaching is to decolorize natural pigments and to confer a pure white
appearance to the fibers. Mainly flavonoids are responsible for the color of cotton. The most
common industrial bleaching agent is hydrogen peroxide. Conventional preparation of cotton
requires high amounts of alkaline chemicals and consequently, huge quantities of rinse water
are generated. However, radical reactions of bleaching agents with the fiber can lead to a
decrease in the degree of polymerization and, thus, to severe damage. Therefore, replacement
of hydrogen peroxide by an enzymatic bleaching system would not only lead to better product
quality due to less fiber damage but also to substantial savings on washing water needed for
the removal of hydrogen peroxide. An alternative to this process is to use a combination of
suitable enzyme systems. Amyloglucosidases, pectinases, and glucose oxidases are selected
that are compatible concerning their active pH and temperature range.

Biopolishing
Biopolishing is a finishing process that improves fabric quality by mainly reducing fuzziness
and pilling property of cellulosic fiber. The objective of the process is the elimination of micro
fibrils of cotton through the action of cellulase enzyme. Biopolishing treatment brings the
fabric a cleaner surface, a cooler feel, lustre, and softer feel.