PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1 CHAPTER 111

Module 1: Qualitative Research Designs

Different Qualitative Research Designs:

1. Ethnography is the direct description of a group, culture or community.
- Data are collected during fieldwork through participant observation and interviews with the
key informants as well as through documents. Researchers observe the rules and rituals in
the culture and try to understand the meaning and interpretation that informants give them.
- They compare these with their own ethnic view and explore the differences between the two.
- Field notes are written throughout the fieldwork about events and behavior in the setting.
Example: Turgo, Nelson. (2012) carried out an ethnographic study of a fishing community in the
Philippines in the context of a dwindling fisheries resource and in relation to the community‘s
contemporary social and political structures, values and local issues. It considers the everyday life of
the fishing community; the realms of power; gender and economic relations; and how these relations
are played out among and between fishers and their wives, fish vendors, dealers and brokers as the
community experiences dramatic changes in the local economy.
2. Grounded Theory (GT) is an approach that generates and modifies a theory.
- The finished product is also called a GT—it is a development of theory directly based and
grounded in the data collected by the researcher.
- Data usually are collected through non-standardized interviews and participant observation
but also by access to other data sources.
- Data collection and analysis interact. Researchers code and categorize transcripts from
interviews or field notes. The researcher has a dialogue with the literature when discussing
categories. Throughout the analytic process, constant comparison and theoretical sampling
takes place. Memos— theoretical notes—provide the researcher with developing theoretical
ideas. The theory that is generated has ‗exploratory power‘ and is grounded in the data.
Example: Agoncillo, Nino L. and Borromeo, Roberto T. (2013) carried out a study that focuses on the
substantive area of commitment to service in the community of educational partners in the Philippines.
Educational partners are laypeople who assist religious organizations in the field of education, and in the
Philippines, about 96 percent of educational partners are in Lasallian schools and organizations.
Educational partners are young professionals, volunteers between the ages of 24-39 who strive to live
the teachings of St. John Baptist De La Salle. The volunteers aim to generate a spirit of service, a sense
of mission to the youth. By using a classic Grounded Theory approach, the theory of becoming selfless
was generated. The theory explains the stages educational partners undergo when resolving their
organizational commitment to service. Organizational commitment is the psychological attachment,
involvement and identification of the individual to the organization. Becoming selfless provides a
theoretical focal point to better understand the complexity of commitment.
3. Narrative Inquiry includes stories that reflect on people‘s experiences and the meaning
that this experience has for them.
- Narrative research is a useful way of gaining access to feelings, thoughts and experience to
analyze them.
- Narratives are tales of experience or imagination and come naturally to human beings.
- Conduct in-depth interviews, read documents, and look for themes; in other words, how does
an individual story illustrate the larger life influences that created it.
Example: Viernes, Sr. Ramona M. and De Guzman Allan B.(2005) explored a narrative-biographical
research of Teachers‘ Experiences of Supportive Relationships with Colleagues. A total of fifty (50) public
and private elementary and secondary school teachers in the central part of the Philippines were
purposively selected as respondents. The study yielded four significant themes that describe how
Filipino teachers as relational people experience and interpret supportive relationships in the school
setting. These include: supportive relationships as (1) a life-giving force; (2) an extension of one‘s family;
(3) a reciprocal process; and (4) a work still in progress.
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1 CHAPTER 111
4. Phenomenology focuses on the subjective experience of the individual.
- The purpose of this research method is to describe experiences as they are lived – to capture
the “lived experience”
- Data are usually collected through In-depth conversations.
- Researcher helps the participant to describe lived experiences without leading the discussion
Example: Vapor, Victor Rey Cui (2009) explored a new Philippine phenomenon that emerged involving
Filipino physicians who went back to school to take up nursing in the Philippines in order to migrate to
foreign countries to work as nurses. The purpose of his study was to describe and to interpret the lived
experiences of Filipino physician-turned nurses in the United States. Phenomenology was used as
research design, with data obtained from a purposive sample of eight (8) self-identified physician-turned
nurses in Las Vegas, Nevada. Participants were interviewed using a single, open-ended central question.
The audio taped responses that described their lived experiences were eventually transcribed verbatim.
To interpret their experiences, clusters of themes were then generated using the Colaizzi's (1978) method
of Phenomenological Inquiry. The results of the study revealed that the experiences of Filipino physician-
turned nurses involved multidimensional issues, both in the contexts of emigration and a professional
shift from physician to nurse. Being the first of its kind, this study will enlighten society of the lived
experiences of Filipino physicians who compromise professional integrity by working as nurses just to
emigrate to the United States. Furthermore, this research study will contribute to the existing literature
on crosscultural adaptation, particularly involving role compromise in an unfamiliar social and cultural
context.
5. Case Study provides an in-depth look at one test subject. The subject can be a person or
family, business or organization, or a town or city
- It uses an interpretative research. It is chosen precisely because researchers are interested
in insight, and discover rather than the testing of a hypothesis.
- Multiple methods of data collection used ( interview, observation, documents,
questionnaires)
Example: Protacio, Maria Selena and Sarroub, Loukia K. (2013) describe the reading practices in a public
and high-achieving 6th grade English classroom in the Philippines. By utilizing a four resources model,
they discuss the different roles that students assume in this classroom. Students in this class are mainly
code breakers and text users and have limited opportunities to assume the other two roles of the four
resources model. This case study provides a different view of reading, specifically a view of a culture of
reading where in higher status is given to oral reading performance rather than comprehension. We
describe the way a high-achieving 6th grade Philippine classroom perceives reading. Through this case
study, both authors would like to contribute to the research literature on Philippine education and
increase our knowledge of reading practices as they are conceived and practiced in this particular
classroom.

MODULE 2: SAMPLING PROCEDURE

Sampling is a process or technique of choosing a subgroup from a population to

participate in the study. It is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a
study in such a way that the individuals selected represent the large group from
which they were selected (Ogula, 2005).

Major sampling procedures

A. Probability Sampling In probability sampling, everyone has an equal chance
of being selected. This scheme is one in which every unit in the population has
a chance (greater than zero) of being selected in the sample.
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1 CHAPTER 111
four basic types of sampling procedures.
1. Simple Random Sampling
To conduct a simple random sample, the researcher must first prepare an
exhaustive list (sampling frame) of all members of the population of interest. From
this list, the sample is drawn so that each person or item has an equal chance of
being drawn during each selection round (Kanupriya, 2012).
2. Systematic Sampling
A systematic sampling procedure is often used in place of simple random sampling.
In this type of sampling, the researcher selects every nth member after randomly
selecting the first through nth element as the starting point. For example, if the
researcher decides to sample 20 respondents from a sample of 100, every 5th
member of the population will systematically be selected.
A researcher may choose to conduct a systematic sample instead of a simple
random sample for several reasons.
Firstly, systematic samples tend to be easier to draw and execute.
Secondly, the researcher does not have to go back and forth through the sampling
frame to draw the members to be sampled.
Thirdly, a systematic sample may spread the members selected for measurement
more evenly across the entire population than simple random sampling.
Therefore, in some cases, systematic sampling may be more representative of the
population and more precise (Groves et al., 2006).
3. Stratified Sampling
Stratified sampling procedure is the most effective method of sampling when a
researcher wants to get a representative sample of a population. It involves
categorizing the members of the population into mutually exclusive and
collectively exhaustive groups. An independent simple random sample is then
drawn from each group. This technique can enable the researcher to determine
desired levels of sampling precision for each group, and can provide administrative
efficiency.

4. Cluster Sampling
In cluster sampling, a cluster (a group of population elements), constitutes the
sampling unit, instead of a single element of the population.
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1 CHAPTER 111
Non-Probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling is used in some situations, where the population may
not be well defined. In other situations, there may not be great interest in drawing
inferences from the sample to the population.
The most common reason for using non-probability sampling procedure is that it is
less expensive than probability sampling procedure and can often be implemented
more quickly (Michael, 2011). It includes purposive, convenience, voluntary, and
snowball sampling.
1. Purposive/Judgmental Sampling
In purposive sampling procedure, the researcher chooses the sample based on who
he/she thinks would be appropriate for the study. The main objective of purposive
sampling is to arrive at a sample that can adequately answer the research
objectives. The selection of a purposive sample is often accomplished by applying
expert knowledge of the target population to select in a non-random manner a
sample that represents a cross-section of the population (Henry, 1990).
A major disadvantage of this method is subjectivity since another researcher is
likely to come up with a different sample when identifying important
characteristics and picking typical elements to be in the sample. purposive
sampling is generally considered most appropriate for the selection of small
samples often from a limited geographic area or from a restricted population
definition. A case study research design for instance, employs purposive sampling
procedure to arrive at a particular ‘case’ of study and a given group of respondents.
Key informants are also selected using this procedure.

2. Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling is sometimes known as opportunity, accidental or haphazard
sampling. It is a type of non-probability sampling which involves the sample being
drawn from that part of the population which is close to hand, that is, a population
which is readily available and convenient. This type of sampling is most useful for
pilot testing.
3. Voluntary response sampling
Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on
ease of access. Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1 CHAPTER 111
contacting them, people volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online
survey). Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some
people will inherently be more likely to volunteer than others.
4. Snowball sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit
participants via other participants. The number of people you have access to
“snowballs” as you get in contact with more people.

MODULE 3: Data Collection, Data Gathering Instrument, and Analysis

Procedure
Qualitative research is usually flexible and open, its goal is to explore, describe,
or interpret a situation, phenomenon, social-issue, or reality. This research
typically uses methods that are more open-ended like observation, interviews, and
those that elicit responses from participants.
Data collection approaches for qualitative research usually involve direct
interaction with individuals on a one to one basis or direct interaction with
individuals in a group setting.
Qualitative research data collection methods are time consuming. That is why, data
are usually collected from a smaller sample unlike sample cases for quantitative
approaches - therefore, this makes qualitative research more expensive.
The main methods for collecting qualitative data are:
● Individual interviews
● Focus groups
● Observations
● Action Research
In order to learn more about the phenomenon, you should have first-hand information, and
these could be collected through the following means: (Method of data collection – Data
Instrument)

1. Observation is a systematic and intentional process of seeing, listening, and

using the senses to understand phenomena, interactions, issues, or realities. There
are two types of observations; participant observation and non-participant
observation. Participant observation happens when you as a researcher participate
in the activities of the group and act like part of the community.
Examples:
● Studying a rural farming community by visiting and taking notes and living there
in the farm together with the farmer’s family.
● In non-participant observation, the researcher remains a passive observer of the
actions and interactions in the community.
For example, you observe a teacher on how he/she teaches students in GAS in Senior
High School English class without you participating in the class or lesson proper.
2. Interview is a method of collecting information about people – their thoughts,
behaviors, opinions, concerns, or aspirations. It is a purposeful person-to-person
interaction with the goal of getting information relevant to the research. Interviews
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1 CHAPTER 111
can be one time interviews, multiple interviews with the same participants, multiple
interviews with various participants, or group interviews. Interview can be done
through the following:
a. Face-to-face interviews with the participants
b. Telephone interviews with the participants
c. Engage in focused group discussions with six or eight interviewees
d. Use online interviews through various online conference platforms.
Questions Used in an Interview
A. Unstructured – use open-ended questions (interviewee or research participants
answer freely)
B. Structured – use close-ended questions (set of questions prepared by the
researcher)
C. Semi-structured – use both the open-ended and closed-ended questions
3. Questionnaire – a more formal way of gathering facts, data, opinions, through
well-constructed instruments with very clear purpose and directions, in a printed
format. It is a written list of questions from the researcher which the respondent
fills out or answers and gives back to the researcher. In qualitative design, a
questionnaire involves open ended or closed ended questionnaire that respondents
can reply to.
4. Documents – poring over (be absorbed in the reading or study of) and recording
notes on public documents (newspapers, minutes of meetings, official reports) or
private documents (personal journals, diaries, letters, emails).
5. Audio and Visual materials – studying photographs, art objects, videotapes or
any forms of sound for relevant themes, similarities, differences, among themes.
Data Analysis Procedures:
● Coding – the research analyst reads the data and marks segments within the
data. Each segment is labeled with a “code” – usually a word or short phrase that
suggests how the associated data segments inform the research objectives. When
completed, the analyst prepares, and reports via a mix of summarizing the
prevalence of the code, discusses the similarities and differences in related codes
across distinct sources, and context or compares the relationship between one or
more codes.
● Recursive – data sets are summarized, then, the result is a more compact
summary.
● Content or discourse analysis – is counting of words, phrases, or coincidences
of tokens within the data. Other similar techniques are the analysis of phrases and
exchanges of conversational analysis.
● Computer – Assisted Qualitative Analysis Software – this replaced the
detailed hand coding of the past decades. It enhances the analyst efficiency at data
storage/retrieval and at applying the codes to the data. Common qualitative data
analysis software includes MAXQDA QDA MINER, ATLAS ti, Dedoose (mixed
methods) and NVivo.
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1 CHAPTER 111
General Steps in Data Analysis
1. Organize and prepare the data for analysis – transcribing interviews,
scanning materials, typing up filled notes, and sorting and arranging the data into
different types depending on the sources of information.
2. Read through all the data – obtain a general sense of information and reflect
on its overall meaning: what general ideas the participant is saying? What is the
tone of the ideas?
3. Begin detailed analysis with the coding process – organizing materials into
chucks before bringing meaning. It involves taking text data or pictures: segmenting
sentences or images into categories and labeling them with a term.
4. Use the coding process to generate a description or people as well as
categories or themes for analysis – it involves detailed rendering of information
about people and places in a setting. This analysis is useful in designing detailed
descriptions for case studied ethnographies and narrative research projects. The
themes are the one that appear as major findings in qualitative studies and are
stated under separate heading in the finding section of the study.
5. Decide how the descriptions and themes will be presented. One approach
is to use narrative passage to convey the finding of the analysis and detailed
discussion of themes and subthemes or interconnecting themes. Qualitative
researchers used visuals, figures, or tables. They present a processed model (as in
grounded theory), a drawing of a specific research site, (as in ethnography) or they
convey descriptive information about each participant in a table as in case studies
and ethnographies.
6. Make an interpretation of data – it could be researcher personal
interpretation, a meaning derived from a comparison finding, and suggestion for
new questions that need to be asked in the future study and had not foreseen earlier
in the study.

MODULE 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Methodology
The methodology is the philosophical framework within which the research is
conducted or the foundation upon which the research is based” (Brown,2006).
Types of Research Designs
A. QUALITATIVE METHOD
1. Case Study - attempts to shed light on a phenomenon by studying in-depth a
single case.
Examples:
● Why teamwork is so important in building a better workplace in a firm.
● The influence of motivation within an innovative work environment on business
performance
● How to develop ethical business strategies: the Coca-Cola vision
● The impact of controlling cash flow on a company’s business growth.
2. Ethnography - Close field observation of sociocultural phenomena. A qualitative
method where researchers completely immerse themselves in the lives, culture, or
situation they are studying. They are often lengthy studies.
 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1 CHAPTER 111
Example:
Two famous ethnographic studies were completed only after one author lived as a
member of a gang in Chicago for nine months. This allowed him to write about the
organizational structure and the forms of power that existed in street gangs. An
ethnographic study of the tribal life of nomads can be found here about their
language, culture, wedding traditions, and geography.
3. Phenomenology - attempts to understand people’s perceptions, perspectives and
understanding of a particular situation (experience).
Example:
Student-nurse perceptions of risk in relation to international placements: a
phenomenological research study. A phenomenological study on how students
understand the presidency.
4. Grounded Theory - A theory is developed inductively from the data acquired by
the participants. Process related to a particular topic with the goal of developing a
theory about that process.
Example:
Management of a difficult pregnancy
Being There: A Grounded-Theory Study of Student Perceptions of Instructor
Presence in Online Classes (this explained the processes followed in online cl asses).
CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
1. They collect data at a glance and in real-time when participants are
experiencing problems.
2. Researchers collect data in different forms such as interviews, observations,
and documents.
3. Works towards solving complex issues by breaking down into meaningful
inferences that area easy to read and understand for everyone.
4. Allows people to build trust on the researcher, so the information obtained is
raw and unadulterated.

• Qualitative research methods usually collect data at the sight, where the
participants are experiencing issues or problems. These are real-time data and
rarely bring the participants out of the geographic locations to collect
information.
• Qualitative researchers typically gather multiple forms of data, such as
interviews, observations, and documents, rather than rely on a single data
source.
• This type of research method works towards solving complex issues by
breaking them down into meaningful inferences, that are easily readable and
understood by all.