BIO 101 (General Biology I) LECTURE NOTE

LECTURER-IN-CHARGE: Miss E.O Fawole

DEPARTMENT: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

COURSE OUTLINE

1. Cell structure and organization

2. Functions of Cellular organelles

3. Characteristics and classification of living things

4. Chromosomes, Genes; their relationships and importance

5. General Reproduction

6. Interrelationships of organisms (Competition, Parasitism, Predation, Symbiosis,

Commensalisms, Mutualism, Saprophytism)

7. Heredity and Evolution (Introduction to Darwinism and Lamarkism, Mendelian laws,

explanation of key genetic terms)

8. Elements of ecology and types of habitat

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TOPIC 1: CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANISATION

Close your eyes and picture a brick wall. What is the basic building block of that wall? A single
brick, of course. Like a brick wall, your body is composed of basic building blocks, and the
building blocks of your body are cells.

Your body has many kinds of cells, each specialized for a specific purpose. Just as a home is
made from a variety of building materials, the human body is constructed from many cell types.
For example, epithelial cells protect the surface of the body and cover the organs and body
cavities within. Bone cells help to support and protect the body. Cells of the immune system fight
invading bacteria. Additionally, blood and blood cells carry nutrients and oxygen throughout the
body while removing carbon dioxide. Each of these cell types plays a vital role during the growth,
development, and day-to-day maintenance of the body. In spite of their enormous variety,
however, cells from all organisms—even ones as diverse as bacteria, onion, and human—share
certain fundamental characteristics.

A cell is the smallest unit of a living thing. It is the basic unit of structure and function in
living organisms. A living thing, whether made of one cell (like bacteria) or many cells (like a
human), is called an organism. Thus, cells are the basic building blocks of all organisms. Several
cells of one kind that interconnect with each other and perform a shared function form tissues,
several tissues combine to form an organ (your stomach, heart, or brain), and several organs make
up an organ system (such as the digestive system, circulatory system, or nervous system). Several
systems that function together form an organism (like a human being). Here, we will examine the
structure and function of cells. There are many types of cells, all grouped into one of two broad
categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. For example, both animal and plant cells are classified as
eukaryotic cells, whereas bacterial cells are classified as prokaryotic. Before discussing the criteria
for determining whether a cell is prokaryotic or eukaryotic, let’s first examine how biologists
study cells.

Microscopy

Cells vary in size. With few exceptions, individual cells cannot be seen with the naked eye, so
scientists use microscopes (micro-=“small”;-scope=“to look at”) to study them. A microscope is
an instrument that magnifies an object. Most photographs of cells are taken with a microscope,
and these images can also be called micrographs. The optics of a microscope’s lenses change the
orientation of the image that the user sees. A specimen that is right-side up and facing right on the

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microscope slide will appear upside-down and facing left when viewed through a microscope, and
vice versa. Similarly, if the slide is moved left while looking through the microscope, it will
appear to move right, and if moved down, it will seem to move up. This occurs because
microscopes use two sets of lenses to magnify the image. Because of the manner by which light
travels through the lenses, this system of two lenses produces an inverted image (binocular, or
dissecting microscopes, work in a similar manner, but include an additional magnification system
that makes the final image appear to be upright).

Light Microscopes

To give you a sense of cell size, a typical human red blood cell is about eight millionths of a meter
or eight micrometers (abbreviated as eight μm) in diameter; the head of a pin is about two
thousandths of a meter (two mm) in diameter. That means about 250 red blood cells could fit on
the head of a pin.

Most student microscopes are classified as light microscopes (see figure below). Visible light
passes and is bent through the lens system to enable the user to see the specimen. Light
microscopes are advantageous for viewing living organisms, but since individual cells are
generally transparent, their components are not distinguishable unless they are colored with
special stains. Staining, however, usually kills the cells. Light microscopes commonly used in the
undergraduate college laboratory magnify up to approximately 400 times.

Two parameters that are important in microscopy are magnification and resolving power.
Magnification is the process of enlarging an object in appearance. Resolving power is the ability
of a microscope to distinguish two adjacent structures as separate: the higher the resolution, the
better the clarity and detail of the image. When oil immersion lenses are used for the study of
small objects, magnification is usually increased to 1,000 times. In order to gain a better
understanding of cellular structure and function, scientists typically use electron microscopes.

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Light microscope (a) and Electron microscope (b)

Most light microscopes used in a college biology lab can magnify cells up to approximately 400
times and have a resolution of about 200 nanometers. (b) Electron microscopes provide a much
higher magnification, 100,000x, and a have a resolution of 50 picometers meters.

Electron Microscopes

In contrast to light microscopes, electron microscopes (see figure b above) use a beam of
electrons instead of a beam of light. Not only does this allow for higher magnification and, thus,
more detail, it also provides higher resolving power. The method used to prepare the specimen for
viewing with an electron microscope kills the specimen. Electrons have short wavelengths
(shorter than photons) that move best in a vacuum, so living cells cannot be viewed with an
electron microscope. In a scanning electron microscope, a beam of electrons moves back and forth
across a cell’s surface, creating details of cell surface characteristics. In a transmission electron
microscope, the electron beam penetrates the cell and provides details of a cell’s internal

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structures. As you might imagine, electron microscopes are significantly more bulky and
expensive than light microscopes.

Cell Theory

The microscopes we use today are far more complex than those used in the 1600s by Antony van
Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch shopkeeper who had great skill in crafting lenses. Despite the limitations
of his now-ancient lenses, van Leeuwenhoek observed the movements of protista (a type of
single-celled organism) and sperm, which he collectively termed “animalcules.”

In a 1665 publication called Micrographia, experimental scientist Robert Hooke coined the term
“cell” for the box-like structures he observed when viewing cork tissue through a lens. In the
1670s, van Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria and protozoa. Later advances in lenses, microscope
construction, and staining techniques enabled other scientists to see some components inside cells.

By the late 1830s, botanist Matthias Schleiden and zoologist Theodor Schwann were studying
tissues and proposed the unified cell theory, which states that all living things are composed of
one or more cells, the cell is the basic unit of life, new cells arise from existing cells, and cells
carry hereditary units. Rudolf Virchow later made important contributions to this theory.

Types of Cells

Cells fall into one of two broad categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Only the predominantly
single celled organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea are classified as prokaryotes (pro- =
“before”; -kary- =“nucleus”). Cells of animals, plants, fungi, and protists are all eukaryotes (eu- =
“true”) and are made up of eukaryotic cells.

Components of Prokaryotic Cells

All cells share four common components:

1) A plasma membrane, an outer covering that separates the cell’s interior from its surrounding
environment.
2) Cytoplasm, consisting of a jelly-like cytosol within the cell in which other cellular components
are found.
3) DNA, the genetic material of the cell.
4) Ribosomes, which synthesize proteins.
However, prokaryotes differ from eukaryotic cells in several ways. A prokaryote is a simple,
mostly single-celled (unicellular) organism that lacks a nucleus, or any other membrane-bound
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organelle. We will shortly come to see that this is significantly different in eukaryotes.
Prokaryotic DNA is found in a central part of the cell, the nucleoid.

Generalized structure of a prokaryotic cell.

Most prokaryotes have a peptidoglycan cell wall and many have a polysaccharide capsule. The
cell wall acts as an extra layer of protection, helps the cell maintain its shape, and prevents
dehydration. The capsule enables the cell to attach to surfaces in its environment. Some
prokaryotes have flagella, pili, or fimbriae. Flagella are used for locomotion. Pili are used to
exchange genetic material during a type of reproduction called conjugation. Fimbriae are used by
bacteria to attach to a host cell.

Cell size at 0.1 to 5.0 μm in diameter, prokaryotic cells are significantly smaller than eukaryotic
cells, which have diameters ranging from 10 to 100 μm. The small size of prokaryotes allows ions
and organic molecules that enter them to quickly diffuse to other parts of the cell. Similarly, any
wastes produced within a prokaryotic cell can quickly diffuse out. This is not the case in
eukaryotic cells, which have developed different structural adaptations to enhance intracellular
transport. Small size, in general, is necessary for all cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic. As a
cell increases in size, its surface area-to-volume ratio decreases. If the cell grows too large, the
plasma membrane will not have sufficient surface area to support the rate of diffusion required for
the increased volume. In other words, as a cell grows, it becomes less efficient. One way to
become more efficient is to divide; another way is to develop organelles that perform specific

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tasks. These adaptations lead to the development of more sophisticated cells called eukaryotic
cells.

Eukaryotic cells

Unlike prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells have:

1) A membrane-bound nucleus;
2) Numerous membrane-bound organelles such as the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
chloroplasts, mitochondria, and others; and
3) Several, rod-shaped chromosomes.

Because a eukaryotic cell’s nucleus is surrounded by a membrane, it is often said to have a “true
nucleus.” The word “organelle” means “little organ.” Organelles have specialized cellular
functions, just as the organs of your body have specialized functions. At this point, it should be
clear to you that eukaryotic cells have a more complex structure than prokaryotic cells. Organelles
allow different functions to be compartmentalized in different areas of the cell.

Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells

Cell component Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

Plasma membrane Present Present
Cytoplasm Present Present
Nucleolus Absent Present
Nucleus Absent Present
Ribosomes Absent Present
Mitochondria Absent Present
Peroxisomes Absent Present
Vesicles and vacuoles Absent Present
Centrosome Absent Present in animal cell, absent in plant cell
Lysosomes Absent Present in animal cell, absent in plant cell
Cell wall Present but primarily Absent in animal cell, present in plant cell
peptidoglycan but primarily cellulose
Chloroplasts Absent Absent in animal cell, present in plant cell
Endoplasmic Reticulum Absent Present

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Golgi apparatus Absent Present
Cytoskeleton Present Present

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS OF CELLULAR ORGANELLES

1) The Plasma Membrane

The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bi-layer with embedded proteins that separates the
internal contents of the cell from its surrounding environment. A phospholipid is a lipid molecule
with two fatty acid chains and a phosphate-containing group. The plasma membrane controls the
passage of organic molecules, ions, water, and oxygen into and out of the cell. Wastes (such as
carbon dioxide and ammonia) also leave the cell by passing through the plasma membrane. The
plasma membranes of cells that specialize in absorption are folded into finger like projections
called microvilli (singular = microvillus). Such cells are typically found lining the small intestine,
the organ that absorbs nutrients from digested food. People with celiac disease have an immune
response to gluten, which is a protein found in wheat, barley, and rye. The immune response
damages microvilli, and thus, afflicted individuals cannot absorb nutrients. This leads to
malnutrition, cramping, and diarrhea. Patients suffering from celiac disease must follow a
gluten-free diet.

Eukaryotic plasma membrane

2) The Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm is the entire region of a cell between the plasma membrane and the nuclear
envelope. It is made up of organelles suspended in the gel-like cytosol, the cytoskeleton, and
various chemicals. Even though the cytoplasm consists of 70 to 80 percent water, it has a semi-
solid consistency, which comes from the proteins within it. However, proteins are not the only
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organic molecules found in the cytoplasm. Glucose and other simple sugars, polysaccharides,
amino acids, nucleic acids, fatty acids, and derivatives of glycerol are found there, too. Ions of
sodium, potassium, calcium, and many other elements are also dissolved in the cytoplasm. Many
metabolic reactions, including protein synthesis, take place in the cytoplasm.

3) The Nucleus

Typically, the nucleus is the most prominent organelle in a cell. The nucleus (plural = nuclei)
houses the cell’s DNA and directs the synthesis of ribosome sand proteins. Let’s look at it in more
detail in the figure below;

The nucleus stores chromatin (DNA plus proteins) in a gel-like substance called the nucleoplasm.
The nucleolus is a condensed region of chromatin where ribosome synthesis occurs. The boundary
of the nucleus is called the nuclear envelope. It consists of two phospholipid bilayers: an outer
membrane and an inner membrane. The nuclear membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic
reticulum. Nuclear pores allow substances to enter and exit the nucleus.

The nuclear envelope is a double-membrane structure that constitutes the outermost portion of
the nucleus (see figure above). Both the inner and outer membranes of the nuclear envelope are
phospholipid bilayers. The nuclear envelope is punctuated with pores that control the passage of
ions, molecules, and RNA between the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm. The nucleoplasm is the semi-
solid fluid inside the nucleus, where we find the chromatin and the nucleolus.

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Chromatin and Chromosomes - To understand chromatin, it is helpful to first consider
chromosomes. Chromosomes are structures within the nucleus that are made up of DNA, the
hereditary material. You may remember that in prokaryotes, DNA is organized into a single
circular chromosome. In eukaryotes, chromosomes are linear structures. Every eukaryotic species
has a specific number of chromosomes in the nuclei of its body’s cells. For example, in humans,
the chromosome number is 46, while in fruit flies, it is eight. Chromosomes are only visible and
distinguishable from one another when the cell is getting ready to divide. When the cell is in the
growth and maintenance phases of its life cycle, proteins are attached to chromosomes, and they
resemble an unwound, jumbled bunch of threads. These unwound protein chromosome complexes
are called chromatin. Chromatin describes the material that makes up the chromosomes both when
condensed and decondensed.

4) Ribosomes

Ribosomes are the cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis. When viewed through an
electron microscope, ribosomes appear either as clusters (polyribosomes) or single, tiny dots that
float freely in the cytoplasm. They may be attached to the cytoplasmic side of the plasma
membrane or the cytoplasmic side of the endoplasmic reticulum and the outer membrane of the
nuclear envelope. Electron microscopy has shown us that ribosomes, which are large complexes
of protein and RNA, consist of two subunits, aptly called large and small (see figure below).
Ribosomes receive their “orders” for protein synthesis from the nucleus where the DNA is
transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA travels to the ribosomes, which translate
the code provided by the sequence of the nitrogenous bases in the mRNA into a specific order of
amino acids in a protein. Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins.

Because proteins synthesis is an essential function of all cells (including enzymes, hormones,
antibodies, pigments, structural components, and surface receptors), ribosomes are found in
practically every cell. Ribosomes are particularly abundant in cells that synthesize large amounts
of protein. For example, the pancreas is responsible for creating several digestive enzymes and the
cells that produce these enzymes contain many ribosomes.

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 Structure of the Ribosome

5) Mitochondria

Mitochondria (singular = mitochondrion) are often called the “powerhouses” or “energy factories”
of a cell because they are responsible for making adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell’s main
energy carrying molecule. ATP represents the short-term stored energy of the cell. Cellular
respiration is the process of making ATP using the chemical energy found in glucose and other
nutrients. In mitochondria, this process uses oxygen and produces carbon dioxide as a waste
product. In fact, the carbon dioxide that you exhale with every breath comes from the cellular
reactions that produce carbon dioxide as a byproduct. It is important to point out that muscle cells
have a very high concentration of mitochondria that produce ATP. Your muscle cells need a lot of
energy to keep your body moving. When your cells don’t get enough oxygen, they do not make a
lot of ATP. Instead, the small amount of ATP they make in the absence of oxygen is accompanied
by the production of lactic acid. Mitochondria are oval-shaped, double membrane organelles that
have their own ribosomes and DNA. Each membrane is a phospholipid bilayer embedded with
proteins. The inner layer has folds called cristae. The area surrounded by the folds is called the
mitochondrial matrix. The cristae and the matrix have different roles in cellular respiration.

6) Peroxisomes

Peroxisomes are small, round organelles enclosed by single membranes. They carry out oxidation
reactions that break down fatty acids and amino acids. They also detoxify many poisons that may
enter the body. (Many of these oxidation reactions release hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, which would
be damaging to cells; however, when these reactions are confined to peroxisomes, enzymes safely

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break down the H2O2 into oxygen and water.) For example, alcohol is detoxified by peroxisomes
in liver cells. Glyoxysomes, which are specialized peroxisomes in plants, are responsible for
converting stored fats into sugars.

7) Vesicles and Vacuoles

Vesicles and vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs that function in storage and transport. Other than
the fact that vacuoles are somewhat larger than vesicles, there is a very subtle distinction between
them: The membranes of vesicles can fuse with either the plasma membrane or other membrane
systems within the cell. Additionally, some agents such as enzymes within plant vacuoles
breakdown macro molecules. The membrane of a vacuole does not fuse with the membranes of
other cellular components.

Animal Cells versus Plant Cells

It is important to note that each eukaryotic cell has a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, a nucleus,
ribosomes, mitochondria, peroxisomes, and in some, vacuoles, but there are some striking
differences between animal and plant cells. While both animal and plant cells have microtubule
organizing centers (MTOCs), animal cells also have centrioles associated with the MTOC: a
complex called the centrosome. Animal cells each have a centrosome and lysosomes, whereas
plant cells do not. Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts and other specialized plastids, and a
large central vacuole, whereas animal cells do not.

8) The Centrosome

The centrosome is a microtubule-organizing center found near the nuclei of animal cells. It
contains a pair of centrioles, two structures that lie perpendicular to each other (see figure below).
Each centriole is a cylinder of nine triplets of microtubules.

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 Structure of the centrosome

The centrosome (the organelle where all microtubules originate) replicates itself before a cell
divides, and the centrioles appear to have some role in pulling the duplicated chromosomes to
opposite ends of the dividing cell. However, the exact function of the centrioles in cell division
isn’t clear, because cells that have had the centrosome removed can still divide, and plant cells,
which lack centrosomes, are capable of cell division.

9) Lysosomes

Animal cells have another set of organelles not found in plant cells: lysosomes. The lysosomes are
the cell’s “garbage disposal.” In plant cells, the digestive processes take place in vacuoles.
Enzymes within the lysosomes aid the breakdown of proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic
acids, and even worn-out organelles. These enzymes are active at a much lower pH than that of
the cytoplasm. Therefore, the pH within lysosomes is more acidic than the pH of the cytoplasm.
Many reactions that take place in the cytoplasm could not occur at a low pH, so again, the
advantage of compartmentalizing the eukaryotic cell into organelles is apparent.

10) The Cell Wall

The cell wall is a structure external to the plasma membrane. It is a rigid covering that protects the
cell, provides structural support, and gives shape to the cell. Fungal and protistan cells also have
cell walls. While the chief component of prokaryotic cell walls is peptidoglycan, the major
organic molecule in the plant cell wall is cellulose, a polysaccharide made up of glucose units.
Cellulose is a long chain of β-glucose molecules connected by a 1-4 linkage.

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11) Chloroplasts

Like the mitochondria, chloroplasts have their own DNA and ribosomes, but chloroplasts have an
entirely different function. Chloroplasts are plant cell organelles that carry out photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is the series of reactions that use carbon dioxide, water, and light energy to make
glucose and oxygen. This is a major difference between plants and animals; plants (autotrophs)
are able to make their own food, like sugars, while animals (heterotrophs) must ingest their food.
Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have outer and inner membranes, but within the space enclosed
by a chloroplast’s inner membrane is a set of interconnected and stacked fluid-filled membrane
sacs called thylakoids. Each stack of thylakoids is called a granum (plural = grana). The fluid
enclosed by the inner membrane that surrounds the grana is called the stroma. The chloroplasts
contain a green pigment called chlorophyll, which captures the light energy that drives the
reactions of photosynthesis. Like plant cells, photosynthetic protists also have chloroplasts. Some
bacteria perform photosynthesis, but their chlorophyll is not relegated to an organelle.

Structure of the chloroplast

12) The Central Vacuole

As stated earlier, vacuoles as essential components of plant cells. The central vacuole plays a key
role in regulating the cell’s concentration of water in changing environmental conditions. Have
you ever noticed that if you forget to water a plant for a few days, it wilts? That’s because as the
water concentration in the soil becomes lower than the water concentration in the plant, water
moves out of the central vacuoles and cytoplasm. As the central vacuole shrinks, it leaves the cell
wall unsupported. This loss of support to the cell walls of plant cells results in the wilted
appearance of the plant. The central vacuole also supports the expansion of the cell. When the

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central vacuole holds more water, the cell gets larger without having to invest a lot of energy in
synthesizing new cytoplasm.

13) The Endoplasmic Reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of interconnected membranous sacs and tubules that
collectively modifies proteins and synthesizes lipids. However, these two functions are performed
in separate areas of the ER: the rough ER and the smooth ER, respectively. The hollow portion of
the ER tubules is called the lumen or cisternal space. The membrane of the ER, which is a
phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins, is continuous with the nuclear envelope.

Rough ER

The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is so named because the ribosomes attached to its
cytoplasmic surface give it a studded appearance when viewed through an electron microscope.
Ribosomes transfer their newly synthesized proteins into the lumen of the RER where they
undergo structural modifications, such as folding or the acquisition of side chains. These modified
proteins will be incorporated into cellular membranes—the membrane of the ER or those of other
organelles—or secreted from the cell (such as protein hormones, enzymes). The RER also makes
phospholipids for cellular membranes. If the phospholipids or modified proteins are not destined
to stay in the RER, they will reach their destinations via transport vesicles that bud from the
RER’s membrane. Since the RER is engaged in modifying proteins (such as enzymes, for
example) that will be secreted from the cell, you would be correct in assuming that the RER is
abundant in cells that secrete proteins. This is the case with cells of the liver, for example.

Smooth ER

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) is continuous with the RER but has few or no
ribosomes on its cytoplasmic surface. Functions of the SER include synthesis of carbohydrates,
lipids, and steroid hormones; detoxification of medications and poisons; and storage of calcium
ions. In muscle cells, a specialized SER called the sarcoplasmic reticulum is responsible for
storage of the calcium ions that are needed to trigger the coordinated contractions of the muscle
cells.

14) The Golgi Apparatus

We earlier mentioned that vesicles can bud from the ER and transport their contents elsewhere,
but where do the vesicles go? Before reaching their final destination, the lipids or proteins within
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the transport vesicles still need to be sorted, packaged, and tagged so that they wind up in the right
place. Sorting, tagging, packaging, and distribution of lipids and proteins takes place in the Golgi
apparatus (also called the Golgi body), which is a series of flattened membranes.

The receiving side of the Golgi apparatus is called the cis face. The opposite side is called the
trans face. The transport vesicles that formed from the ER travel to the cis face, fuse with it, and
empty their contents into the lumen of the Golgi apparatus. As the proteins and lipids travel
through the Golgi, they undergo further modifications that allow them to be sorted. The most
frequent modification is the addition of short chains of sugar molecules. These newly modified
proteins and lipids are then tagged with phosphate groups or other small molecules so that they
can be routed to their proper destinations. Finally, the modified and tagged proteins are packaged
into secretory vesicles that bud from the trans face of the Golgi. While some of these vesicles
deposit their contents into other parts of the cell where they will be used, other secretory vesicles
fuse with the plasma membrane and release their contents outside the cell. Cells that engage in a
great deal of secretory activity (such as cells of the salivary glands that secrete digestive enzymes
or cells of the immune system that secrete antibodies) have an abundance of Golgi. In plant cells,
the Golgi apparatus has the additional role of synthesizing polysaccharides, some of which are
incorporated into the cell wall and some of which are used in other parts of the cell.

15) Lysosomes

In addition to their role as the digestive component and organelle-recycling facility of animal cells,
lysosomes are considered to be parts of the endomembrane system. Lysosomes also use their
hydrolytic enzymes to destroy pathogens (disease-causing organisms) that might enter the cell. A
good example of this occurs in a group of white blood cells called macrophages, which are part of
your body’s immune system. In a process known as phagocytosis or endocytosis, a section of the
plasma membrane of the macrophage invaginates (folds in) and engulfs a pathogen. The
invaginated section, with the pathogen inside, then pinches itself off from the plasma membrane
and becomes a vesicle. The vesicle fuses with a lysosome. The lysosome’s hydrolytic enzymes
then destroy the pathogen.

16) Cytoskeleton

Cytoskeleton is a network of protein fibers that help to maintain the shape of the cell, secure some
organelles in specific positions, allow cytoplasm and vesicles to move within the cell, and enable

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cells within multicellular organisms to move. There are three types of fibers within the
cytoskeleton: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules.

Microfilaments

Of the three types of protein fibers in the cytoskeleton, microfilaments are the narrowest. They
function in cellular movement, have a diameter of about 7 nm, and are made of two intertwined
strands of a globular protein called actin. For this reason, microfilaments are also known as actin
filaments.

Actin is powered by ATP to assemble its filamentous form, which serves as a track for the
movement of a motor protein called myosin. This enables actin to engage in cellular events
requiring motion, such as cell division in animal cells and cytoplasmic streaming, which is the
circular movement of the cell cytoplasm in plant cells. Actin and myosin are plentiful in muscle
cells. When your actin and myosin filaments slide past each other, your muscles contract.
Microfilaments also provide some rigidity and shape to the cell. They can depolymerize
(disassemble) and reform quickly, thus enabling a cell to change its shape and move. White blood
cells (your body’s infection-fighting cells) make good use of this ability. They can move to the
site of an infection and phagocytize the pathogen.

Intermediate Filaments

Intermediate filaments are made of several strands of fibrous proteins that are wound together.
These elements of the cytoskeleton get their name from the fact that their diameter, 8 to 10 nm, is
between those of microfilaments and microtubules. Intermediate filaments have no role in cell
movement. Their function is purely structural. They bear tension, thus maintaining the shape of
the cell, and anchor the nucleus and other organelles in place. They are the most diverse group of
cytoskeletal elements. Several types of fibrous proteins are found in the intermediate filaments.
You are probably most familiar with keratin, the fibrous protein that strengthens your hair, nails,
and the epidermis of the skin.

Microtubules

As their name implies, microtubules are small hollow tubes. The walls of the microtubule are
made of polymerized dimers of α-tubulin and β-tubulin, two globular proteins. With a diameter of
about 25 nm, microtubules are the widest components of the cytoskeleton. They help the cell
resist compression, provide a track along which vesicles move through the cell, and pull replicated

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 chromosomes to opposite ends of a dividing cell. Like microfilaments, microtubules can dissolve
and reform quickly. Microtubules are also the structural elements of flagella, cilia, and centrioles
(the latter are the two perpendicular bodies of the centrosome). In fact, in animal cells, the
centrosome is the microtubule organizing center.

Summarized form of functions of cellular organelles

S/N Cellular Organelle Function

1 Plasma membrane Separates cell from external environment; controls passage of organic
molecules, ions, water, oxygen, and wastes into and out of cell

2 Cytoplasm Provides turgor pressure to plant cells as fluid inside the central vacuole;
site of many metabolic reactions; medium in which organelles are found.

3 Nucleolus Darkened area within the nucleus where ribosomal subunits are synthesized.

4 Nucleus Cell organelle that houses DNA and directs synthesis of ribosomes and
proteins.

5 Ribosomes Protein synthesis

6 Mitochondria ATP production/cellular respiration.

7 Peroxisomes Oxidizes and thus breaks down fatty acids and amino acids, and detoxifies
poisons.

8 Vesicles and vacuoles Storage and transport; digestive function in plant cells.

9 Centrosome Unspecified role in cell division in animal cells; source of microtubules in

animal cells.

10 Lysosomes Digestion of macromolecules; recycling of worn-out organelles.

11 Cell wall Protection, structural support and maintenance of cell shape.

12 Chloroplasts Photosynthesis

13 Endoplasmic reticulum Modifies proteins and synthesizes lipids.

14 Golgi apparatus Modifies, sorts, tags, packages, and distributes lipids and proteins.

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15 Cytoskeleton Maintains cell’s shape, secures organelles in specific positions, allows
cytoplasm and vesicles to move within cell, and enables unicellular
organisms to move independently.

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TOPIC 3: CHARACTERISTICS AND CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

Characteristics of Living Things

To say an organism exists, is the same thing as saying that it is full of life, it is alive, it is full of
energy. The list of things that living things do to qualify them as living things and differentiates
them from non -living things is generally referred to as the characteristics of living things.

All living things manifest certain characteristics. They demonstrate the ability to use energy
from the environment for survival and carry out their various activities. For continuous
survival, protoplasm must be added. Waste must be gotten rid of. New ones or offspring must be
produced. Ten characteristics distinguish living things from non-living things. The characteristics
of living things can be remembered by the acronym “MR NIGER DAC”, where M = Movement,
R = Reproduction, N = Nutrition, I = Irritability, G = Growth, E = Excretion, R = Respiration, D
= Death, A = Adaptation and C = Competition.

Ingestion

All living things feed one way or the other. They take in food for many reasons, chief among
these is for energy purposes. The organism needs energy to carry out all the other activities
associated with living things. There are two kinds of living things, plant and animal. Plant
manufacture food using basic materials such as light energy. Animals depend on plants for food.

Assimilation

Living organisms utilize food (nutrients) to maintain life. This is done by a process called
metabolism. It is a chemical process involved in keeping the life of the organism going. There
are two aspects of metabolism:

(a) Anabolism (the build-up of substances synthesized from simpler substances, e.g. photosynthesis)

(b) Catabolism (the breakdown of substances e.g respiration, digestion, etc.).

Growth

Growth simply put is increase of materials in an organism. This is done in stages, a unicellular
organism increases its protoplasm while a multicellular organism increases the number of cells,
and every living cell is made up of protoplasm.

Excretion

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All living organisms get rid of unwanted products (wastes). As a result of cell activities in the
protoplasm, many materials formed (byproducts) which are not beneficial to the cell and if left
will cause harm to the cell.

Reproduction

All cells of living organisms multiply or divide. This multiplication or division enables the
organism to perpetuate their species. Reproduction can take different forms:

(a) Fission into two or more parts

(b) Fusion of protoplasmic material from two sources (i.e. male and female gametes) resulting in
an offspring.

Responsiveness

Living organisms respond to forces or anything external, or even internal, i.e. any stimuli in the
environment. It could be change of weather. Organisms do this by many methods.

Co-ordination and Regulation

Chemical and physical changes in the organism are involved in all these activities. There is a
general process of co-ordination and regulation by enzymes to keep the system of the organisms
balanced and unified. Materials are exchanged, energy is exchanged between the organism and its
environment.

Looking through all the activities of living things, energy seems to be a linking factor between all
the activities. Each of the activities needs energy to be carried out.

Classification of organisms

Classification is the process of assigning organisms to groups within a system of categories

distinguished by structure, origin etc.

Why classifying organisms?

i. There are many organisms in the world. A lot of knowledge has been gathered on them.
Classification makes summarisation of information on the organisms possible hence save time
in information sharing.
ii. It is a means of identification and communication on organisms.
iii. It facilitates prediction.

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Types of classification
There are two types of classification, which are natural and artificial. Scientific classification falls
under natural classification
1. Natural Classification
This classifies objects together on the basis of the sum total of all their characters (features which
exist in the group of objects in two or more distinguishable different states e.g. hair colour, eye
colour in human). It puts together those that are more alike in most respects
2. Artificial Classification
This classifies objects together on the basis of only one or a very few specially selected characters
and ignores all the other characters that the objects might have.
 It does not take into account the natural relationship among organisms.
 However, it is useful in other field such as horticulture.

Comparison of artificial and natural classification

Natural Artificial
Basis of classification
Basis of classification
It utilises the sum-total of all the characters It utilises one or very few characters of its
of its members members that are especially selected
Groups together organisms most alike in May not group organisms that are most
their hereditary constitution closely related phylogenetically
Generally groups together organisms most May fail to group organisms that are
closely related phylogenetically closely related phylogenetically
Contains a lot of information about Contains limited information about its
members of the group members
Additional information of its members can More information about its members
easily be incorporated cannot be easily incorporated
Has a high predictive value Low predictive value

Disadvantages Advantages
Identification of members may be difficult Identification of members is made easy
Placing of poorly known organisms may be Poorly known members may be definitely
uncertain or impossible placed
It is liable to change as more information is Does not change with increase in our
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gathered on the organisms knowledge about the organisms

Scientific systems of classification go beyond the superficial or natural system by employing a

number of criteria that include morphological, anatomical, ultrastructural physiological,
phytochemical, cytological and evolutionary (phylogenetical) criteria. Individual members are
assigned to a descending series of related organisms based on their known common characteristics.

Taxonomic hierarchy

Living things are first separated into large groups called kingdoms. The division of kingdoms into
smaller groups is called phyla (singular: phylum). The term division rather than phylum is usually
for plants. Phyla are divided into smaller groups called classes. Each class is further divided into
orders. Orders are further divided into families. Families are again divided into genera (singular:
genus). A genus is broken into species
1. Kingdom
2. Phylum/ division
3. Class
4. Order
5. Family
6. Genus
7. Species

A species is a population of related organisms that can interbreed within themselves freely to
produce viable and fertile offspring. It is unit of classification. Thus a genus is a group of closely
related species. A family is group of related genera. An order is a group related families. A class
is a group of related orders. A phylum/division is a group of classes. While a kingdom is a group
of related phyla.

Classification of a named plant species using taxonomic hierarchy

Taxon Example
Kingdom Plantae
Phylum Magnoliophyta
Class Liliopsida
Order Liliales

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Family Liliaceae
Genus Allium
Species Allium cepa

Classification of a named animal using taxonomic hierarchy

Taxon Example
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Mammalian
Order Primate
Family Hominidae
Genus Homo
Species Homo sapiens

Kingdom Classification of Living Organisms

In biology, Kingdoms are the highest taxonomic groups of living organisms. Biologists since the
time of Aristotle (384-322 BC) have divided the living world into two kingdoms, Plants and
animals.

Two Kingdoms Classification:

In his Systema Naturae, first published in 1735, Carolus Linnaeus distinguished two kingdoms of
living things: Animalia for animals and Plantae (Vegetabilia) for plants. He classified all living
organisms into two kingdoms – on the basis of nutrition and locomotion (mobility).

Linnaeus placed unicellular protozoans and multicellular animals (metazoans) under animal
kingdom because of their compact body, holozoic nutrition (ingestion of food) and locomotion.
All other organisms were grouped under plant kingdom because of their immobility, spread out
appearance and autotrophic mode of nutrition. Thus, the traditional plant kingdom comprised
bacteria, algae, plants and fungi.

Demerits or Limitations:
(a) The two kingdom system of classification did not indicate any evolutionary relationship
between plants and animals.
(b) It grouped together the prokaryotes with eukaryotes.
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(c) It also grouped unicellular and multi-cellular organisms together.
(d) This system did not distinguish the heterotrophic fungi and the autotrophic green plants.
(e) Dual organisms like Euglena and lichens did not fall into either kingdom.
(f) Slime mould, a type of fungi, can neither be grouped in fungi nor plants. This is because they
are wall less and holozoic in vegetative stage, but develop cell wall in the reproductive stage.
(g) It did not mention some acellular organisms like viruses and viroids.
Five Kingdoms Classification
R.H. Whittaker, an American Taxonomist in 1969, classified all organisms into five kingdoms:
Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animal. He used the following criteria for classification:
(i) Complexity of cell structure
(ii) Complexity of body organization
(iii) Mode of nutrition
(iv) Life style (ecological role) and
(v) Phylogenetic relationship.
Monera (Kingdom of Prokaryotes):
 The members of this kingdom are microscopic prokaryotes.
 Monerans are mostly unicellular. But some are mycelial, filamentous or colonial.
 The cells are prokaryotic with one envelope system or organization.
 Cell wall usually present (except Mycoplasma) which composed of peptidoglycan or murein.
 True nucleus and other membrane bounded organelles absent.
 Genetic material is a circular naked DNA (without histone proteins) lies coiled near the center of
cell called nucleoid.
 More than one structural genes (cistrons) arranged together and regulated in units called operons
 Ribosomes 70s type. (30S + 50S type)
 Cytoskeleton (microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments) absent.
 Flagella if present consists of flagellant proteins.
 Nutrition may be autotrophic (photoautotrophic or chemoautotrophic). Saprotrophic, parasitic or
symbiotic.
 Reproduction mainly occurs by binary fission. Sexual reproduction (Gamete formation) absent.
In some cases, genetic recombination occurs.
 They are the important decomposers and mineralizes and help in recycling of nutrients in
biosphere.
 Most are found in deep ocean floor, hot deserts, hot springs and even inside other organisms.

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 Monera includes archeabacteria, bacteria, cyanobacteria and filamentous actinomycetes.
Protista (Kingdom of Unicellular eukaryotes):
 The members are unicellular and colonial eukaryotes.
 Most of them are aquatic and constitute plankton.
 Their eukaryotic cell body contains membrane bounded cell organelles like nucleus,
mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex etc.
 They may have cilia or flagella for their movements which show 9 + 2 arrangements of
microtubules.
 On the basis of nutrition, the protists are grouped as: (a) Photosynthetic protists (protistan
algae) like diatoms, dinoflagellates and euglenoids. They are known as phytoplankton’s. (b)
Consumer- decomposer protists (slime moulds) and (c) Predator protists (Protozoans).
 Both asexual and sexual modes of reproduction are present.
Fungi (Kingdom of Multi-cellular decomposers):
 The members are achlorophyllus, spore-bearing eukaryotic thallophytes.
 It includes unicellular yeasts and multi-cellular mycelial forms but not slime moulds.
 Cell wall composed of chitin (fungal cellulose), a nitrogen containing carbohydrate.
 Their mode of nutrition is saprobiotic or parasitic. They can also live as symbionts in
association with algae as in Lichens and with roots of higher plants as in mycorrhiza.
 They help in decomposition of organic matter and help in recycling of minerals.
 Vegetative reproduction takes place by fragmentation, fission and budding.
 Asexual reproduction takes place by motile spores (zoospores) or non-motile spores
(condia, oidia, aplanospores or chlamydospores).
 Sexual reproduction occurs by oospores, ascospores and basidiospores. Sexual
reproduction involves three steps: (a) Plasmogamy (fusion of protoplasm between motile
or non-motile gametes, (b) karyogamy (fusion of two nuclei) and (c) Meiosis in Zygote
producing haploid spores.
 Fungi include Phycomycetes (e.g. Mucor, Rhizopus, Albugo etc.), Ascomycetes (e.g.
Saccharomyces, Penicillium, Aspergillus, Claviceps, Neurospora etc.), Basidiomycetes
(e.g. Agaricus, Mushrooms; Ustilago, Smuts; and Puccinia, rust fungi), Deuteromycetes.
Plantae (Kingdom of Multicellular Producers):
 Their members are Multicellular, eukaryotic, chlorophyll-containing organisms. A few are
parasitic (e.g. Cuscuta) or partially heterotrophic such as insectivorous plants (e.g.
bladderwort, Venus fly trap, Sun few, Pitcher Plant etc.)

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  Their cells are eukaryotic with plastids and cell wall composed of cellulose.
 Life cycle exhibit alternation between diploid sporophyte and the haploid gametophyte.
This Phenomenon is called alternation of generation.

Classification of plants

Botanical classification of plants divides plant kingdom into five groups. These are

 Schizophyta (bacteria)
 Thallophyta (the algea and fungi)
 Bryophyta (the liverworts and mosses
 Pteridophyta (the ferns)
 Spermatophyta (seed bearing plants). The spermatophyte consists of gymnosperms and
angiosperms (flowering plants).

Other classification may be based on life cycle (e.g Annual, Biennial and perennial, economic
uses and number of cotyledons (Monocots and Dicots)
Animalia (Kingdom of Multicellular consumers):
 The members are eukaryotic Multicellular heterotrophic consumers.
 Cells lack cell walls. They contain glycogen or fat as reserve food.
 The organization may be cellular level (porifera), tissue level (colenterates), organ level
(Platyhelminthes and Nemathelminthcs) and Organ system level (Annelids, Arthropods,
Molluscs, Echinoderms and Chordates).
 Symmetry may be radial, biradial, bilateral or asymmetrical.
 On the basis of number of germ layers in embryonic gastrula, animals are diploblastic and
triploblastic.
 On the basis of presence or absence of coelom (body cavity), animals may be coelornates,
pseudocoelomates or acoelomates.

Classification of animals

The animal kingdom (Animalia) is divided into two sub-kingdoms namely invertebrates (animal
without backbone and vertebrates (animal with backbone)

a.Invertebrates consist of the following phyla:

1. Protozoa (amoeba, paramecium, plasmodium,

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2. Coelenterata (hydra, obelia sea anemones, jelly fish, coral)
3. Platyhelminthes (Tapeworm, planaria, liver flukes)
4. Nematoda (roundworm (Ascaris) hookworm, threadworm, guinea worm)
5. Annelida (tubeworm, leech, earthworm)
6. Mollusca (snail. Squid, octopus)
7. Echinodermata (Starfish, sea urchin)
8. Arthropoda (Mosquito, crab, millipede, centipede, tick, cockroach, housefly, bed bugs
b.Vertebrates
1. Pisces or fishes (Tilapia, Clarias, shark
2. Amphibia (frog, toad, etc.)
3. Reptiles (lizard, snake, tortoise, crocodile)
4. Aves (duck, eagle, vulture, parrot)
5. Mammalia (cat, rat, horse, grorilla, rabbit goat, man)

Merits and Demerits of Five Kingdom:

Merits:
 Kingdom animalia become more homogenous with the separation of protozoa.
 Kingdom plantae also become more homogeneous with the exclusion of bacteria, fungi
and some unicellular algal forms.
 Separation of prokaryotes into a separate kingdom – Monera is due for long time.
 Separation of fungi from plants is a wise step.
 Separation of intermediate or transitional forms of unicellular eukaryotes into kingdom –
Protista is well thought out. So that the plant and animal kingdoms become more
systematic.
 It brings our phylogenetic relationships in the living world.
Demerits:
 The Monera and Protista kingdoms are still heterogenous because both include autotrophic
and heterotrophic forms and some with or without cell wall.
 Phyolgeny in lower organisms is not fully reflected.
 Slime moulds don’t fit in kingdom protista.
 Red and brown algae are not related to other members of kingdom plantae.
 Viruses have not been included in this system of classification.

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Classification of Living Things Based on Oxygen utilization

Living things can also be classified into three groups, based on their oxygen requirement:

(a) Aerobic - those that use free oxygen to breakdown complex compound

(b) Anaerobic - those that can respire without oxygen

(c) Those that can exist with or without oxygen, e.g. yeast.

Energy is needed for the organism to move from place to place (locomotion). Plant cells do not
move like animal cells, but there is movement within the cells of a plant i.e. movement of the
protoplasm.

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TOPIC 4: GENERAL REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is a biological process by which an organism reproduces an offspring that is
biologically similar to the organism. Reproduction enables and ensures the continuity of species,
generation after generation. It is the main feature of life on earth.
Types of Reproduction
There are basically two types of reproduction:

1. Asexual Reproduction
2. Sexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction refers to the type of reproduction in which only a single organism gives rise
to a new individual. It does not involve the fusion of gametes, and therefore, the offspring
produced are genetically identical to the parent. The organisms produced by asexual reproduction
are less diverse in nature. This type of reproduction is practised widely by unicellular organisms.
The process involves rapid population growth and no mate is required for the process. However, a
lack of genetic diversity makes organisms more susceptible to diseases and nutrition deficiencies.
Asexual reproduction is further divided into:

1. Binary Fission: In this, the cell splits into two, each cell carrying a copy of the DNA from
the parent cell. E.g. Amoeba.

2. Budding: In this, a small bud-like outgrowth gives rise to a new individual. The
outgrowth remains attached to the organism until it is fully grown. It detaches itself and
lives as an individual organism. E.g. Hydra

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 3. Fragmentation: In this, the parent organism splits into several parts and each part grows
into a new individual. E.g. Planaria
4. Sporogenesis: In this type of asexual reproduction, a new organism grows from the spores.
These can be created without fertilization and can spread through wind and animals.

Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that involves the production of an offspring by the
fusion of male and female gametes. In sexual reproduction, male and female gametes are formed
to produce an offspring. These gametes are either formed by the same individual or by different
individuals of the opposite sex.

The process of sexual reproduction is usually slow and complex compared to asexual reproduction.
The organisms so produced are genetically diverse. Thus, they can evolve along with the changing
climatic conditions. Humans and many multicellular organisms exhibit a sexual mode of
reproduction.

Reproduction in Plants

Plants reproduce by sexual and asexual means. Vegetative reproduction is the main mode of plant
reproduction. Roots such as a corm, stem tuber, rhizomes and stolon undergo vegetative
propagation.

Asexual Reproduction in Plants

In asexual reproduction in plants, plants are reproduced without the formation of seeds. Following
are a few ways in which plants reproduce asexually.

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Vegetative Propagation

As the name suggests, reproduction occurs through the vegetative parts of a plant such as stems,
leaves, buds, and roots. These plants take less time to grow and are exact replicas of their parents
as they are reproduced from a single parent.

Budding

Small bulb-like projections arise from yeast cells, eventually detaching itself from the parent cell.
This then matures to grow into a new yeast cell. These, in turn, produce more buds and the chain
continues forming a number of new yeast cells within a short period of time.

Fragmentation

Some organisms have the ability to break into two or more fragments, with the new fragment
becoming a new, independent individual. They multiply rapidly in a short period of time.

Spore Formation

Spores are present in the air and are covered by a hard protective coat to bear low humidity and
high-temperature conditions. Spores germinate and develop into new organisms under favourable
conditions.

Micropropagation

An explant is taken from a plant and allowed to grow in a nutrient medium under controlled
conditions in the laboratory. The cells divided rapidly and form an unorganised mass of cells. This
unorganised mass of cells is known as a callus. The callus is transferred to
another nutrient medium to facilitate the differentiation of different parts of the plant. The
plantlets are then transferred to the fields.

Advantages of Asexual Reproduction in Plants

 A large number of plants can be produced within a short period.

 The exact copies of the parent plant are produced.
 Many seedless varieties are obtained through the vegetative method.
 Less attention is required by the plants grown through asexual means than through seeds.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants

Sexual reproduction in plants takes place through pollination in which the pollen grains from the
anther of a male flower transfer to the stigma of the female flower. A few plants produce seeds

34
without fertilization and the process is called apomixis. Here, the ovule or the ovary gives rise to
new seeds.

The reproductive parts of plants are flowers, Stamen being male reproductive part and pistil being
the female reproductive part. If one of these reproductive parts are present in a flower, it is said to
be a unisexual flower. Example: papaya. If both Stamen and Pistil are present in flowers they are
called bisexual flowers. Example: rose.

Pollen grains form the male gametes. The pistil consists of style, stigma, and the Ovary. The
ovary consists of one or more ovules. Ovules are where female gametes or the egg is formed.
Female and male gametes fuse to form a zygote.

Pollination

When pollen is transferred from the anther to the stigma of a flower through carriers such as
insects it is called pollination. It can be a case of self-pollination if pollen lands on the stigma of
the same flower or another flower of the same plant. If pollen grains land on the stigma of a
flower of a different plant, but of the same kind, it is called cross-pollination.

Fertilization

A zygote is formed as a result of the fusion of gametes which later develops into the embryo.
Fruits and seeds are formed post-fertilization. Ripened ovary goes on to become a fruit. Ovules
give rise to seeds which contain the embryo in a protective covering.

Reproduction in Animals
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes. This process is known as
fertilization. Fertilization can be external or internal. External fertilization is the process in which
the male sperm fertilizes the female egg outside the female’s body. On the contrary, in internal
fertilization, the fusion of male and female gametes takes place inside the body of the female.

Reproductive Organs
The male reproductive organs comprise a pair of testes, sperm ducts, and a penis. The sperms are
produced by the testes. The sperms are very small in size with a head, a middle piece, and a tail.

35
The female reproductive organs comprise a pair of ovaries, oviducts, and the uterus. The eggs
(ova) are produced by the ovaries. The development of the baby takes place in the uterus. A
mature egg is released into the oviduct every month.

Process of Sexual Reproduction in Animals

Fertilization
The semen contains millions of sperm. A single sperm fuses with the ova during fertilization. The
nuclei of the egg and the sperm fuse together to form a single nucleus. Thus, a zygote is formed.
Fertilization is of two types:
Internal Fertilization
The fertilization that takes place inside the body of the female is known as internal fertilization.
For eg., humans, cows, dogs, etc. This method is more prevalent in terrestrial animals. However,
some aquatic animals also adopt this method. This may take place by direct introduction of
sperms by the male in the female reproductive tract, or the male deposits the sperms in the
environment which is picked up by the female in her reproductive tract.
There are three ways by which offspring are produced by internal fertilization:
1. Oviparity– The fertilized eggs are laid outside, where they receive nourishment from the yolk.
2. Ovoviviparity– The fertilized eggs are retained in the female’s body where they receive
nourishment from the yolk. The eggs are laid right before they are hatched.
3. Viviparity– The offspring are born directly instead of hatching from the eggs. They receive
nutrition from the mother. This can be seen in mammals.
External Fertilization
The fertilization that takes place outside the female is called external fertilization. For eg., frogs,
and fish. Most fertilization takes place during the process of spawning. Environmental signals
such as water temperature trigger spawning.
Embryo Development
The zygote divides repeatedly to form a ball of cells. This is known as the developing embryo.
These cells differentiate into respective tissues and organs. The embryo gets implanted in the
uterine wall. This process is known as implantation.
When all the body parts of the embryo start being visible, it is called a foetus. The child is
developed after nine months in humans.

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Viviparous and Oviparous Animals
Oviparous and viviparous animals are two different groups of animals, which are classified on the
basis of fertilization. The main difference between oviparous and viviparous animals are listed
below:

Asexual Reproduction in Animals

Besides sexual reproduction, the other major type of reproduction seen in the animal kingdom is
asexual reproduction. This type of reproduction is mostly observed in lower organisms and
unicellular microbes.
It is the process in which a new individual is formed by the involvement of a single parent without
the involvement of the gamete formation. The individuals produced are genetically and
morphologically similar. The cells divide by mitotic division and no fertilization takes place. The
division occurs very rapidly.

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Types of Asexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction is of the following types:

Binary Fission
It is seen in amoeba and euglena. The parent cell undergoes mitosis and increases in size. The
nucleus also divides. Two identical daughter cells are obtained, each containing a nucleus.
Prokaryotes like bacteria majorly reproduce by binary fission.

Budding

In this, the offspring grows out of the body of the parent. It remains attached to the parent until it
matures. After maturation, it detaches itself from the parent and lives as an individual organism.
This form of reproduction is most common in Hydras.

Fragmentation

In some organisms like Planarians, when the body of an organism breaks into several pieces each
piece grows into an individual offspring. This is known as fragmentation. It can occur through
accidental damage by predators or otherwise, or as a natural form of reproduction. In a few
animals such as sea stars, a broken arm grows into a complete organism.

Regeneration
It is a modified form of fragmentation and occurs mostly in Echinoderms. When a part of an
organism, like an arm, detaches from the parent body, it grows into a completely new individual.
This is known as regeneration.

Parthenogenesis
This is a form of asexual reproduction where the egg develops without fertilization. This process
occurs in bees, wasps, ants, aphids, rotifers, etc. Ants, wasps, and bees produce haploid males.
Parthenogenesis has been observed in a few vertebrates such as hammerhead sharks, Komodo
dragons, and blacktop sharks when the females were isolated from the males.

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TOPIC 5: BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATIONS/INTERRELATIONS OF ORGANISMS

Populations rarely, if ever, live in isolation from populations of other species. All populations
occupying the same habitat form a community (populations of multiple species inhabiting a
specific area at the same time). The number of species occupying the same habitat and their
relative abundance is known as species diversity. Areas with low diversity, such as the glaciers of
Antarctica, still contain a wide variety of living things, whereas the diversity of tropical
rainforests is so great that it cannot be counted. Ecology is studied at the community level to
understand how species interact with each other and compete for the same resources.

The interactions among populations of different species play a major role in regulating population
growth and abundance. A species interaction is the effect that a pair of organisms living together
in a community have on each other. Interactions range from mutualism, which benefits both
species involved, to competition, which harms both species involved. Interactions can be indirect,
through intermediaries such as shared resources or common enemies.

Species interactions may be short-term, like pollination and predation, or long-term; both often
strongly influence the evolution of the species involved. Short-term interactions are short-lived in
terms of the duration of a single interaction: a predator kills and eats a prey; a pollinator transfers
pollen from one flower to another; but they are extremely durable in terms of their influence on
the evolution of both partners. As a result, the partners co-evolve.

Competition

Competition can be defined as an interaction between organisms or species, in which the fitness of
one is lowered by the presence of another. Competition is often for a resource such as food, water,
or territory in limited supply, or for access to females for reproduction. Competition among
members of the same species is known as intraspecific competition, while competition between
individuals of different species is known as interspecific competition.

According to the competitive exclusion principle, no two species with the same ecological niche
can coexist, and the species less suited to compete for resources should either adapt or die out.
Competition within and between species for resources plays a critical role in natural selection.

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Mutualism

A mutualism is an interaction between two or more species, where both species derive a mutual
benefit. One or both species involved in the interaction may be obligate, meaning they cannot
survive in the short or long term without the other species (obligate mutualism). In other cases,
though both species benefit, they may not need the mutualistic interaction to survive (facultative
mutualism). Though mutualism has historically received less attention than other interactions
such as predation, it is an ecologically important interaction. Examples include:

(a)Termites form a mutualistic relationship with symbiotic protozoa in their guts, which allow
both organisms to obtain energy from the cellulose the termite consumes.
(b) Lichen is a fungus that has symbiotic photosynthetic algae living inside its cells.
(c) Pollination and seed dispersal: In pollination, pollinators including insects (entomophily),
some birds (ornithophily), and some bats, transfer pollen from a male flower part to a female
flower part, enabling fertilization, in return for a reward of pollen or nectar. Plants and pollinators
are often coevolved. Insect-pollinated flowers have bright colors, patterns, scent, nectar, and
sticky pollen to attract insects, guide them to pick up and deposit pollen, and reward pollinators.
Conversely, pollinator insects like bees are adapted to detect flowers by color, pattern, and scent,
to collect pollen (such as with bristles shaped to form pollen baskets on their hind legs), and
nectar.

Seed dispersal is the movement, spread or transport of seeds. Plants have limited mobility and rely
upon a variety of dispersal vectors to transport their propagules, including both abiotic vectors
such as the wind and living (biotic) vectors like birds. Patterns of seed dispersal are determined in
large part by the dispersal mechanism and this has important implications for the demographic
and genetic structure of plant populations, as well as migration patterns and species interactions.
There are five main modes of seed dispersal: gravity, wind, ballistic, water, and animals.

Antagonistic Interactions
Predation
In predation, one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. Predators are
adapted and often highly specialized for hunting, with acute senses such as vision, hearing, or
smell. Many predatory animals, both vertebrate and invertebrate, have sharp claws or jaws to grip,
kill, and cut up their prey. Other adaptations include stealth and aggressive mimicry that improve

40
hunting efficiency. Predation has a powerful selective effect on prey, causing them to develop
antipredator adaptations such as warning coloration, alarm calls and other signals, camouflage and
defensive spines and chemicals. Predation has been a major driver of evolution since at least the
Cambrian period. Predators control the population dynamics of their prey and vice versa and
ecologists model these dynamics using coupled equations known as the Lotka-Volterra predator-
prey model.

Herbivory

Herbivory is a form of consumption in which an organism principally eats autotrophs such

as plants, algae and photosynthesizing bacteria. More generally, organisms that feed
on autotrophs in general are known as primary consumers. Herbivory is usually limited to
animals that eat plants. Insect herbivory can cause a variety of physical and metabolic alterations
in the way the host plant interacts with itself and other surrounding biotic factors.

Parasitism

Parasitism is a relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or in
another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life.
The parasite either feeds on the host, or, in the case of intestinal parasites, consumes some of its
food. Not all parasites kill their hosts, but some do. Parasitoids are parasites that lay their eggs
within a host. The larvae of parasitoids eventually hatch out of the host’s body, killing the host.

Other Types of Interactions

Amensalism
Amensalism is an interaction where an organism inflicts harm to another organism without any
costs or benefits received by itself. Amensalism describes the adverse effect that one organism has
on another organism. A classic example of amensalism is where sheep or cattle trample grass.
Whilst the presence of the grass causes negligible detrimental effects to the animal's hoof, the
grass suffers from being crushed.
Commensalism

Commensalism benefits one organism while the other organism neither benefits nor is harmed. A
good example is a remora living with a manatee. Remoras feed on the manatee's feces, and

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therefore benefits from this interaction. The manatee is not affected by this interaction, as the
remora does not deplete the manatee's resources.

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TOPIC 6: VARIATION
Evolution begins with the inheritance of new genetic variation. Variation refers to the
differences in the genetic make-up among individuals of the same species. Variation can exist in
all cells of the body, but is only passed on to the next generation when it is present in the gametes.
In this way, genetic variation can influence future generations and alter the genetic pool of the
population.
Having a large gene pool with lots of variation within it improves the biological fitness of the
species, and allows them to adapt and survive intense periods of selection. This is because
diversity in the genetic information allows the population to remain flexible to changes in their
environment. Lots of different combinations of genes variants confer different advantages under
different conditions such as climate changes and disease resistance).
Variation is crucial in the process of evolution of a species, as genetic diversity is a factor
enabling natural selection to occur. That is, certain variants are selected for and against based on
the environment. Different versions of a gene (or variants) that are present within the population
are called alleles.
Causes of variation in a population
There are several causes of variation within a population:

1. Mutations
Mutations occur when the sequence of a DNA is changed, and can arise spontaneously by errors
during DNA replication. Mutations can include the deletion or substitution of individual
nucleotides or larger sections of DNA.
Many mutations are harmful to the organism, but, occasionally, a new allele could be created that
benefits the organism. This could lead to the organism being more likely to reach sexual maturity
and reproduce. Therefore, the mutation will be selected for, and be increased in frequency in the
gene pool. This advantageous allele is inherited by members of the next generation. One single
mutation can have a large effect on a phenotype, but usually evolution of new phenotypes is based
on the accumulation of lots of mutations over time.
2. Gene flow
Gene flow is the movement of genes from one population to another. This occurs in plants when
they send their pollen by wind (or it is carried by insects) to pollinate other populations some
distance away, or in animals when individuals travel from one geographic location to another.
This flow of individuals in and out of the group changes the gene pool within the previous

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population and introduces new genetic information to other population. Conversely, continuous
gene flow between two populations can lead to a combination of the two gene pools, reducing the
genetic variation between both groups.

3. Genetic drift
Genetic drift describes variation in the frequency of different genotypes in a small population,
because of random fluctuations in allele frequencies. This can cause chance disappearance of
certain alleles (usually the rarer alleles), biasing the variation present in a population. This is
common after an event such as a natural disaster causes a genetic bottleneck, where the
population is drastically reduced. Genetic drift can also cause a newly isolated population to be
genetically distinct from the original population, which has led many to believe that genetic drift
can be involved in the evolution of new species.
4. Sexual reproduction and random fertilization
Sexual reproduction occurs through the joining of a male and female gamete, a process
called fertilization. Gametes have only half (one copy) of the genetic information stored within
other cells of the body, and can therefore combine with another gamete to produce offspring with
a complete set of genetic information. Sexual reproduction therefore produces offspring carrying
genetic information from both parents, producing variety through the random combining of new
genetic material. Sexual reproduction can introduce new gene combinations into a population.
This genetic shuffling is another important source of genetic variation.
5. Meiosis
Meiosis is the special kind of cell division that produces haploid gametes from diploid cells. A
crucial part of meiosis is when homologous chromosomes pair up during prophase I. When they
pair, they also exchange pieces of DNA with each other in a process called crossing-
over or recombination. This generates a new opportunity for genetic variation, as it results in the
shuffling of alleles on each chromosome to create new combinations of genes.
Types of variation
There are two types of variation; continuous variation and discontinuous variation.

1. Continuous or morphological variation

This refers to the type of variation in which a given trait shows gradual transition between two
extreme forms. There is no clear separation into distinctive categories, as measurements are on a

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continuous scale. Continuous variation is brought about by the combined effect of many
genes and it is affected by environmental factors.
Examples of continuous traits are height, weight, size, skin colour in man, and IQ.
2. Discontinuous or physiological variation
This refers to the type of variation in which a given trait does not show gradual transition
between two extreme forms. With this type of variation, individuals can be grouped into distinct
classes. Discontinuous variation is usually controlled by one or a few genes and it is not
affected by environmental factors. Examples include blood group (A/B/AB or O), tongue
rolling, ability to phenylthiocarbamide (PTC), etc.
Applications of variation
 Crime detection; the use of finger prints in crime detection is based on the fact that no two
individuals have the same finger print and that human fingerprint remain unchanged
throughout life.
 Blood transfusion
 Determination of paternity
 Used in medicine
 Used in agriculture
 Used in the classification of human race
Importance of Variations:
1. Variations make some individuals better fitted in the struggle for existence.
2. They help the individuals to adapt themselves according to the changing environment.
3. Discontinuous variations produce new traits in the organisms.
4. Variations allow breeders to improve races of useful plants and animals for increased resistance,
better yield, quicker growth and lesser input.
5. They constitute the raw material for evolution.
6. Variations give each organism a distinct individuality.
7. Because of variations, species do not remain static. Instead, they are slowly getting modified
forming new species with time.
8. Pre-adaptations caused by the presence of neutral variations are extremely useful for survival
against sudden changes in environment, e.g., resistance against a new pesticide or antibiotic.

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TOPIC 7: HEREDITY AND GENETICS

Basic Genetic Terms

Term Meaning

Genetics The scientific study of heredity and variation in living organisms

Trait A specific characteristic of an individual

Gene A unit of heredity that is passed from parent to offspring

Allele One of different forms of a gene

Genotype The genetic makeup of an organism

Phenotype The physical characteristics of an organism

Dominant
allele Allele that is phenotypically expressed over another allele

Recessive
allele Allele that is only expressed in absence of a dominant allele

Homozygous Having two identical alleles for a particular gene

Heterozygous Having two different alleles for a particular gene

Diagram that can be used to predict the genotypes and phenotypes resulting
Punnett square from a genetic cross

Mendelian inheritance

Gregor Mendel's principles of heredity observed through patterns of inheritance in pea plants,
form the basis of modern genetics. Mendel proposed that traits were specified by "heritable
elements" called genes. Genes come in different versions, or alleles, with dominant alleles being
expressed over recessive alleles. Recessive alleles are only expressed when no dominant allele is
present. In most sexually reproducing organisms, each individual has two alleles for each gene
(one from each parent). This pair of alleles is called a genotype and determines the organism's
appearance, or phenotype.

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Mendel's laws

Laws of segregation and independent assortment.

 Mendel's first law is the law of segregation of genes, which states that when an organism
makes gametes, each gamete receives just one gene copy, which is selected randomly.
 Mendel's second law is the law of independent assortment, which states that the alleles for
one gene sort into gametes independently of the alleles of another gene.

Punnett squares and probability

A Punnett square can be used to predict genotype and phenotypes of offspring from genetic
crosses. The inheritance of one pair of contrasting character is called monohybrid inheritance. A
single-gene, or monohybrid cross is pictured below.

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This illustration shows a monohybrid cross. In the P generation, one parent has a dominant
yellow phenotype and the genotype YY, and the other parent has the recessive green phenotype
and the genotype yy. Each parent produces one kind of gamete, resulting in an F1 generation with
a dominant yellow phenotype and the genotype Yy. Self-pollination of the F1 generation results in
an F2 generation with a 3 to 1 ratio of yellow to green peas. One out of three of the yellow pea
plants has a dominant genotype of YY, and 2 out of 3 has the heterozygous genotype Yy. The
homozygous recessive plant has the green phenotype and the genotype yy.

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Punnett squares can be used for a two-gene crosses, or dihybrid crosses (the inheritance of two
pairs of contrasting character simultaneously is known as dihybrid inheritance) by following the
same basic rules as for a monohybrid cross. However, since there are now more gamete types,
there must also be more squares in the table.

Illustration of the hypothesis that the seed color and seed shape genes assort independently.

In this diagram, the Y and R alleles of the yellow, round parent and the y and r alleles of the green,
wrinkled parent are not inherited as units. Instead, the alleles of the two genes are inherited as
independent units.

P generation: A yellow, round plant (YYRR) is crossed with a green, wrinkled plant (yyrr). Each
parental generation can produce only one type of gamete, YR or yr.

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F1 generation: The F1 dihybrid seeds are yellow and round, with a genotype of YyRr. The F1
plants can produce four different types of gametes: YR, Yr, yR, and yr. We can predict the
genotypes of the F2 plants by placing these gametes along the top and side axes of a 4X4 Punnett
square and filling in the boxes to represent fertilization events.

F2 generation: Completion of the Punnett square predicts four different phenotypic classes of
offspring, yellow/round, yellow/wrinkled, green/round, and green/wrinkled, in a ratio of 9:3:3:1.
This is the prediction of the model in which the seed shape and seed color genes assort
independently.

Punnett square:

YR Yr yR yr

YR YYRR YYRr YyRR YyRr

Yr YYRr YYrr YyRr Yyrr

yR YyRR YyRr yyRR yyRr

yr YyRr Yyrr yyRr yyrr

Plain text = yellow, round phenotype Italic text = yellow, wrinkled phenotype Bold text = green,
round phenotype Bold, italic text = green, wrinkled phenotype

Test Cross

A test cross can be used to determine whether an organism with a dominant phenotype is
homozygous or heterozygous. In a test cross, a parent with a dominant phenotype but unknown
genotype is crossed with a recessive parent. If the parent with the unknown genotype is
homozygous dominant, all the resulting offspring will have at least one dominant allele. If the
parent with the unknown genotype is heterozygous, 50 percent of the offspring will inherit a
recessive allele from both parents and will have the recessive phenotype.

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Probabilities in genetics
Probability is the likelihood or the chance of an event occurring. For e.g, the probability of a
newborn being a male or female is 0.5 or 50%. In genetics, probability can help us predict the
chance of a child inheriting a genetic disorder from a parent. This is important as it is a factor to
consider in genetic counselling when parents make decision on whether or not to have a child who
is at risk of inheriting a disease.
Examples

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1. A man who is a carrier for the genetic disease sickle cell anaemia, marries the love of his life
who happens to have sickle cell. Using a genetic cross, determine the percentage of their
children that will be normal, carriers and sicklers.
Solution
Parents phenotypes Carrier (man) X Sickle cell (woman)
Parents genotypes AS X SS

Parental gametes: A S X S S

Offspring:
AS AS SS SS
i) the percentage of their children that will be normal (AA) = 0/4 x 100 = 0%
ii) the percentage of their children that will be carrier (AS) = 2/4 x 100 = 50%
iii) the percentage of their children that will have sickle cell (SS) = 2/4 x 100 = 50%

2. In Mr Ajayi’s farm, one pineapple fruit in every four is ripe, and two in every 5 are sweet.
What is the probability that a pineapple fruit plucked will be ripe and sweet?
Solution
 Probability that 1 fruit in every 4 is ripe = ¼
 Probability that 2 fruits in every 5 is sweet = 2/5
 Therefore, the probability that a pineapple fruit plucked will be ripe and sweet
=1/4*2/5 = 1/10
3. If the gene for yellow maize is R and that for white maize is r. What will be the phenotypic
and genotypic ratios of a cross between two heterozygous maize plants?

Solution
Parents: Rr X Rr

Parental gametes: R r X R R

RR Rr 52Rr rr
Offspring:

iv) Phenotypic ratio = 3:1

v) Genotypic ratio = 1:2:1

Sex Determination in Humans

In human beings, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes in each body cell. Of these, 22 pairs are
called autosomes and have no direct effect on the sex of an individual. One pair of chromosome is
directly involved with sex determination, and this one pair is referred to as sex chromosomes. In
humans, female carries two X chromosomes while male carries one X and one Y chromosome.
The female gamete carries one X chromosome, while male have two different gametes; one
carrying the X chromosome and the other carrying the Y chromosome. When offspring receives
an X chromosome from each of the parent, it is a female. But if the offspring receives a Y
chromosome from the father, then it is a male. Therefore, males determine the sex of offspring in
humans.

` Parental phenotypes: Male X Female

Parental genotypes: XY X XX

22+X 22+X
Parental gametes: 22+ X 22+Y
X

Offspring:
44+XX 44+XX 44+XY 44+XY
female female male male

Sex Linkage in Humans

The X and Y chromosomes not only carry genes that determine male and female characteristics,
they also contain genes that control other traits. Genes on the same chromosome are said to be
linked because they tend to be inherited together. A sex-linked gene is a gene that is located on the
X chromosome. Such genes are inherited along with such X chromosomes. Examples of sex-
linked characteristics are colour blindness, haemophilia, sickle cell anaemia, baldness and
albinism.
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Haemophila: This is a disease in which the blood clothing mechanism does not function properly.
This leads to slow and persistent bleeding and may result to death. Haemophilia affects males (1
in 10,000) much more frequently than females (1 in 1million). Why or how?

Examples

1. A normal woman marries a man who is haemophilic.

i) Draw a genetic cross to show the possible offspring of the couple
ii) What percentage of their children are normal, carrier and haemophilic?
iii) From answer in (i) above, can a son get haemophilia from his father?

Solution

i)

Parents: XH XH X XhY

Parental gametes:
XH XH Xh
X Y

Offspring:

XH Xh XH Y XH Xh XH Y
Carrier normalm Carrier normalm
female ale female ale
Percentage of normal children = 2/4 x 100 = 50%

Percentage of carrier children = 2/4 x 100 = 50%

Percentage of haemophilic children = 0/4 x 100 = 0%

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TOPIC 8: EVOLUTION

Evolution can be defined as the series of gradual changes which living organisms had undergone
in response to changes in environment, since the beginning of life. The world is inhabited by
dissimilar plants and animals, which survive under different niches. Theories of creationism and
organic evolution have been used by scientists to explain the reason for the differences observed
in plants and animals.

Types of evolution
There are three main types of evolution: divergent, convergent, and parallel evolution.

1. Divergent Evolution
This is the evolutionary pattern in which two related species gradually become increasingly
different. It often occurs when closely related species diversify to new habitats. On a large scale,
divergent evolution is responsible for the creation of the current diversity of life on earth from the
first living cells. On a smaller scale, it is responsible for the evolution of humans and apes from a
common primate ancestor.

2. Convergent Evolution
Convergent evolution causes difficulties in fields of study such as comparative anatomy.
Convergent evolution takes place when species of different origin begin to share analogous
(similar) traits because of a shared environment or other selection pressure. For example, whales
and fish have some similar characteristics since both had to evolve methods of moving through
the same medium: water.

3. Parallel evolution

Parallel evolution occurs when two species evolve independently of each other, maintaining the
same level of similarity. Parallel evolution usually occurs between unrelated species that do not
occupy the same or similar niches in a given habitat.

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Types of evolution; (a) divergent, (b) convergent, and (c) parallel.

Theories of Evolution

 Lamarck’s theory
Jean Baptist Lamarck, a French biologist in 1801 put forward the theory of organic evolution
based on three main ideas.

1. The theory of need

This states that the development of a new part or organ by an organism (plant or animal) results
from the need of that part or organ of the organism. For instance, snakes evolved elongated body
from their ancestral short bodies and legs. This evolution was due to the need for crawling through
narrow places in vegetation.

2. The theory of use and disuse

This states that organ become well developed and active when being used but slowly degenerate,
become functionless or disappear with disuse. For example, each generation of snakes continued
to stretch their bodies resulting in the strengthening of their bodies. While their legs became
useless and strengthless and finally disappeared.

3. Theory of acquired characteristics by inheritance

This theory states that all characteristics (structures) or variations acquired by organisms during
their lifetime are transmitted to the next generation by inheritance. For instance,

a. The snakes of today inherited their legless and elongated bodies from the ancestors that
have lost the legs and short bodies through disuse.

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 b. The modern day giraffe has long neck and long forelegs, which were acquired.
c. Web toes in ducks for swimming was inherited from generation that has developed it.

Many scientists rejected the theories of Lamarck because they understood that acquired characters
cannot be transmitted to offspring.

Darwin’s theory
Charles Darwin, a British biologist, in 1859 propounded a theory of evolution by Natural
Selection leading to the origin of species. The main points in his theory include:

 Overproduction: All organisms produce more offspring than can survive.

 Struggle for existence: Due to overproduction of offspring, there is a constant struggle
(competition) for existence among the offspring.
 Offspring show variations: No two individuals are exactly the same.
 Adaptive characteristics: Some of the offspring are well adapted (fitted) to survive the
competition than others.
 Inheritance of adaptive characteristics: The well-adapted ones (or the fittest) will
transmit such variation to their offspring. Those with poor adaptations will die off.
 Development of new species: An accumulation of favourable variations will in a long
time lead to a divergence (spread) from the original stock resulting in the formation of
new species.

Evidences in support of evolution

There are evidences to support from comparative anatomy, vestigial organs, physiology, fossils,
embryology and cytology.

1. Evidence from comparative anatomy

Homologous structures can be used to explain the evidence of comparative anatomy. Homologous
structures are those structures, which are built in the same common plan but modified to perform
different functions due to differences in environment. For instance: pentadactyl plan. The
forelimbs of frog, bird, horse, whale and man are in the pentadactyl plan but perform different
functions. It is therefore reasonable to say that this common plan of the forelimbs of the
vertebrates indicate a genetic relationship and common ancestor.

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2. Evidence from vestigial organs
Vestigial organs are rudimentary or useless organs still found in animals and plants, which are
inherited from ancestors. A good example is: The appendix of man that has no functions in man
but perform useful function in herbivorous animals like cow and goat. Also, the caudal vertebrae
(coccyx) of man have become vestigial. They have become fused together and reduced to small
sized bones called coccyx which has no function in man but in other mammals it developed into
useful tail:

i. for balancing in monkeys

ii. For driving insect pests away from the posterior part in goats, sheep and cattle.

3. Evidence from embryology

The developments of vertebrate embryos are similar. The law of biogenesis states that during the
development of an individual, it passes through many embryonic stages that its ancestor
underwent simply because the mechanism of development was inherited from a common ancestor.
The fact that the embryos of vertebrates look similar, show that they are from a common ancestor.

4. Evidence from cytology

The electron microscope has revealed that the cell structures (membranes, mitochondria, Golgi
apparatus, ribosomes, lysosomes etc.) are all similar in all living organisms. This shows that all
living organisms evolved from a common ancestor with similar cell structures.

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5. Evidence from Biochemistry
Enzymes and hormones are similar in many groups of animals. Trypsin is present right from
protozoa to man. Amylase is also found in the majority of animals. The actions of these two
enzymes are similar in all animals. Thyroid hormone is present in all vertebrates. It has been
proved that the thyroid hormone of vertebrates is exchangeable among them. For example, the
thyroid hormone from cattle has been used successfully to treat human thyroid deficiencies. This
proves that all vertebrates descended from a common ancestor.

6. Evidence from fossil record

The study of fossils is called paleontology. Fossils are hardened remains (such as bones and shells)
of organism which existed a long time ago. Fossil records support the theory that organisms
become increasingly complex as they progress over time. When fossils are arranged from oldest to
recent ones, they show a transitional trend from simple to complex organisms. This implies that
organisms that existed earlier had simple structures and successive organisms appear to be
modified and more complex.

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TOPIC 9: BASIC ECOLOGICAL TERMS

Ecology: The study of the interactions between an organism and the physical and biological
components of its environment.

Biotic: The living component of ecosystems (organisms, such as plants and animals).

Abiotic: The non-living components of ecosystems (all physical and chemical conditions); for
example, physiography and climate.

Biodiversity: The abundance, variety, and genetic variability of animals and plants in nature.

Biomass The total dry weight per unit area (=”density”) of living matter.

Autecology: A branch of ecology that focuses on the relationships and interactions between
individuals of a single species and their abiotic environment.

Synecology: A branch of ecology that focuses on the study of ecological communities and
populations.

Biosphere: The global ecosystem (all living things on Earth) and their interactions with each
other and their environment

Habitat: The physical location of an organism in the environment; the type of environment
inhabited by a species

Niche: The ecological role of a species in the community, including all interactions in which it
participates; the range of conditions under which a species occurs.

Carrying Capacity (K): The maximum population an area can sustain without degradation.

Species: A group of individuals with similar genetic constitution, which can interbreed freely
among themselves to produce viable and fertile offspring.

Keystone Species: A species on which other species largely depend – its removal creates
dramatic change in the ecosystem.

Organism: An individual form of life, such as a plant, animal, bacterium, protist (single-celled),
or fungus.

Population: A group of individuals of one (or the same) species, living in a specified area and at a
given time.

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Ecosystem: The sum of the abiotic and biotic components of a defined system or region, such as a
lake or a forest.

Community: A group of populations occurring in a defined area (= Biocoenosis).

Biome: A community of plants and animals that occupy a distinct region; defined by climate and
dominant vegetation.

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