Introduction to Finite Element Methods

• Virtually every phenomenon in nature—whether

aerospace, biological, chemical, geological, or
mechanical—can be described, with the aid of the
laws and axioms of physics or other fields, in terms
of algebraic, differential, and/or integral equations
relating various quantities that describe the
phenomenon.
• Determining the stress distribution in a pressure vessel
with oddly shaped holes and stiffeners and subjected to
mechanical, thermal, and/or aerodynamic loads;
• Finding the concentration of pollutants in lakes or in the
atmosphere;
• Simulating weather in an attempt to understand and
predict the formation of
• Thunderstorms,
• Tsunamis, and Tornadoes
 Mathematical models…
• Analytical descriptions of physical or physiological
processes in terms of pertinent variables are termed
mathematical models.
• Mathematical models of a process are developed
using assumptions concerning how the process
works and using appropriate axioms or laws
governing the process,
• And they are often characterized by very complex set
of algebraic, differential, and/or integral equations
posed on geometrically complicated domains
 Mathematical models
• A mathematical model can be broadly defined as a set of
equations that expresses the essential features of a
physical system in terms of variables that describe the
system.
• The mathematical models of physical phenomena are
often based on fundamental scientific laws of physics
such as the
• principle of conservation of mass,
• The principles of balance of linear and angular
momentum,
• The principle of balance of energy
• The equations resulting from these principles are
supplemented by equations that describe the
constitutive behavior
• And by boundary and/or initial conditions.
 Simple pendulum

• Assumptions:
• bob as well as the rod are rigid (i.e., not deformable) and
the rod is massless.
• there is no friction at the pivot point o and the resistance
offered by the surrounding medium to the pendulum is also
negligible.
• The equation governing the motion of the system can be
formulated using the principle of conservation of linear
momentum (or simply Newton’s second law),
• which states, in the present case, that the vector sum of
externally applied forces on a system is equal to the time
rate of change of the linear momentum (mass times
velocity) of the system:
• To write the equation governing the angular motion, we
set up a coordinate system, as shown in Fig.
• Angular motion becomes

• Above Equation is nonlinear on account of the term sinθ

• For small angular motions sinθ is approximated as sinθ ≈ θ
(i.e., linearized).
• Thus, the angular motion is described by the linear
differential equation
• Above Equations represent mathematical models of
nonlinear and linear motions, respectively, of a rigid
pendulum.
• Their solution requires knowledge of conditions at time t =0
on θ and its time derivative θ (angular velocity). These
conditions are known as the initial conditions.
• Thus, the linear problem involves solving the differential
equation

• subjected to the initial conditions

• The problem described by above is called an initial value

problem (IVP).
• The general analytical solution of the linear equation

• (ӫ + λ2θ = 0) is

• where A and B are constants of integration, which can be

determined using the initial conditions
 Numerical method
• There are several reasons why an engineer or a scientist
should study a numerical method, especially the finite
element method.

• Analysis of most practical systems involve complicated

domains (both geometry and material constitution),
loads, boundary conditions, and interactions between
various aspects of the system response that forbid the
development of analytical solutions.
• Therefore, the only alternative is to find approximate
solutions using numerical methods.
 Numerical Methods..
• A numerical method, with the advent of a computer, can
be used to investigate the effects of various parameters
(e.g., geometry, material parameters, loads, interactions,
and so on) of the system on its response to gain a better
understanding of the system being analyzed.
• It is cost effective and saves time and material resources
compared to the multitude of physical experiments
required to gain the same level of understanding.
• Because of the power of numerical methods and
electronic computation, it is possible to include most
relevant features in a mathematical model of a physical
process, without worrying about its solution by exact
means.
• The finite element method and its generalizations are the
most powerful computer methods ever devised to
analyze practical engineering systems.
• Today, finite element analysis is an integral and major
component in many fields of engineering design and
manufacturing.
• Major established industries such as the automobile,
aerospace, chemical, pharmaceutical, petroleum,
electronics and communications, as well as emerging
technologies such as nanotechnology and biotechnology
rely on the finite element method to simulate complex
phenomena at different scales for design and
manufacture of high-technology products.
• The use of a numerical method and a computer to
evaluate the mathematical model of a process and
estimate its characteristics is called a numerical
simulation.

• Any numerical simulation, such as the one by the finite

element method, is not an end in itself but rather an aid
to design and manufacturing.
Examples of Discritezation

One dimensional Two dimensional Three dimensional

with line element With triangular elements with brick elements
 Finite Element Method Defined

• Many problems in engineering and applied science

are governed by differential or integral equations.

• The solutions to these equations would provide an

exact, closed-form solution to the particular problem
being studied.
 FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING
• Realistic problems are complex
and strongly nonlinear. Difficult to
analyze and computationally
intensive
• In real world problems
complexities exists in terms of
• geometry,
• material properties and
• in the boundary conditions
• means that an exact solution
cannot be obtained.
 Need for Computational Methods

• Therefore a Gap Exists Between What Is Needed in

Applications and What Can Be Solved by Analytical
Closed-form Methods

• This Has Lead to the Development of Several

Numerical/Computational Schemes Including:
• Finite Difference,
• Finite Element and
• Boundary Element Methods
WHAT IS FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

➢ The finite element method is a computational

scheme to solve field problems in engineering and
science.

➢ These complex field problems in engineering and

applied science are governed by partial differential
equations.

➢ The partial differential equations are transformed

into algebraic equations. Algebraic equations are
cast into matrix form which can be solved with
computers.
 WHAT IS FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

• The technique has very wide application, and has

been used on problems involving
• stress analysis,
• fluid mechanics,
• heat transfer,
• diffusion,
• vibrations,
• lectrical and magnetic fields, etc.
• The fundamental concept involves dividing the body
under study into a finite number of pieces (subdomains)
called elements .
Examples of Discritezation

One dimensional Two dimensional Three dimensional

with line element With triangular elements with brick elements
• Particular assumptions are then made on the variation of
the unknown dependent variable(s) across each element
using so-called interpolation or approximation functions.

• This approximated variation is quantified in terms of

solution values at special element locations called nodes.
• Through this discretization process, the method sets up
an algebraic system of equations for unknown nodal
values which approximate the continuous solution.

• Because element size, shape and approximating scheme

can be varied to suit the problem, the method can
accurately simulate solutions to problems of complex
geometry and loading and thus this technique has
become a very useful and practical tool.
 Finite Element Method Defined (cont.)

• Current product design cycle times imply that engineers

must obtain design solutions in a ‘short’ amount of time.

• They are content to obtain approximate solutions that can

be readily obtained in a reasonable time frame, and with
reasonable effort. The FEM is one such approximate
solution technique.

• The FEM is a numerical procedure for obtaining

approximate solutions to many of the problems encountered
in engineering analysis.
 Finite Element Method Defined (cont.)
• In the FEM, a complex region defining a continuum is
discretized into simple geometric shapes called elements.

• The properties and the governing relationships are assumed

over these elements and expressed mathematically in terms of
unknown values at specific points in the elements called nodes.

• An assembly process is used to link the individual elements to

the given system. When the effects of loads and boundary
conditions are considered, a set of linear or nonlinear algebraic
equations is usually obtained.

• Solution of these equations gives the approximate behavior of

the continuum or system.
 Finite Element Method Defined (cont.)
• The continuum has an infinite number of degrees-of-freedom
(DOF), while the discretized model has a finite number of DOF.
This is the origin of the name, finite element method.

• The number of equations is usually rather large for most real-

world applications of the FEM, and requires the computational
power of the digital computer. The FEM has little practical
value if the digital computer were not available.

• Advances in and ready availability of computers and software

has brought the FEM within reach of engineers working in
small industries, and even students.
 Finite Element Method Defined (cont.)

Two features of the finite element method are worth noting.

• The piecewise approximation of the physical field

(continuum) on finite elements provides good precision even
with simple approximating functions. Simply increasing the
number of elements can achieve increasing precision.

• The locality of the approximation leads to sparse equation

systems for a discretized problem. This helps to ease the
solution of problems having very large numbers of nodal
unknowns. It is not uncommon today to solve systems
containing a million primary unknowns.
 Origins of the Finite Element Method

• It is difficult to document the exact origin of the FEM, because the

basic concepts have evolved over a period of 150 or more years.

• The term finite element was first coined by Clough in 1960. In the
early 1960s, engineers used the method for approximate solution of
problems in stress analysis, fluid flow, heat transfer, and other areas.

• The first book on the FEM by Zienkiewicz and Chung was

published in 1967.

• In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the FEM was applied to a wide
variety of engineering problems.
Origins of the Finite Element Method (cont.)

• The 1970s marked advances in mathematical treatments, including

the development of new elements, and convergence studies.

• Most commercial FEM software packages originated in the 1970s

(ABAQUS, ADINA, ANSYS, MARK, PAFEC) and 1980s
(FENRIS, LARSTRAN ‘80, SESAM ‘80.)

• The FEM is one of the most important developments in

computational methods to occur in the 20th century. In just a few
decades, the method has evolved from one with applications in
structural engineering to a widely utilized and richly varied
computational approach for many scientific and technological areas.
 How can the FEM Help the Design Engineer?

• The FEM offers many important advantages to the design engineer:

• Easily applied to complex, irregular-shaped objects composed

of several different materials and having complex boundary
conditions.

• Applicable to steady-state, time dependent and eigenvalue

problems.

• Applicable to linear and nonlinear problems.

• One method can solve a wide variety of problems, including

problems in solid mechanics, fluid mechanics, chemical
reactions, electromagnetics, biomechanics, heat transfer and
acoustics, to name a few.
How can the FEM Help the Design Engineer? (cont.)

• General-purpose FEM software packages are available at

reasonable cost, and can be readily executed on
microcomputers, including workstations and PCs.

• The FEM can be coupled to CAD programs to facilitate solid

modeling and mesh generation.

• Many FEM software packages feature GUI interfaces, auto-

meshers, and sophisticated postprocessors and graphics to speed
the analysis and make pre and post-processing more user-
friendly.
 How can the FEM Help the Design Organization?
• Simulation using the FEM also offers important business advantages to
the design organization:

• Reduced testing and redesign costs thereby shortening the product

development time.

• Identify issues in designs before tooling is committed.

• Refine components before dependencies to other components

prohibit changes.

• Optimize performance before prototyping.

• Discover design problems before litigation.

• Allow more time for designers to use engineering judgement, and

less time “turning the crank.”
 Theoretical Basis: Formulating Element Equations

• Several approaches can be used to transform the physical

formulation of a problem to its finite element discrete analogue.

• If the physical formulation of the problem is described as a

differential equation, then the most popular solution method is
the Method of Weighted Residuals.

• If the physical problem can be formulated as the minimization

of a functional, then the Variational Formulation is usually
used.
 Theoretical Basis: MWR
• One family of methods used to numerically solve differential equations
are called the methods of weighted residuals (MWR).

• In the MWR, an approximate solution is substituted into the differential

equation. Since the approximate solution does not identically satisfy the
equation, a residual, or error term, results.

Consider a differential equation

Dy’’(x) + Q = 0 (1)

Suppose that y = h(x) is an approximate solution to (1).

Substitution then gives Dh’’(x) + Q = R, where R is a nonzero residual.
The MWR then requires that

 Wi(x)R(x) = 0 (2)

where Wi(x) are the weighting functions. The number of weighting

functions equals the number of unknown coefficients in the approximate
solution.
 Theoretical Basis: Galerkin’s Method

• There are several choices for the weighting functions, Wi.

• In the Galerkin’s method, the weighting functions are the same

functions that were used in the approximating equation.

• The Galerkin’s method yields the same results as the variational

method when applied to differential equations that are self-adjoint.

• The MWR is therefore an integral solution method.

• Many readers may find it unusual to see a numerical solution that

is based on an integral formulation.
 Theoretical Basis: Variational Method
• The variational method involves the integral of a function
that produces a number. Each new function produces a new
number.

• The function that produces the lowest number has the

additional property of satisfying a specific differential equation.

• Consider the integral

 =  D/2 y’’(x) - Qy]dx = 0. (1)

The numerical value of  can be calculated given a specific

equation y = f(x). Variational calculus shows that the
particular equation y = g(x) which yields the lowest numerical
value for  is the solution to the differential equation

Dy’’(x) + Q = 0. (2)
 Theoretical Basis: Variational Method (cont.)

• In solid mechanics, the so-called Rayeigh-Ritz technique

uses the Theorem of Minimum Potential Energy (with the
potential energy being the functional, ) to develop the
element equations.

• The trial solution that gives the minimum value of  is the

approximate solution.

• In other specialty areas, a variational principle can usually

be found.
 Sources of Error in the FEM
• The three main sources of error in a typical FEM solution are
discretization errors, formulation errors and numerical errors.

• Discretization error results from transforming the physical system

(continuum) into a finite element model, and can be related to
modeling the boundary shape, the boundary conditions, etc.

Discretization error due to poor geometry Discretization error effectively eliminated.

representation.
 Sources of Error in the FEM (cont.)
• Formulation error results from the use of elements that don't precisely
describe the behavior of the physical problem.
• Elements which are used to model physical problems for which they are not
suited are sometimes referred to as ill-conditioned or mathematically
unsuitable elements.
• For example a particular finite element might be formulated on the
assumption that displacements vary in a linear manner over the domain.
Such an element will produce no formulation error when it is used to model a
linearly varying physical problem (linear varying displacement field in this
example), but would create a significant formulation error if it used to
represent a quadratic or cubic varying displacement field.
 Sources of Error in the FEM (cont.)

• Numerical error occurs as a result of numerical

calculation procedures, and includes truncation errors
and round off errors.
• Numerical error is therefore a problem mainly concerning
the FEM vendors and developers.
• The user can also contribute to the numerical accuracy,
for example, by specifying a physical quantity, say
Young’s modulus, E, to an inadequate number of decimal
places.
 Advantages of the Finite Element Method
• Can readily handle complex geometry:
» The heart and power of the FEM.
• Can handle complex analysis types:
» Vibration
» Transients
» Nonlinear
» Heat transfer
» Fluids
• Can handle complex loading:
» Node-based loading (point loads).
» Element-based loading (pressure, thermal, inertial
forces).
» Time or frequency dependent loading.
• Can handle complex restraints:
» Indeterminate structures can be analyzed.
Advantages of the Finite Element Method (cont.)
• Can handle bodies comprised of nonhomogeneous materials:
» Every element in the model could be assigned a different set of
material properties.
• Can handle bodies comprised of nonisotropic materials:
» Orthotropic
» Anisotropic
• Special material effects are handled:
» Temperature dependent properties.
» Plasticity
» Creep
» Swelling
• Special geometric effects can be modeled:
» Large displacements.
» Large rotations.
» Contact (gap) condition.
 Disadvantages of the Finite Element Method
• A specific numerical result is obtained for a specific problem. A
general closed-form solution, which would permit one to examine
system response to changes in various parameters, is not
produced.

• The FEM is applied to an approximation of the mathematical

model of a system (the source of so-called inherited errors.)

• Experience and judgment are needed in order to construct a

good finite element model.

• A powerful computer and reliable FEM software are essential.

• Input and output data may be large and tedious to prepare and
interpret.
 Disadvantages of the Finite Element Method (cont.)

• Numerical problems:
» Computers only carry a finite number of significant digits.
» Round off and error accumulation.
» Can help the situation by not attaching stiff (small) elements
to flexible (large) elements.
• Susceptible to user-introduced modeling errors:
» Poor choice of element types.
» Distorted elements.
» Geometry not adequately modeled.
• Certain effects not automatically included:
» Buckling
» Large deflections and rotations.
» Material nonlinearities .
» Other nonlinearities.