102002/COZ2Z00E Basics of

Instrumentation and Mechanical

Engineering
* MODULE 1
Principles of measurements: Applications of Measurement
Instrumentation. Generalized configurations and functional descriptions
of measuring Instruments.

Generalized performance characteristics - Static characteristics -

Dynamic characteristics (with mathematical illustrations, without proof
/derivation)

Fundamental Standards - Calibration of meters - Qualities of

measurements. Errors in measurements and its analysis.
You should be able to explain the following
¢ Measurement system
¢ Static and Dynamic Characteristics
¢ Errors in measuring systems
Course Outcomes

¢CO 1: Understand different standards and errors

in measuring systems along with the static and
dynamic characteristics.
°CO 2: Identify various test signals used in the
measurement system and illustrate the working of
various primary sensors and transducers.
 Application of Measuring Instruments
ref: E.O Doeblin, Measurement Systems Application and Design

¢ Monitoring of processes and operations

¢ Control of processes and operations
¢ Experimental engineering analysis
Ref:https://circuitcellarcom/cc-blog/mcu-based-experimental-glider-with-gps-receiver/

|
Course control

a
Barometric pressure
Auxiliary G
Propeller log .

PS ipl
we
4
-s .

7 _f ay, *—* 2

Altitude control
 Application of Measuring Instruments:
Monitoring of processes and operations
ref: E. 0 Doeblin, Measurement Systems Application and Design

¢ They simply indicate the condition of environment.

¢ Eg: Thermometers,
Barometers,
Anemometers
Water
Gas
Electric Meter
Film badges worn by workers in a radioactive environment.
 Application of Measuring Instruments:
Control of processes and operations
ref: E.O Doeblin, Measurement Systems Application and Design

¢ Serves as a component of an automatic control system.

Eg:
¢ Bimetallic element in thermostatic control
¢ Pitot static tubes, angle of attack sensors, thermocouples,
accelerometers, altimeters, and gyroscopes in aircraft and missile
control system.
 Application of Measuring Instruments:
Experimental Engineering Analysis
ref: E.O Doeblin, Measurement Systems Application and Design

¢ Testing validity of theoretical predictions

¢ Frequency Response Testing for mechanical linkages for resonant
frequencies.
¢ Formulation of generalized empirical relation
¢ Determination for friction factor for turbulent pipe flow
¢ Study of phenomenon for developing a theory
Electron microscopy of metal fatigue crack
¢ Solution of the mathematical equation by analogies
¢ Solution of shaft torsion problems by measurements on soap bubbles.
 Functional Elements of an Instrument/Measurement
system
ref: E.O Doeblin, Measurement Systems Application and Design

Data
storage
/ playback
element

oO
Measured)
Measured
quantity
Primary
sensing li
Variabie-
conversion —
Vorioble-
manipulation
Data-
}——$te transmission
im Data -
presentation
Presented
($$
data
aa
con
mediym
element element element element pe are ere aller element
(“Measurand’)
Functional Elements of an Instrument/Measurement
system
ref: E.O Doeblin, Measurement Systems Application and Design,
https: //www.philadelphia.edu.jo/academics/kaubaidy/uploads /Measurement_Syst-Craig.pdf

Doe/ta playback
pleteFone
Primary Sensing Element
= ey L see | This 1s the element that first receives energy from the
See measured medium and produces an output depending in
some way on the measured quantity (measurand). The
output 1s some physical variable, e.g., displacement or
Voltage. An instrument alvays extracts some energy from
the measured medium. The measured quantity is always
disturbed by the act of measurement, which makes a
perfect measurement theoretically impossible. Good
instruments are designed to mintmize this loading effect.
Functional Elements of an Instrument/Measurement
system
ref: E.O Doeblin, Measurement Systems Application and Design,
https: //www.philadelphia.edu.jo/academics/kaubaidy/uploads /Measurement_Syst-Craig.pdf

ata
‘
» | storage/ playback ‘

element

~ Measured
iMeckured ; aoantiy
easure .
Primary
°
Variable- Voriable- Data- | L Data- Presented i
pi

‘\ d d 7 () VW ( (
medium -—— sensing pa eeeeren [>| manipulation -—>} transmi ission tation pr piserver) (amen
y element element RSI
element lemnt }——»]_ element
SOE Pe be
(“Meaosyrand")
7 rw

~ {fmay de necessary o conver the output signal ofthe

primary sensing clement o another more sutalevanbl
wle preserving the wnfonmation conten ofthe oign
sonal. Ths clement performs ths function
Functional Elements of an Instrument/Measurement
system
ref: E.O Doeblin, Measurement Systems Application and Design,
https: //www.philadelphia.edu.jo/academics/kaubaidy/uploads /Measurement_Syst-Craig.pdf

ata
. | storage/ playback i] 4 ,

TL. arlabie-Manipulation Liemen

element

te Measured . 5 eS.
Kein quantity Primary Voriable- Variable- Data- Data- Presented i ‘
\umedium § —>] sensing > conversion t—>j manipulation [>] transmission presentation |» Observer)
\ i element element | | element lement +——»]_ element ‘

- An instrument may require that a signal represented by

(“Meosyrand )
7

some physical variable be mampulated in some way.

By manipulation we mean specifically a change tn
numerical value according to some definite rule but a
preservation of the physical nature of the variable, This
element performs such a function.
 Functional Elements of an Instrument/Measurement
System
ref: E. O Doeblin, Measurement Systems Application and Design,
https://www.philadelphia.edu.jo/academics/kaubaidy/uploads/Measurement_Syst-Craig.pdf

ata

4 storage/ playback ‘ ‘
element

te a Meosured [5 : | [ Pp resente: d “i 4 =
‘Primay
(Measured) ) quantity ory | | Voriable-|
le iable-
| Vv fariable Data a Data-
(medium }-— sensing t—s@f conversion [>| manipulation -—>4 transmi ission presentation 212 Observer}
ie element element element lement }——»]_ element = ys a a aR a aa a a ae
("M es

- When functional elements of an instrument are actu

plysically separated, it becomes necessary to transmut
he data from one to another, This element performs
his function
 Functional Elements of an Instrument/Measurement
System
ref: E. O Doeblin, Measurement Systems Application and Design,
https://www.philadelphia.edu.jo/academics/kaubaidy/uploads/Measurement_Syst-Craig.pdf

ata
storage/ playback
element
7
‘
Gs
e Measured
quantity :
Primary : | [ i
Voriable- Variable- Data- Data- ia oti ‘\ b
ivedium }-— sensing t—»f conversion >| manipulation }—>4 transmi ission| \
presentation -————» Observer) -
WH element element | | element lement }——»]_ element a = an y
« ae
("Meosyrand") ~
a b
7

- |f the information about the measured quantity 1s to be

communicated to a human being for monitoring,
control, or analysis purposes, it must be put into a form
recognizable by one of the human senses. This element
performs this “translation” function,
Functional Elements of an Instrument/Measurement
System
ref: E. O Doeblin, Measurement Systems Application and Design,
https://www.philadelphia.edu.jo/academics/kaubaidy/uploads/Measurement_Syst-Craig.pdf

Pe er Data Storage/Playback Element

emen

— Some applications require a distinct data

storage/playback which can easily recreate the stored
data upon command.
Eg1: Pressure Gauge
ref: E.O Doeblin, Measurement Systems Application and Design

i
its,

———# Pointer
Flyid Piston Pistorond Spring Linkage and scale
1 J SO F
A
\

Primary Voriable- Dota Voriable- Matin Voriable- Data-

sensing Conversion transmission conversion manipulation presentation» Observer
element element - element element element element
quantity
Eg2: Pressure Thermometer
ref: E.O Doeblin, Measurement Systems Application and Design

PeeTe ae ae ae a ae ag a ae Nt a or
_- Bourdon tube
oe!

fn Base Ma Moar ce a a i a a ge ng ge ge tt
Pe ae ha a ae at A rin)
Pe te ae tae na ait naa
iatnaiaaieateatiaaiateataDeaParearaateateateatateatatatiats

Fe nee i er ih a ar a a ag ei Sf
Pe ni a gg ts eae
Fe a ee eg a ge he ee es: ea ara

Bourdon Linkage Scale and

Fluid Bulb Tubing tube and gear pointer
fom ay cet iB
F * 4 coe

Variable- Motion] Yerioble- Imotion

Temperature Primary Variable- | pressure} Data- Pressure
sensing - Conversion -——————e)] fronsmission | conversion manipulation —= Observer
element element element element element
Generalized Input Output Configuration of
Measuring Instruments
ref: E.O Doeblin, Measurement Systems Application and Design

Output component due to

Interfering input interfering input and 7
, - > Fy

A
I
|
Fur
+

_ Modifying input | 0
* Output
+

Fy, 0
q
|
|
4
- . Y
Jesirec input

Output component due tc

desired input and /y
 Generalized Input Output Configuration of
Measuring Instruments
ref: E.O Doeblin, Measurement Systems Application and Design

¢ The input quantities are classified in to three

¢ Desired Inputs
¢ Interfering Inputs
¢ Modifying Inputs
Generalized Input Output Configuration of
Measuring Instruments
ref: E.O Doeblin, Measurement Systems Application and Design,
https: //www.philadelphia.edu.jo/academics/kaubaidy/uploads /Measurement_Syst-Craig.pdf

— Desired Inputs
¢ These are quantities that the instrument is
specifically intended to measure.
— Interfering Inputs
¢ These are quantities to which the instrument is
unintentionally sensitive.
— Fp, and F, are input-output relations, 1.e., the
mathematical operations necessary to obtain the output
from the input. They represent different concepts
depending on the particular input-output characteristic
being described, e.g., a constant, a mathematical
function, a differential equation, a statistical distribution
function.
Generalized Input Output Configuration of
Measuring Instruments
ref: E.O Doeblin, Measurement Systems Application and Design,
https: //www.philadelphia.edu.jo/academics/kaubaidy/uploads /Measurement_Syst-Craig.pdf

Modifying Inputs
¢ These are quantities that cause a change in the input-
output relations for the desired and interfering
inputs, 1.e., they cause a change in F, and/or Fy. Fy,
and Fy, p represent the specific manner in which iy
affects F, and Fp, respectively.
¢ Note that the effects of both the desired and the
interfering inputs may be altered by the modifying
inputs.
Generalized Input Output Configuration of
Measuring Instruments
ref: E.O Doeblin, Measurement Systems Application and Design,
https: //www.philadelphia.edu.jo/academics/kaubaidy/uploads /Measurement_Syst-Craig.pdf

TTP PTT rrp

Example oar
of
Input Quantities

TUTTP

Le
U-Tube Mercury Manometer for
Differential-Pressure Measurement

Desired Inputs: p, and p,

Interfering Inputs: acceleration, tilt angle
Modifying Inputs: ambient temperature, gravitational force, tilt angle
 Generalized Performance Characteristics of
Instruments
ref: E.O Doeblin, Measurement Systems Application and Design

¢ The treatment of performance characteristics of instruments is broken

down into
¢ Static characteristics- Applications involve measuring quantities that are either
constant or vary slowly with time. Under these circumstances, it is possible to define a
set of criteria that gives a meaningful description of the quality of measurement
without interfering with dynamic descriptions that involve the use of differential
equations. These criteria are called Static Characteristics.
¢ Dynamic characteristics- many measurements are concerned with rapidly varying
quantities and, therefore, for such cases we must examine the dynamic relations which
exist between the output and the input. This is normally done with the help of
differential equations. Performance criteria based upon dynamic relations constitute
the Dynamic Characteristics.
 Static Calibration
ref: E.O Doeblin, Measurement Systems Application and Design/ ref: A. K Sawhney

¢ It is a process to obtain all the static performance characteristics.

¢ Here all inputs except the input selected for study are kept at some
constant values.
_ All the static performance characteristics are obtained in one form or another by a proce
called static calibration, |
_ The calibration of all instruments is_important since it affords the opportunity to check th
instrument against a known standard and subsequently to errors in accuracy. Calibration procedure
involve a comparison of the particular instrument with either (1) a primary standard, (2) a secondar
standard with a higher accuracy than-the instrument to be calibrated, or (3) an instrument of know
accuracy. | *
Actually all working instruments, f.¢., those instruments which are actually used for measup
ment work must be calibrated against some reference instruments which have a higher accuracy, Tht
reference instruments in turn must be calibrated against instrument of still higher grade of accurac
or against primary standard, or against other standards of known accuracy. It is essential that a
measurement made must ultimately be traceable to the relevant primary standards.
 Static Characteristics
ref: A. K Sawhney

The main static characteristics discussed here are : |

(i) Accuracy (ii) Sensitivity, (iii) Reproducibility
(iv) Drift (y) Static error, and (vi) Dead Zone
The qualities (i), (ii) and (iii) are desirable, while qualities (iv), (v) and (vi) are undesirat
Static Characteristics of an Instrument
ref: http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/resource/view.php?id=147080

¢ Example: Using a weighing machine:

¢ When the weighing machine is stabilized then after 10 minutes, 20
minutes, or 30 minutes its reading of the weight of the object will
not change. So, that is a static characteristic of the machine.
¢ The fact that the weighing machine will take some time to
Stabilize, reflects the dynamic characteristics of the weighing
machine.
 Static Characteristics of an Instrument
ref: http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/resource/view.php?7id=147080

1. Accuracy
¢ Accuracy is the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true
value of the quantity being measured.
¢ Thus the accuracy of a measurement means conformity to truth.
¢ The accuracy of an instrument may be expressed in many ways. The accuracy
may be expressed as point accuracy, percent of true value, or percent of scale
range.
¢ Point accuracy is stated for one or more points in the range, for example, the scale
of length may be read within +-0.2 mm.
¢ Another common way is to specify that the instrument is accurate to within x
percent of the instrument span at all points on the scale. Another way of
expressing accuracy is based on instrument range.
2. Precision
¢ It is the consistency or repeatability of measurements.
¢ When an instrument is used to measure the same quantity multiple
times under the same conditions, a precise instrument will yield
very similar results each time, regardless of whether those results
are Close to the true value of the measured quantity.
¢ The term ‘Precise’ means clearly or sharply defined.
Ref:https://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacial-geology/dating-glacial-sediments-2/precision-
and-accuracy-glacial-geology/

Low accuracy Low accuracy

Low precision High precision

High accuracy High accuracy

Low precision High precision
Static Characteristics of an Instrument
ref: http: //ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/resource/view.phv?id=147080
Accuracy Vs Precision Let us cite another example. Consider the
measurement of a known voltage of 100 V with a
meter. Five readings are taken, and the indicated
values are 104, 103, 105, 103 and 105 V. From these
values it is seen that the instrument cannot be
depended on for an accuracy better than 5% (5 V in
this case), while a precision of : 1% is indicated since
the maximum deviation from the mean reading of
104 V is only 1.0 V. Thus we find that the instrument
can be calibrated so that it could be used to read + 1V
dependably. This example illustrates that accuracy
can be improved upon but not the precision of the
instrument by calibration. Another point which is
True value
The true value of the quantity to be measured may be defined as the average of an infinite number of
measured values when the average deviation due to the various contributing factors tends to zero.
Such an ideal situation is impossible to realise in practice and hence it is not possible to determine the
"True Value” of a quantity by experimental means.
 Static Characteristics of an Instrument
ref: http: //ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/resource/view.php7id=147080

Static error
¢ Since the accuracy of an instrument is measured in terms of its error,
an understanding and evaluation of the errors is thus essential.
¢ Static error is defined as the difference between the best-measured
value and the true value of the quantity.
Then:
° E, =A, - At
Where, E, = error (Absolute static error)
° A,, = Measured value of the quantity, and
° A, = true value of quantity.
Static Characteristics of an Instrument
ref: http: //ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/resource/view.php?7id=147080

¢ E.is also called the absolute static error of quantity A.

¢ The absolute value of error does not indicate precisely the

accuracy of measurement.
¢ For example, an error of +2 A is negligible when the current being
measured is of the order of 1000 A, while the same error is highly
significant if the current under measurement is 10 A. Thus another
term relative static error is introduced.
 Static Characteristics of an Instrument
ref: http: //ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/resource/view.php7id=147080

Relative Static Error:

¢ The relative static error is the ratio of absolute static error to the
true value of the quantity under measurement. Thus the relative
Static error E, is given by:

E, =>
Percentage static error % E, = E. x 100
 Static Characteristics of an Instrument
ref: http: //ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/resource/view.php7id=147080

Static Correction:

¢ Itis the difference between the true value and the measured value
of the quantity.

SC -Es= A, - A, = -E,
Static Characteristics of an Instrument
ref: http: //ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/resource/view.php7id=147080

Numericals:
e A pressure indicator showed a reading as 22 bar on a scale range of 0-25 bar. If
the true value was 21.4 bar, determine:
* i) Static error
¢ it) Relative static error

Solution:
i) Static error = 22 - 21.4 =+ 0.6 bar
ii) Relative error = 0.6 / 21.4 = 0.028 or 2.8 %
1. A meter reads 127.50 V and the true value of the voltage
is 127.43 V. .Determine (a) the static error.

°127.50 -127.43 = +0.07 V

Static Characteristics of an Instrument
ref: http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/resource/view.php?id=147080

3. Repeatability and Reproducibility:

¢ Repeatability refers to the ability of a measurement system to produce

consistent results under the same conditions, with the same operator, using
the same equipment, over a short period. It is a measure of the precision of
the system when used repeatedly under unchanged conditions.

¢ Reproducibility refers to the ability of a measurement system to produce

consistent results under different conditions, which can include different
operators, different equipment (of the same type), and/or over different
locations or times. It is a measure of the variability in the measurement
results when the measurement conditions are changed.
Static Characteristics of an Instrument
ref:A K Sawney, https://automationforum.co/difference-between-repeatability-and-reproducibility/

* Reproducibility and reproducibility are the measuresof closeness with which a

measured input may be measured over and over again.
¢ Reproducibility is specified in terms of scale readings over a given period of time.
¢ Repeatability is specified as the variation in scale readings and is random in nature.

Repeatability Reproducibility

Measurements Is done in same

instrument with same location, same Measurement is done in same
procedure, same observer, same instruments, same part with different
condition and repetition over a short appraiser.
interval of time

Occurs due to gauge error Occurs due to operating error

Improve by collecting reading from

Improve by one operator different operator
Static Characteristics of an Instrument
ref:https://www.ques10.com/p/15051/explain-the-following-terms-with-respect-to-the--1/

4. Span
¢ Span of an instrument is the difference between the highest possible
reading (Xmax) & the lowest possible reading (Xmin).
¢ Span = Xmax - Xmin
5. Range
¢ Suppose the highest point is Xmax units lowest is Xmin units.
Therefore, the range of calibration is between Xmax and Xmin or we
can Say that the range is Xmax.
Example: Suppose a thermometer has a calibration of -40°C to 400°C
Therefore,
¢ Span = 400 - (-40) =440°C
¢ Range is 400°C
Static Characteristics of an Instrument
ref: https: //www.ques10.com 15051/explain-the-following-terms-with-respect-to-the--1/,
http: //ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/resource/view.php?id=147082

6. Sensitivity
¢ In steady-state conditions, Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of a change in
output to a change in input.

¢ Note: The sensitivity of the instrument should be high.

** A

‘ o ‘O%
| sbeeenst infinitesimalchange in output A
oo \ 4 i Static sensitivity = fi —— 9 — P = “fe
} 9 nfinitesimalchange in input Aq;
' Y ay.)

\4 | /) q woes .
' The sensitivity is expressed as the slope of the
Q Jf ' A] / . . . . .
© | Aeccrnasnesend © / calibration curve if the ordinates are expressed in
A / c . . . . .
Ovtpx} OF | % Ostput A% actual units. When a calibration curve is linear the
. Seautnity 2 ——— : Senuttits = . . . .
Ag Ay slope of the calibration curve is constant. For this
case the sensitivity is constant over the entire range
0 Kian 0 vw 4
of the instrument. However, if the curve is not a
spurt i
— he = straight line, the sensitivity varies with the input.
Static Characteristics of an Instrument
° Sensitivity: Numericals
A pressure gauge which has a linear calibration curve has a radius of scale line as 120 mm and pressure
of 0 to 50 Pascal is displayed over an arc of 300°. Determine the sensitivity of the gauge as a ratio of scale
length to pressure.

Te 5
300° = 300 x — = —
180 3

ra
Full scale deflection = Fz rad.

5
Length of scale = z * 120 = 2007 mm

2007
Sensitivity = 0. = 4n mm/Pa
 Static Characteristics of an Instrument
ref:https://www.ques10.com/p/15051/explain-the-following-terms-with-respect-to-the--1/
ref: https://premierscales.com/what-is-measurement-drift/
7. Drift:
¢ All calibrations and specifications of an instrument are only valid under controlled conditions of
pressure, temperature, etc. As variations occur in ambient temperature, etc. certain static
characteristics change. Such environmental conditions affect the output and the instrument and
can be called as Drift. No drift means with the given input the measured values do not change
with time. It is classified into three categories:
Zero Drift: If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set or due to undue
warming up of electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets in. This can be prevented by setting the zero.
Span Drift or Sensitivity Drift: If there is a Proportional change in the indication all along the upward
scale, the drift is called span drift or sensitivity drift.
Zonal Drift: The drift occurs only over a portion of span of an instrument, it is called zonal drift. Drift is
undesirable quantity in instruments and canbe caused because of electric and magnetic fields, thermal
emfs, changes in temperature, wear & tear, vibrations, etc.
4
Characteristics with zero daft ff :
J , : Charactenstics with zero daft & p :
/ Charactensties with span : Charactenshes with zonal
7 ise ‘ span daft
daft , daft
Output fs gue oe Ovtput
utput
f° Output

Zeto wah Nominal ye: -"Noenina b

Daft ae charactenstics J” Nominal x40 SNOG Nominal
Pe Charactenstics igh” Charactenstics Charactenstes
v

0 Input
v

v
Input Input

v
Input
 Static Characteristics of an Instrument
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Curve B — variable
8. Hysteresis: Hysteresis is a phenomenon under Output 4
decreasing
whic the measuring instrument shows different reading
output effects during loading and unloading.
Hysteresis results from the inelastic quality of an
element or device. Maximum —
output ~ f Curve A ~ variable
It is the maximum difference between corresponding hysteresis increasing
upscale and downscale outputs for any single test
cycle, that is, the maximum difference in output at —
any given value of the measured variable within the Measured
specified range when approaching that point first variable
with increasing the input and then decreasing the Maximum input
Input. hysteresis

The numerical value of hysteresis is specified in

terms of output or input values. of.
!
_ Dead space

The maximum difference in the readings is reported

as hysteresis. The difference may be expressed as a
percent of the ideal output span.
Hysteresis results due to the presence of several
factors, such as, mechanical friction, motion in
bearings, and magnetic and thermal effects. This
could also be due to free play or looseness in the
mechanisms.
Static Characteristics of an Instrument
ref: A K Sawhney

9. Threshold
¢ If the input to an instrument is gradually raised from zero, the minimum
value below which, no output change can be detected is called the
threshold.
¢ It defines the smallest measurable input
Static Characteristics of an Instrument
ref: A K Sawhney

10. Dead zone

¢ The largest change in input quantity for which there is no output of
the instrument.
Static Characteristics of an Instrument
ref:https://instrumentationtools.com/static-and-dynamic-characteristics-of-an-instrument/

11. Resolution
¢ Resolution is the smallest quantity that can be detected with
certainty by an instrument being measured.
¢ Ifa non-zero input quantity is raised slowly, the output will not
rise until some minimum changes in the input are done. This
minimum change causes the change in output to be termed
resolution.
Static Characteristics of an Instrument
ref: E. O Doeblin

12. Linearity
¢ It is a measure of the deviation of the calibration curve of the
instrument from a reference straight line.
¢ If the reference line is the least square fit it is known as
independent linearity.
Dynamic Characteristics of an Instrument
ref: A. K Sawhney

¢ Speed of response
¢ Itis defined as the rapidity with which the measurement system responds to the
changes in measured quantity.
¢ Measuring lag
¢ It is the delay in the response of a measurement system to the changes in measured
quantity.
¢ Fidelity
¢ It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the
measured quantity without error.
¢ Dynamic error
¢ It is the between the true value of the quantity changing with time and the value
indicated by the measurement system if no static error is assumed.
Dynamic Characteristics of an Instrument
ref: E. O Doeblin

¢ Dynamic-range
¢ Itis the ratio of the largest to smallest dynamic input that the instrument will
faithfully measure. It is specified in dB.
¢ If N is the ratio, then the dynamic range in dB= 20logwN.
The instrument shows fidelity in the dynamic range.
Eg: if an oscilloscope can display sinusoids from 10Hz to 10000Hz.
N=10000/10=1000
¢ Dynamic range= 20log..1000 =60dB
 Dynamic Characteristics of an Instrument
ref: E.O Doeblin

Generalized Mathematical Model:

¢ The relation between an input qi and output go with ‘n’ output and ‘m’
‘input can be put in the for
d"q d"~ +g dq qm
a : S ato _ qi
n gin + On qn T+ dt 1 404%= ™ dtm

+ by arm- + + +b, + 004i

If we define the differential operator D & d/dt, then

(a,D" + a,_,D" ' +--+» +a,;D + a0)q, =(b,D™+b,-,D™ ' + + dD + bola
 , a A
Operational transfer function § 7 (D)

a byD" + by DP * +o + BD + do
gD" +4, Dry. + aD + dy

Laplace transfer function

oS) A do a OmSs” + bys"! tote + bis + bo
— S) _
ads) ; a,S° n
+ a,48 n-—l ~
+ +++ + aS + do
Zero Order System
. d"q
o
d"~1q
0
d
do d
”
qi
ref: E.O Doeblin
a, at" + a,-4 drm! +: +a, dt 1 9040 = Om me

¢ Generalized Mathematical Model:

a +h aq,
Zero Order Instrument
+b
dt™~? 1 Odi

ad 0 Go = b 0 Yj ; bo
do = qi = Kq;
ay

& static sensitivity

: a
K =—
r oO Do ra

Ug
 | Gis

.
ix.
Time
— i 6 +

aa
x; &s

Step response me
<j —

Xj
eo=—L Ee h _ Kx;
0

where K © E,/L volts per inch.

First Order Systema:* « dq,—~
n- 1
qo
-1 dt"—} +s + a; + ag q, = b,, aq;
dt dt™
ref: E.O Doeblin
d™~ "gq,
¢ Generalized Mathematical Model: + b-4 7! +b,
dq;
it + bo Q;
First Order Instrument
© static sensitivity
Uy

rf
adi © time constant
Uy

de (p) = tD+ 1
fj
 my —
da
rast

MrT eT t|
r eS 0.8 aa TY ais
fp K Xo o| 0
_ 0.6 | | 0.632
2 | 0.865
Tt D + = — 0.4 3 | 0.950
4 | 0,982
baa eM ae nd | pe te ee 0.2 | . so | 1,000
aes Tae: sa — cate ge ag ge rey | | _
ae lage ae me ee ay | P- - e 0 | | | >
f

3 4 5 2
ee

2
— ee

\
a

0
Pe” lal a Same” ee cee Sa

earnNge- a| dy4e
Ca eee
o cerocae

Goh

—p-
i +--s-=
SS == ==
results may be nondimensionalized by
KQis / 7 Cerge t Yo —|j-— ett

| a Kis

Time