DC MACHINES

MBEYA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Course: Biomedical Equipment Engineering
Facilitator: Eng. Jackson G Rusanyu
Module: MT 6207
 Course Description
Course title: DC Machines
Course code: MT 6207
Credit: 9
Mode of Assessment:
 2 Test @ 15Marks

1Assignment 3Marks
 Quiz/Attendance 7marks
 Introduction
An electrical machine, deals with the energy transfer
either from mechanical to electrical form or from
electrical to mechanical form. This process is called
electromechanically energy conversion.

Electric generator is an electrical machine which convert

mechanical energy into mechanical energy.

Electric Motor is an electrical machine which convert an

electrical energy to mechanical energy.
Introduction…
D.C. Generators: These are
machines convert mechanical
input power into d.c. electrical
power.

D.C. Motor: These are

machines convert electrical
power into mechanical power.

The construction of Both types of d.c. machine remains same

Electromechanical Energy Conversion
The electromechanical energy conversion process
involves the transfer of energy between electrical and
mechanical systems via electric field or magnetic field.

In practice three types of electromechanical energy

conversion device are in use.
EEC Device…
1. The various transducers such as microphones, loud speakers,
stain gauge, thermocouples etc. These devices handle low energy
signal (mostly operates via vibrating motion)

2. The device which produce mechanical force or torque based on

translatory motion such as electromagnet, relays, solenoids,
actuators etc. these devices handle large signals than the
transducers.

3. The device used for continuous energy conversion using

rotational motion such as generators, motors etc. These devices
handles very large energy signals.
Introduction…
Though energy conversion can take place via electric or
magnetic field, the magnetic field is practically used as is
most suited for practical device and the energy storing
devices and the energy storing capacity of magnetic field is
much higher than that of electrical field.
 Energy Balance Equation
Electrical Total Energy
Mechanical
Energy Change in Loss i.e.
Transformed
Input from energy Energy
Output
Electrical stored dissipated in
energy
System. form of heat

Mechanical
Electrical Change in Total energy
energy input
Transformed Energy loss
from
Energy stored i.e. Energy
mechanical
output dissipated
system
Working Principle of a D.C. Machine
as a Generator
Working Principle of a D.C. Machine as a Generator…

All generator works on the principle of Faraday's Law of

Electromagnetic induction.

Which states that Whenever the number of magnetic lines of

force i.e. flux linking with a conductor or a coil changes, an
electromotive force is set up in that conductor or coil.

The magnitude of an induced emf in a conductor is

proportional to the rate of change of flux associated with the
conductor this is mathematically given by,
𝑑∅
e (magnitude) 𝛼
𝑑𝑡
 Dynamic Induced e.m.f
Is an induced emf which is due to physical movement of
coil or conductor with respect to flux or movement of
flux with respect to coil or conductor.

So a generating action requires following basic

components to exist
i. The conductor or a coil

ii. The flux

iii. The relative motion between conductor and flux.

Armature winding these are number of conductors connected
together in a specific manner to form a winding in order to have a
large voltage as an output.
The part on which this winding is kept is called armature of a d.c.
machine.
Prime mover: This is an initial source of the motive power. (it
an external device which helps conductors on the armature to
rotate)
commonly used Prime mover are
• Diesel engine
• Steam engines
• Steam turbnes and water turbinnes etc
Field winding: these are winding which produce the
necessary magnetic flux when current pass through the
winding.

The direction of an induced emf can be obtained by

using Fleming’s right hand rule.
If angle between the plane of rotation and the plane of the flux is
‘θ’ as measured from the axis of the plane of flux then the
induced e.m.f is given by,

E = B l ( v sin θ ) volts
Where v sin θ is the component of velocity which is
perpendicular to the plane of flux and hence responsible for the
induced e.m.f.
From the equation of induced emf it can be seen that the basic
nature of the induced emf in a dc generator is purely sinusoidal
i.e alternating. To have d.c voltage, device used in a d.c
generator to convert the alternating e.m.f to unidirectional
e.m.f . This device is called Commutator.
Construction details of a D.C. Machine
Whether the machine is d.c. generator or motor the
construction basically remains the same as shown in the
Fig below
Construction details of a D.C. Machine
 YOKE
Function
 it serves the purpose of outermost cover of the d.c.
machine.
It provide mechanical support to the poles
It forms part of the magnetic circuit

Choice of Material
 Cast Iron - Cheapest and
- Provide low reluctance path
 For large machines rolled steel, cast
steel, silicon steel are used which
provide high permeability.
 Poles
Each pole is divided into two parts
Pole core

Pole shoe

Function of pole core and pole shoe

 Pole core basically carry the field winding which is necessary
to produce the flux.
 Direct the flux produced through air gap to armature core.
 Pole shoe enlarges the area of armature core to come across the
flux. Which is necessary to produce larger induced e.m.f . To
achieve this pole shoe has been given the particular shape.
Poles…
Choice of material: It is made up of magnetic material
like cast iron or cast steel. The lamination of required
size and shape are stamped together to get a pole which
is then bolted to the yoke.
 Field Winding
Field winding is wounding in the pole core with a definite
direction.
Function: When direct
current is passed through the
field winding, it magnetizes
the poles which produce the
required flux.

Helps to produce magnetic field i.e. exciting the pole as an

electromagnet it is called Field winding or Exciting winding.
 Field winding is divided into various coil called field
coils. These are connected in series with each another
and wound in such a direction around pole cores, such
that alternate ‘N’and ‘S’ poles are formed. The total
number of poles is denoted as P.

The field coils of all the poles

are connected in series in such a
way that when current flows
through them, the adjacent poles
attain opposite polarity as shown
 Armature
Armature is further divided into two parts
1. Armature core and

2. Armature winding

Armature core: is cylindrical in

shape mounted on the shaft. It
consist of slots on its periphery and
the air duct to permit the air flow
through armature which serves
cooling purpose.
Function
1. Armature core provides house for armature winding. i.e.
Armature conductors

2. To provide easy path for the magnetic flux produced by the field
winding.
To minimize hysteresis losses silicon
steel material is used for its construction.
To reduce these Eddy current losses,
armature core is laminated, in other
words we can say that about 0.3 to 0.5
mm thick stampings are used for its
construction.
 Armature Winding:
The insulated conductors housed in the armature slots are suitably
connected. The armature winding acts as the heart of a DC machine.
It is a place where one form of power is converted to the other form.

Functions:
 in case of generator, mechanical
power is converted into
electrical power and
 in case of motor, electrical
power is converted into It is made up of
mechanical power. conducting material which
is Copper
 Types of Armature Winding
Number of armature conductor are connected in a
specific manner to give armature winding.

Types
 Lap winding

 Wave winding
Lap Winding
In this winding, the connections are such that the number of
parallel paths is equal to number of poles. Thus, if machine
has P poles and Z armature conductors, then there will be P
parallel, paths, each path will have Z/P conductors in series

A = P = Number of parallel paths for lap

Wave Winding
In this winding, the connections are such that the numbers of
parallel paths are only two irrespective of the number of poles.
Thus, if machine has Z armature conductors, there will be only
two parallel paths each having Z/2 conductors in series

A = 2 = Number of parallel paths for wave

 Comparison of Lap and Wave Type
Winding.
S/No. Lap winding Wave winding
1 Number of parallel paths (A) = Number of parallel paths (A)
pole (P) = 2 (always)

2 Number of brush sets required Number of brush sets

is equal to number of poles. required is always equal to
two
3 Preferable for high current, low Preferable for high voltage,
voltage capacity generators. low current capacity
generators
4 Normally used for generators Preferred for generators of
of capacity more than 500 A. capacity less than 500 A.
 Commutator
Commutation: is the process of
switching the field in the
armature windings to produce
constant torque in one direction.

Commutator: is the device which

convert alternating voltage to
direct voltage.
Function of the Commutator

 To facilitate collection of current

from the armature conductor.

 To convert internal developed

alternating e.m.f to
unidirectional (d.c.) e.m.f.

 To produce unidirectional torque

in case of motors.

Commutator is made up Armature conductors are

of the copper segments connected by means of
copper lugs or strip.
 Brushes and Brush Gear
The brushes are pressed upon
the commutator and form the
connecting link between the
armature winding and the
external circuit.

Brushes are made up of carbon

to avoid wear and tear of the
commutator.
 Bearings
The bearings may be ball or roller bearings these are fitted in the
end housings. Their function is to reduce friction between the
rotating and stationary parts of the machine.
 Shaft
The shaft is made of mild steel with a maximum breaking
strength. The shaft is used to transfer mechanical power
from or to the machine. The rotating parts like armature
core, commutator, cooling fan etc. are keyed to the shaft.
Simple Loop Generator
Commutator action
 Winding Technology
a) Conductor : It is the actual armature conductor
which is under the influence of the magnetic field,
placed in the armature slot.

b) Turn: The two conductor placed in different slots

when connected together form a turn.

Z = 2 x Number of Turns
c) Coil: This is the group of turns connected together
for the simplicity of connection. If the coil contain
one turn it is called single turn while coil with more
than one turn is called multiturn coil.
d) Pole pitch: This is the angular distance between two
adjacent conductors. It is measured in terms of the number
of slots. Thus the total slots along the periphery of
armature divided by the total number of poles is called a
pole pitch.
 E.M.F Equation of a D.C.
Generator
Let, P = Number of poles of the machine.
I = Flux per pole in Wb
Z = Total number of armature conductors.
N = Speed of armature in rpm
A = Number of parallel paths in the armature winding.
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction the average
emf induced in each armature conductor is,
𝑑∅
e = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
In one revolution of the armature; Flux cut by one conductor = Pø Wb
Time taken to complete one revolution, t = 60/N second
 Average Induced E.M.F in one conductor is
P∅ 𝑃∅ 𝑃∅N
e= = = volt
𝑡 60/𝑁 60

The number of conductors connected in series in each

parallel path = Z / A.

Average induced emf across each parallel path or across

the armature terminals,
𝑃∅N 𝑍 𝑃𝑍∅N
E= 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
60 𝐴 60𝐴

𝑃∅N 𝑍 𝑃𝑍∅𝑛
E= 𝑥 = where n is speed n r.p.s.
60 𝐴 60𝐴
N
i.e n=
60
 For a given machine, the number of poles and number of conductors per
parallel path (Z/A) are constant.
𝑃𝑍
E = K ø n where K = is a constant or E 𝜶 ø n
𝐴

𝑃𝑍
E = K1 ø n where K1 = is a constant or E 𝜶 ø N
60𝐴

2𝞹𝑁
E 𝜶 ø ω where ω = is the angular velocity in radian/second
60

 Thus we conclude that the induced emf is direct proportional to the flux
per pole and speed. Moreover, the polarity of the induced emf depends
upon the direction of magnetic field and the direction of rotation.

 If either of the two is reversed, the polarity of induced emf i.e., brushes is
reversed, but when both are reversed the polarity does not change.
Examples
1. An eight pole lap wound DC generator has 960
conductors, a flux of 40 m Wb per pole and is driven at
400 rpm. Find OC emf.
2. A 4-pole, DC machine has 144 slots in the armature with two
coil-sides per slot, each coil has two turns. The flux per pole is 20
m Wb, the armature is lap wound and if rotates at 720 rpm, what
is the induced emf (i) across the armature (ii) across each parallel
path?
3. A six-pole machine has an armature with 90 slots and 8
conductors per slot, the flux per pole is 0.05Wb and rms at 1000
rpm. Determine induced emf if winding is (i) lap connected (ii)
wave connected.
4. A DC machine running at 750 rpm has an induced emf of 200
V. Calculate the speed at which then induced emf will be 250 V
(ii) the percentage increase in main field flux for an induced emf
of 250 V at a speed of 700 rpm.
5. A four-pole generator has an induced emf of 250 V when
driven at 500 rpm. The armature is lap wound and has 600
conductors. The radius of the pole shoe is 20 cm and it subtends
an angle of 60°. Calculate the flux density in the air-gap if the
length of pole shoe is 18 cm.
Symbolic representation of the
dc Generator
 Types of the DC-Generator
The field winding is called exciting winding. and the current
carried by the field winding is called exciting current. Thus
supplying current to the field winding is called excitation.
And the way of supplying the exciting current is called
method of excitation.

Depending on the method of excitation dc generator can be

classified as
1. Separately excited generator
2. Self excited generator
 Types of DC Generator
DC
Generator

Separately Self
excited excited

Shunt Series Compound

Cumulative Differential
 Separately Excited Generator
When the field winding is supplied from external,
separate d.c. supply i.e. excitation of field winding is
separate then the generator is called separately excited
generator.
 Voltage and Current relations

Ia = LL
So in all, induced e.m.f E has components namely,

i) Terminal voltage Vt ii) Armature resistance drop

iii) Brush contact drop Vbrush iv) armature reaction drop

 Voltage and Current relations

E = Vt+ IaRa + Vbrush + Armature reaction Drop

𝑷𝒁∅𝒏
E= = Generated e.m.f
𝟔𝟎𝑨

Generally Vbrush is Taken as 1V per Brush but many times it

is neglected
Examples
1. A 12-pole DC shunt generator has 50 slots on its armature
with 12 conductors per slot with wave winding. The
armature and field winding resistance is 0.5 ohm and 60 ohm
respectively. The generator is supplying a resistive load of 15
ohm at terminal voltage of 300 V when running at a speed of
625 rpm. Find the armature current, the generated emf and
the flux per pole.
2. A six-pole shunt generator with lap connected
armature has field and armature resistance of 50Ω and
0.1Ω respectively. The generator is supplying a load of
2.4 kW at 100 V. Calculate the armature current, current
in each conductor and generated emf.
 Self-excited DC Generators
A DC generator whose field winding is excited by the current
supplied by the generator itself is called a self-excited DC generator.

In a self-excited DC generator, the field coils may be connected in

parallel with the armature, in series with the armature or partly in
series and partly in parallel with the armature winding. Accordingly,
the self-excited generators may be classified as
(i) Shunt wound generators
(ii) Series wound generators
(iii) Compound wound generators.
 Shunt Wound Generator
When the field winding is connected in parallel with the
armature and the combination across the load then the
generator is called shunt generator. The field winding has
larger number of turns of thin wire so it has large resistance
denoted as Rsh
 Shunt field current, Ish = V/Rsh
Where Rsh is the shunt field winding resistance. The field current Ish is
practically constant at all loads, therefore, the DC shunt machine is considered
to be constant flux machine.

Armature current, Ia = IL + Ish

Terminal Voltage, V = Eg – Ia Ra
Including brush contact drop, V = Eg – Ia Ra – 2Vb
Power developed = Eg Ia; Power output = VIL
 Series Wound Generators
In a series wound generator, the field winding is connected
in series with the armature winding forming a series circuit.
Therefore, full line current IL or armature current Ia flows
through it.

Since the series field winding carries full load current, it has a few turns of
thick wire having low resistance (usually of the order of less than one ohm)
 Series field current, Ise = IL = Ia
Series field winding resistance = Rse
Terminal voltage, V = Eg – Ia Ra – Ise Rse = Eg – Ia (Ra + Rse)
Including brush contact drop, V = Eg – Ia (Ra + Rse) – 2Vb
Power developed = EgIa; Power output = VIL = VIa
Note: The flux developed by the series field winding is directly
proportional to the current flowing through it (i.e., ø α Ise). But it is
only true before magnetic saturation, after saturation flux becomes
constant even if the current flowing through it is increased.
Examples

A dc series generator has an armature resistance of

0.5Ω and series field resistance of 0.003Ω. It drives a
load of 50A. If it has 6 turn/coil and total 540 coils on
the armature and is driven at 1500r.p.m calculate the
terminal voltage at the load. Assume 4poles, lap type
winding, flux per pole as 2mWb and total brush drop
as 2V.
 Compound Wound Generators
In a compound wound generator, there are two sets of
field windings on each pole. One of them is connected
in series (having few turns of thick wire) and the other
is connected in parallel (having many turns of fine
wire) with armature. A compound wound generator
may be;
a) Long shunt
b) Short Shunt
Long Shunt Compound Generator
Shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the
combination of both armature and series field winding.
 Shunt field current, Ish = V/ Rsh
Series field current, Ise = Ia = IL + Ish
Terminal voltage, V = Eg – Ia Ra – Ise Rse = Eg – Ia (Ra + Rse)
Including brush contact drop, V = Eg – Ia (Ra + Rse) – 2Vb
Power developed = Eg Ia; Power output = VIL
Examples

A long shunt dc compound generator drives 20lamps,

all are connected in parallel. Terminal voltage is 550V
with each lamp resistance as 500Ω. If Rsh = 25 Ω, Ra
= 0.06 Ω and Rse = 0.04Ω , calculate the armature
current and the generated e.m.f.
Short Shunt Compound Generator
The shunt field winding is connected in parallel with
only armature winding.
 Series field current, Ise = IL
𝑽+𝑰𝑳𝑹𝒔𝒆
Shunt field current Ish =
𝑹𝒔𝒉

𝑬𝒈−𝑰𝒂𝑹𝒂
=
𝑹𝒔𝒉
Ia = IL + Ish
Terminal voltage, V = Eg – IaRa – IL Rse
Including brush contact drop, V = Eg – Ia Ra – IL Rse – 2Vb
Power developed = Eg Ia; Power output = VIL
Example

A short shunt compound DC generator supplies a

current of 75A at a voltage of 225V. Calculate the
generated voltage if the resistance of armature, shunt
field and series field winding are 0.04 Ω, 90 Ω and
0.02Ω respectively.
 Cumulatively and Differentially
Compound-wound Generators
In compound wound DC generators, the field is produced by the shunt as well
as series winding. Generally the shunt field is stronger than the series field.

When the series field assist the shunt field, the generator is called as
cumulatively compound wound generator .fig (a)

However, when the series field opposes the shunt field, the generator is known
as differentially compound wound generator. fig (b)
 Voltage Regulation of a DC
Shunt Generator
At no-load, the voltage at the terminals of a shunt generator is
maximum and is called no-load generated emf When load is
applied on the generator, the terminal voltage decreases due
to drop in the armature circuit.
Generated voltage or voltage at the terminals at no-load
𝑷𝒁∅𝒏
Eg =E0
𝟔𝟎𝑨
 At full load, the terminal voltage is

V = Eg – Ia(fl) Ra – Vb
Where, Ia(fl) = Full-load armature current
Ra = Armature resistance
Vb = Total voltage drop at the brushes

The rise in terminal voltage from full-load to no-load

at constant speed of a DC generator is called its
voltage regulation. It is expressed as a percentage of
full-load terminal voltage i.e.,
E0−V
% Voltage regulation = x 100
𝑽
Example
1. A 12 kW, six-pole DC generator develops an emf of
240 at 1500 rpm. The armature has a lap connected
winding. The average flux density over the pole pitch
is 1.0 T. The length and diameter of the armature is 30
cm and 25 cm respectively. Calculate flux per pole,
total number of active armature conductors. Power
generated in the armature and torque developed when
the machine is delivering 50 A current to the load.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
DC GENERATORS
To determine the relation between different quantities
of a DC generator, the following are the important
characteristics of DC generators:
No load characteristic
External characteristic
Internal characteristic
 No-load Characteristics of DC
Generators
No-load characteristics. It is also known as magnetic
characteristics or open-circuit characteristics (O.C.C.). It
shows the relation between the no-load generated e.m.f in
the armature (E0) and the field current (i.e., exciting
current) If, at a specified speed.

Circuit Diagram No Load Characteristic

 Analysis of the curve

While analyzing the curve, the following points are worth noting:
1. The curve starts from point ‘a’ instead of ‘O’ when the field current is
zero. It is because of the residual magnetism of the poles.
2. The initial part of the curve (ab) is almost a straight line because at this
stage the magnetic material is unsaturated and it has high permeability.
3. After point ‘b’ the curve bends and the generated e.m.f (E) becomes
almost constant. It is because after point ‘b’, the poles (magnetic
material) starts getting saturated.
 Voltage Build-up in Shunt Generators
The open circuit characteristics of a DC shunt generator is shown in Fig below. The shunt field
resistance is represented by a straight line OX. When armature is rotated at a constant speed of Ꞷ
rad/sec, the small residual flux of the poles is cut by the armature conductors, and very small emf (oa)
is induced in the armature.

If now key (K) connected in the shunt field winding, as shown in Fig below, is closed, current ob flows
in the field winding. This current increases the flux produced by the poles and voltage generated in the
armature is increased to oc which further increases the field current to od which further builds up the
voltage.

This building up action comes to an end at point f where the o.c.c. intersects the shunt field resistance
line OX. It is, because beyond this point, the induced voltage is less than that required to maintain the
corresponding field current. Thus, the final current in the field winding is ef and the final voltage build
up by the generator for a given O.C.C. is oe as shown in Fig below.
 Critical Field Resistance of a DC Shunt
Generator
The open circuit characteristic of a DC shunt
generator are shown in Figure.
The line OX is drawn in such a way that its slope
gives the field winding resistance, i.e.,
In this case, the generator can build up a
maximum voltage OB with a shunt field
resistance Rsh.
A line OY represents a smaller resistance. With
this resistance, the generator can build up a
maximum voltage OF which is slightly more
than OB.
If the field resistance is increased, the slope of
the resistance line increases. Consequently the
maximum voltage which the generator can build
up, at a specified speed, decreases.
If the value of Rsh is increased to such an extent
that the resistance line does not cut the no-load
characteristics at all (OZ), then it is apparent that
the voltage will not be built-up (i.e., the
generator fails to excite)
If the resistance line (OP) just coincide with the slope of the curve, at
this value of field resistance, the generator will just excite. This
resistance, given by the tangent to the O.C.C. is called the critical
resistance at a specified speed.
Thus, the slope of the tangent drawn on the O.C.C. is called critical resistance.
Critical resistance of a field winding. It is that maximum value
resistance of a field winding which is required to build-up voltage in a
generator. If the value of field resistance is more than this value, the
generator would not build-up the voltage.
Critical load resistance. The minimum value of load resistance on a
DC shunt generator with which it can be in position to build-up is
called its critical load resistance.
Critical speed of a DC shunt generator. It is the speed of a DC
shunt generator at which shunt field resistance will represent the
critical field resistance.
 Load Characteristics of Shunt
Generator
It is also called external or
performance characteristics
of shunt generator.

It shows relation between the

terminal voltage V on load
and the load current IL.
 To obtain this characteristics, proceed as follows:
Connect an ammeter A1 and rheostat in the
field circuit and an ammeter A2 and
voltmeter V on the load side as shown in
Fig.
Apply a variable load across the terminals.
At start switch off the load and run the
generator at rated speed. No-load e.m.f
(generated voltage E) will appear across the
voltmeter.
Then switch on the load through switch S
and increase the load gradually keeping
field current (ammeter reading A1) constant
with the help of rheostat Rh
Take the readings of voltmeter V and
ammeter A2 at various instants and plot the
curve. The curve so obtained is shown
below
 Analysis of the Curve
While analyzing the curve, the following
points are highlighted:
1. At no-load, the voltage across the terminals
is maximum and is considered to be equal
to generated e.m.f E
2. As the load is increased gradually, the load
current IL increases but the terminal voltage
decreases.
The decrease in voltage is because of the following reasons
(i) Due to increase in voltage drop in the armature resistance (Ia Ra )
(ii) Due to armature reaction
(iii)The drop in terminal voltage further causes decreases in field current
3. During initial portion of the curve AB, the tendency of the voltage drop due to
armature resistance is more than armature reaction
4. At point B these two effects neutralize each other.
5. After point B, armature reaction dominates and the curve turns back (BC portion
of the curve), as shown above
6. The point C at which the external characteristic cuts the current axis corresponds
to a gradual short circuit.
 Load Characteristics of Series
Generators
Full armature current Ia flows through it. When load increases, Ia
increases which increases flux and consequently generated e.m.f is
also increased. This, correspondingly increases the terminal voltage
V. Thus, a series generator has a rising characteristic (curve OA) as
shown in Figure below

Circuit Diagram Curve between V and IL

However, at higher loads, the terminal voltage begins
to reduce because of the excessive demagnetizing
effects of armature reaction. Ultimately, the terminal
voltage reduces to zero at load current OB as shown

Circuit Diagram Curve between V and IL

 Load Characteristics of
Compound Generator
There are some applications where constant terminal voltage is
essential. At such places, shunt generator is not suitable, because its
terminal voltage decreases with the increase in load on it.
However it can be made suitable for such applications by connecting
a few turns in series with the armature.
The field produced by these series turns assist the field produced by
the shunt winding. Such generators are known as compound
generators.
In such generators when load current increases, the flux increases
which increases the induced e.m.f This extra induced e.m.f
compensates the voltage drop in the armature resistance and the
demagnetising effect due to armature reaction. Hence, the terminal
voltage V remains substantially constant
 Degree of Compounding
A cumulatively compound wound generator
is shown in Fig. Its level of compounding can
be changed by varying the amount of current
passing through the series field winding by
connecting a by-pass rheostat Rh
When the field current is adjusted such that
the terminal voltage V on full load remains
the same as that on no-load, the generator is
called to be level or flat compounded
generator
When the terminal voltage on full-load is
more than its terminal voltage at no-load, the
generator is called to be an over compounded
generator.
when the terminal voltage on full-load is less
than no-load voltage, the generator is called
to be as under compounded generator.
 Causes of Failure to Build-up
Voltage in a Generator
1. When the residual magnetism in the field system is destroyed.
2. When the connections of the field winding are reversed. This, in
fact, destroys the residual magnetism due to which generator
fails to build up voltage.
3. In case of shunt-wound generators, the other causes may be
(i) the resistance of shunt field circuit may be more than the critical
resistance.
(ii) the resistance of load circuit may be less than critical resistance.
(iii) the speed of rotation may be below the rated speed
4. In case of series-wound generators, the other causes may be
(i) the load circuit may be open: it may be due to faulty contact
between brushes and commutator or commutator surface may be
greasy or dirty and making no contact with the brushes.
(ii) the load circuit may have high resistance.
Applications of DC Generators
Separately Excited Generator: the use is restricted to some special
application such as electro-plating, electro-refining of materials.

Shunt Generators: commonly used in battery charging and ordinary

lighting purpose.

Series generator: commonly used as boosters on d.c feeders, as constant

current generators for welding generators and arc lamps.

Cumulatively compound generators: used for domestic lighting purposes

and to transmit energy over long distance.

Differential compound generator: use of this type of generators is very

rare and it is used for special application like electric arc welding.
 Losses in a DC Generator
Losses affect the efficiency of the generator. A reduction
in these losses leads to higher efficiency. Thus, the major
objective in the design of a DC machine is the reduction
of these losses.

The various losses occurring in a DC machine can be sub-

divided as:
1. Copper losses.
2. Iron losses
3. Mechanical losses.
Copper losses
The various windings of the DC machine, made of copper, have
some resistance. When current flows through them, there is power
loss proportional to the square of their respective currents. These
power losses are called copper losses.
 Iron losses
The losses which occur in the iron parts of a DC generator are known
as iron losses or core losses or magnetic loss. These losses consist of
the following
(i) Hysteresis loss. Whenever a magnetic material is subjected to reversal of
magnetic flux, this loss occurs. It is due to retentivity property of the
material. It occurs in the rotating armature. To minimize this loss, the
armature core is made of silicon steel which has low hysteresis constant.

(ii) Eddy current loss. When flux linking with the magnetic material changes
(or flux is cut by the magnetic material) an e.m.f is induced in it which
circulates eddy currents through it. These eddy currents produce eddy
current loss in the form of heat. To minimize this loss, the armature
core is laminated into thin sheets (0.3 to 0.5 mm).
Mechanical losses
As the armature of a DC machine is a rotating part, some
power is required to overcome:
(i) Air friction of rotating armature (windage loss)
(ii) Friction at the bearing and friction between brushes
and commutator (friction loss).
These losses are known as mechanical losses.
To reduce these losses proper lubrication is done at the
bearings.
 Constant and Variable Losses
The losses in a DC generator may also be sub-divided into

1. Constant losses; 2. Variable losses

Constant losses: The losses in a DC machine which remain the same

at all loads are called constant losses. The constant losses in a DC
machine are: (i) Iron losses; (ii) Mechanical losses; (iii) Shunt field
copper losses

Variable losses: The losses in DC machine which vary with load are
called variable losses. The variable losses in a DC machine are (i)
Armature copper loss; (ii) Series field copper loss (iii) Interpole
winding copper loss and (iv) Compensating winding copper loss.
Stray Losses

The sum of the iron losses and mechanical losses in a

DC machine are known as stray losses i.e.,

Stray losses = Iron losses + Mechanical losses.

 Power Flow Diagram
The mechanical power (ꞶTm) is supplied to the generator
which is converted into electrical power (VIL). While
conversion, various losses occur in the machine. The power
flow diagram for a DC generator is shown below.
 Efficiency of a DC Generator
The ratio of output power to the input power of a DC generator is
called its efficiency.

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡, ᶮ = ; where power output=VIL watt
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

Power input = Power output + Variable losses + Constant losses

Condition for Maximum Efficiency
Example
1. A shunt generator supplies 195 A at 220 V. Armature
resistance is 0.02 ohm, shunt field resistance is 44 ohm. If the
iron and friction losses amount to 1600 watt, find (i) emf
generated; (ii) copper losses; (iii) b.h.p. of the engine driving
the generator.
2. A 400 V shunt generator has full-load current of
200 A. Its armature resistance is 0.06 ohm, field
resistance is 100 ohm and the stray losses are 2000
watt. Find the h.p. of prime-mover when it is
delivering full load, and find the load for which the
efficiency of the generator is maximum.