ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

II Year – I SEMESTER
Syllabus:
UNIT – I Electrostatics: Objective: Electrostatic Fields – Coulomb’s Law – Electric Field Intensity (EFI) – EFI due to a line
and a surface charge – Work done in moving a point charge in an electrostatic field – Electric Potential – Properties of potential
function – Potential gradient – Guass’s law –– Maxwell’s first law, div ( D )=ρv Laplace’s and Poison’s equations and Solution
of Laplace’s equation in one variable.
Outcome: Ability to calculate electric field and potentials using Guass’s law or solving Laplace’s or Possion’s equations.
UNIT – II Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance: Electric dipole – Dipole moment – potential and EFI due to an electric
dipole – Torque on an Electric dipole in an electric field – Behaviour of conductors in an electric field – Conductors and Insulators
Polarization – Boundary conditions between conduction to Dielectric and dielectric to dielectrics capacitance – capacitance of
parallel plates, spherical and coaxial cables with composite dielectrics –Energy stored and energy density in a static electric field –
Current density – conduction and Convection current densities – Ohm’s law in point form – Equation of continuity.
UNIT – III Magneto statics and Ampere’s Law: Static magnetic fields – Biot-Savart’s law – Oesterd’s experiment - Magnetic
field intensity (MFI) – MFI due to a straight current carrying filament – MFI due to circular, square and solenoid current –
Carrying wire – Relation between magnetic flux, magnetic flux density and MFI – Maxwell’s second Equation, div(B)=0 –
Ampere’s circuital law and its applications viz. MFI due to an infinite sheet of current and a long filament carrying conductor –
Point form of Ampere’s circuital law –Field due to a circular loop, rectangular and square loops, Maxwell’s third equation, Curl
(H)=J.
UNIT – IV Force in Magnetic fields: Magnetic force - Moving charges in a Magnetic field – Lorentz force equation – force on
a current element in a magnetic field – Force on a straight and a long current carrying conductor in a magnetic field – Force
between two straight long and parallel current carrying conductors – Magnetic dipole and dipole moment – a differential current
loop as a magnetic dipole – Torque on a current loop placed in a magnetic field.
UNIT – V Self and Mutual inductance: Self and Mutual inductance – determination of self-inductance of a solenoid and toroid
and mutual inductance between a straight long wire and a square loop wire in the same plane – energy stored and density in a
magnetic field.
UNIT – VI Time Varying Fields: Time varying fields – Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction – Its integral and
point forms – Maxwell’s fourth equation, Curl (E)=-∂B/∂t – Statically and Dynamically induced EMFs – Simple problems -
Modification of Maxwell’s equations for time varying fields – Displacement current – Poynting Theorem and Poynting vector.

UNIT – I: ELECTROSTATICS
1. COULOMB'S LAW: Coulomb's law is an experimental law and it deals with the force a point charge exerts on
another point charge. By a point charge we mean a charge that is located on a body whose dimensions are much
smaller than other relevant dimensions. Charges are generally measured in coulombs (C). One coulomb is
approximately equivalent to 6 X 1018 electrons; it is a very large unit of charge because one electron charge e = -
1.6019 X 10-19C.
Coulomb's law states that the force between two point charges Q1, and Q2 is:
1. Along the line joining them
2. Directly proportional to the product Q1Q2 of the charges
3. Inversely proportional to the square of the distance R between them.'
Expressed mathematically Expressed mathematically,

Where, k is the proportionality constant and in free space

In SI units, charges Q1 and Q2 are in coulombs (C), the distance R is in meters (m), and the force F is in Newtons (N).
The constant ɛ is known as the permittivity of the medium (in farads per meter) and has the value ɛ =ɛ0 ɛr

The constant ɛ0 is known as the permittivity of free space (in farads per meter) and constant ɛr is known as the relative
permittivity and has the value in air or free space is 1.

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2. ELECTRIC CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS: Electric charge is field around the conductor, denoted by Q and
measured in Coulombs, C. Where charge density is charge per unit area, denoted by‘ρ’ and measured in coulomb per
square met.So far we have only considered forces and electric fields due to point charges, which are essentially
charges occupying very small physical space. It is also possible to have continuous charge distribution along a line, on
a surface, or in a volume. It is customary to denote the line charge density, surface charge density, and volume charge
density by ρLin C/m, ρSin C/m2, and ρ Vin C/m3 respectively. These must not be confused with ρ(without subscript)
used for radial distance in cylindrical coordinates. The charge element dQ and the total charge Q due to these charge
distributions are obtained as follows.

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 1. For line Chagre distribution

2. For Surface Charge distribution

3. For Volume Charge distribution

3. Electric Field Intensity (EFI):

It is also electrical field strength and denoted by E, it is vector. It is the force experienced by a unit charge and its
direction is along the force.

The electric field intensity due to each of the charge distributions ρL, ρs,and ρvmay beregarded as the summation of
the field contributed by the numerous point charges makingup the charge distribution. Thus by replacing charge, Q
with charge element dQ = ρL dl, ρs dS, or ρvdvelectric field intensity dv and integrating, we get

3.1 Electrical Field Intensity (E) due to an Infinite Line charge:

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Consider an Infinite line charge with uniform charge density ρLC/m, extending from ∞ to -∞ along the z-axis as
shown in Figure. The differential charge element dQ associated with differential length element dl of the length, dL=
dz is
dQ = ρL dL = ρL dz

The electrical field intensity,E at any arbitrary point P(0,0,ρ) is

on x-axis from line to ρ distanceas shown in fig. is given by

Consider cylindrical coordinate system and is the distance vector from (ρ,0,0) to (0,0,z) is given by
= (ρ-0)aρ + (0-0)aφ+ (0-z)az = ρaρ - zaz and its magnitude |R|= ρ2 + z2 There fore

The differential EFI, dE due to the differential length dL, is given by

Let z = ρ tan θ then dz = ρ sec2θ dθ and limits are changed to –π/2 to π/2There fore Eρ

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We note that the field falls off inversely with the distance to the charged line, as compared with the point charge,
where the field decreased with the square of the distance.

3.2 Electrical Field Intensity due to an infinite surface charge:

Consider an infinite sheet of charge in the xy-plane with uniform charge density ρS C/m2. The charge associated with
an elemental area dS is given by

The electrical field intensity E, at any arbitrary point P (0,0, z) is on z-axis from the sheet at a distance of zas shown in
fig. is given by

Consider cylindrical coordinate system, dS = ρdφ dθ, then

and

Due to the symmetry of the charge distribution, for every element aρ on +ve xy- axis there is a corresponding negative
element on –ve xy axis, then aρelement will be cancelled. Thus the E has only z-component.

Let ρ = h tan θ then dρ = h sec2θ dθ and limits are changed to 0 to π/2

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From the above it can be notice that the electric field is normal to the sheet and it is surprisingly independent of the
distance between the sheet and the point of observation P.
4. Elecrtic Flux and Flux density:
Electric flux: The total imaginery lines of force around the conductor is called flux and it is denoted by ψ. In SI units,
one line of electric flux emanates from +1 C and terminates on -1 C. Therefore, the electric flux is measured in
coulombs(C).
Electri flux density: It is the total flux crossed through an unit area, simply it is flux per unit area. It is vector
field and denoted by D, it is measured in coulombs per square meter (C/m2). For historical reasons, the electric flux
density is also called electric displacement. D = Flux/Unit area = ψ/A

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 Flux, ψ = Q = D.A
For a differential charge, dQ = D.dS, therefore Flux, ψ = Q

Flux density due to a Point charge:

Consider an imaginary sphere of radius r and a piont charge +Q placed at its center as shown in fig. The flux lines
originating from the point charge distribute radially over the surafe (out wards), and its flux density D in c/m 2.

Relation between Electric Field intensity (E) and Electric Flux density (D):

The electric field intensity, E at any point due to a positve point chage, Q coloumbs is given by

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4.1 Electric flux density for different charge distributions : Electric fluc is field around the
conductor, denoted by ψ and measured in Coulombs, C. Where flux density is charge per unit area, denoted by ‘D’
and measured in coulomb per square met. It is also possible to have continuous charge distribution along a line, on a
surface, or in a volume. It is customary to denote the line charge density, surface charge density, and volume charge
density by ρLin (C/m), ρS (in C/m2), and ρV(in C/m3), respectively. These must not be confused with ρ (without
subscript) used for radial distance in cylindrical coordinates. The charge element dQ and the total charge Q due to
these charge distributions are obtained as follows.
1. Infinite Line charge distribution:

2. Infinite Surface charge distribution:

3. Volume charge distribution:

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5. Gauss's law: Gauss's law stales that the total electric flux through any closed surface is equal tothe total charge
enclosed by that surface.
Ψ = Qencl

Mathmetically,
Where Qencl is the charge enclosed by the surface area in C, D is fulx density in C/m2 and dS is differenetial surface
area in m2.
Proof: Consider an arbitrary surface enclosing a charge Q in C and let dS be a differential surface area through which
the flux passes as shown in fig. The D vector is always normal to the surface area dS.

The flux lines and D are directed radially outwards along unit vector
ardirection and dS is considered at point P which is narmal to ardirection
Therefore in spherecal coordinate system ( for point charge), dS = r2 sinθ dθ dφ

But flux, ψ = Charge, φ = D.S (magnitude), where S is the area of the sphere = 4πr2
Therefore, flux(ψ) = D.S = (Q/4πr2) . 4πr2 = Charge, φ , hence proved.

ψ=φ
APPlications of Gauss’s Law:
1. Gauss's law is an alternative statement of Coulomb's law; proper application of thedivergence theorem to Coulomb's
law results in Gauss's law.
2. Gauss's law provide* an easy means of finding E or D for symmetrical charge distributions such as a point charge,
an infinite line charge, an infinite cylindrical surface
charge, and a spherical distribution of charge. A continuous charge distribution has rectangular symmetry if it depends
only on x (or y or z), cylindrical symmetry if it depends only on ρ, or spherical symmetry if it depends only on r
(independent of θand φ). It must be stressed that whether the charge distribution is symmetric or not, Gauss's law
always holds.
3. The procedure for applying Gauss's law to calculate the electric field involves firstknowing whether symmetry
exists. Once symmetric charge distribution exists, we constructa mathematical closed surface (known as a Gaussian
surface). The surface is chosen such that D is normal or tangential to the Gaussian surface. When D is normal to the
surface, D. dS = D dS because D is constant on the surface. When D is tangential to the surface, D.dS = 0. Thus we
must choose a surface that has some of the symmetry exhibited by the charge distribution.

5.1. Electric Field Intensity (EFI) and Electric flux density (D) due to a finite Line
charge using Gauss’s law:
Consider a finite line charge with uniform charge density ρL C/m, extending from -∞ to +∞ along the z-axis as shown
in Figure. Consider a cylindrical surface with radius ρ and length z, as shown in fig. as the Gaussian surface, and let
the differential charge element dQ associated with differential surface element dS on it. Since the line charge is
symmetrical about z- axis, the flux density, D has only radial component, normal to the surface.

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 But

Threfore, Flux Q = Charge density x length = ρL.l = ρL.z (since length, l = z), hence

𝑄
Therefore, D = (since ρs = Q/A)
2𝐴

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6. Divergence theorem: This theorem applies to anyvector field for which the appropriate partial derivatives
exist, although it is easiestfor us to develop it for the electric flux density. Divergence theorem stated as follows:
“The integral of the normal component of any vector field over a closed surface is equal to the integral of the
divergence of this vector field throughout the volume enclosed by theclosed surface”. It relates surface integral and
volume integral.
Mathematically, if D is a vecor then according to Divergence theorem

7. Maxwell’s first equation – Gauss’s law in point form:

Which is the first of the four Maxwell's equations states that the volume charge density is the same as the divergence
of the electric flux density. It can be expressed by: div. D = ρV

According to Gauss’s law :

And according to Divergence theorem “The integral of the normal component of any vector field over a closed surface
is equal to the integral of the divergence of this vector field throughout the volume enclosed by theclosed surface”.
Then we can write,

Therefore, Charge

Differentiating both sides w.r.t dv, then we get this is also called as “Gauss’s law in point form”.

8. Work done in moving a point charge in an electrostatic field:

Suppose we wish to move a point charge Q from point A to point B in an electric field, E as shown in Figure. From
Coulomb's law, the force on Q is F = QE so that the work done in displacing the charge by dL, an equal and opposite
force to be applied isFapp.

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9. Electric Potential:
Electric potential at a point P due to a fixed charge Q is defined as the work done in moving one coloumb of charge
from infinity to the point P in an electric field against the force experinced by the charge. It is nothing but work done
per unit charge, it is represented by V and measured in joule/Coloumb (J/C) or volts and it is scalar.

J/C or V
The potential difference is defined as the work done in a moving point charge Q from a point A to B against field, E
andthis is,denoted by VAB, is known as the potential difference between points A and B. Thus

VAB = VA – VB and therefore Workdone, W = Q (VA – VB ) J

1. In determining VAB, A is the initial point while B is the final point.

2. If VAB is negative, there is a loss in potential energy in moving Q from A to B, this implies that the work is being
done by the field. However, if VAB is positive, there is a gain in potential energy in the movement; an external agent
performs the work.
3. VAB is independent of the path taken.
4. One volt potential at a point is equal to the one joule of work done per unit coulomb, commonly referred to as volts
(V)
Potential due to a point charge:
Consider a point charge Q located at the origin of spherical coordinates. The field intensity, E due to that point charge
Q located at the origin is

We know that, potential difference between A and B

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 Where VB and VA are the potentials (or absolute potentials) at B and A, respectively. Thus the potential difference
VAB may be regarded as the potential at B with reference to A. In problems involving point charges, it is customary
to choose infinity as reference; that is, we assume the potential at infinity is zero. Thus if VA = 0 as rA —» ∞ in above
eq.
Potential due to different charge distributions:
1. Potential due a line charge distribution:
Consider a finite line charge with uniform charge density ρLC/mand thedifferential charge element dQ associated with
differential length element dl of the length at a distance of r1from the reference point

2. Potential due a sheet of charge distribution:

Consider a finite sheet of surface charge with uniform charge density ρSC/m2and thedifferential charge element dQ
associated with differential surfaceelement dS of the length at a distance of r1from the reference point
The potential on the charge located at a point A with distance r 1

3. Potential due a volume charge distribution:

Consider a finite sheet of surface charge with uniform charge density ρVC/m3and thedifferential charge element dQ
associated with differential volume element dV of the length at a distance of r1from the reference point
The potential on the charge located at a point A with distance r 1

10. Potential Gradient ( grad V):The magnitude of the electric field intensity is given by the maximum
value of the rate of change of potential with distance. This maximum value is obtained when the direction of the
distance increment is opposite to E or, in other words, the direction of E is opposite to the direction in which the
potential is increasing the most rapidly

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The “gradient of V”( grde V) can be expressed in Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical coordinates.

11. POISSON’S AND LAPLACE’S EQUATIONS:

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Obtaining Poisson’s equation is exceedingly simple, for from the point form of Gauss’s law,the divergence
theorem. This theorem applies to any vector field for which the appropriate partial derivatives exist,
although it is easiest for us to develop it for the electric flux density, for starting from Gauss’slaw, we have

div D =ρv ---->∇ · D =ρv

the definition of D, D = ɛ E and the gradient relationship, E = −∇V

Thus,∇. ɛ E = ρv =>∇. E =ρv/ɛ
−∇ . ∇V = ρv/ɛ
∇2V = - ρv/ɛ this is Poission’s eq.
Here ∇2 is called del square operator, is given for different coordinate sytems below:

Ifvolume charge density, ρV = 0 that means Charge free region or space, indicating zero volume charge density, but
allowing point charges,line charge, and surface charge density to exist at singular locations as sources of the field,
then , ∇2 V = 0
This is Laplace’s equation. The ∇ operation is called the ‘Laplacian of V’.
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11.1 Solution of Laplace’s equation in one variable:

* The following general procedure may be taken in solving a given boundary-value problem involving Poisson's or
Laplace's equation:
1. Solve Laplace's (if ρV = 0) or Poisson's (if ρV/ɛ = ) equation using either (a) direct integration when V is a function
of one variable, or (b) separation of variables if V is a function of more than one variable. The solution at this point is
not unique but expressed in terms of unknown integration constants to be determined.

2. Apply the boundary conditions to determine a unique solution for V. Imposing the given boundary conditions
makes the solution unique.

3. Having obtained V, find E using E = - div. V and D from D = ɛ0 ɛrE.

4. If desired, find the charge Q induced on a conductor using Q = J ρSdS where ρS is Dn and Dn is the component of D
normal to the conductor. If necessary, the capacitance between two conductors can be found using C = Q/V.

5. Solving Laplace's (or Poisson's) equation, as in step 1, is not always as complicated as it may seem. In some cases,
the solution may be obtained by mere inspection of the problem. Also a solution may be checked by going backward
and finding out if it satisfies both Laplace's (or Poisson's) equation and the prescribed boundary conditions.

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UNIT – II: CONDUCTORS, DIELECTRICS AND CAPACITANCE
1. Electric dipole and Dipole moment:
The dipole fields that we develop in this section are quite important because they form the basis for the
behavior of dielectric materials in electric fields. An electric dipole, or simply a dipole, is the name given to

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two point charges of equal magnitude and opposite sign, separated by a distance that is small compared tothe
distance to the point P at which we want to know the electric and potential fields. The dipole is shown in
Figure below.

Dipole moment can be defined as the product of charge (Q) and its distance of seperation (d), and it is
represented by p, measured in Coloumb-met (C-m). p is vector
Dipole moment, p = Qd
In vector form, p = p.ar = Q d.ar
Because d · ar = d cos θ, we then havep = Q d cosθ
a. Physical dipole: The values of Q and d are finite quntities in the dipole moment, p = Q d.
b. Pure dipole: It is an ideal diploe, in which distance between charges tends to zero and charge tends to
infinity, i.e. d -----> 0 and Q ----> ∞.

2. Electric field (E) and Potential (V) due to Electric dipole:

Consider a dipole made up of charges +Q and – Q seperated by a small distance d located on the z-axis, centred at the
origin. Let a point P be located at a distance rfrom the origin and distance r1&r2 from Q and –Q respectively.

Let θ be the angle between OP and the z-axis asshown in fig. Then, we get

If the point P is located far from the dipole. i.e. r >> d, then the lines from the dipole to the point can be
assumed to be parallel. Thus the potential (V) due to dipole is

If the point P is located along the dipole axis (θ = 0), then the potential becomes maximum and is given by

Again, we note that the plane z = 0 (θ = 90◦) is at zero potential.

Using the gradient relationship in spherical coordinates. The Electric field intensity, E = - grad V = - ∇ V,
thus

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3. Torque on an electric dipole in electrostatic field (T):
The torque on an electric dipole in electrostatic field is equal to the cross product of the dipole moment p
and the electric field intensity E. It is vetcor and measured in N-m. It is expressed as

Consider an electric dipole in an electric field Eas shown in fig. Let the dipole axis makes an an angle θ with
the field and d is the ditance between the cgarges.

4. Conductors and Behavier of the conductors in eletrostic field:

A conductor has abundance of charge that is free to move. When an external electric field Ee is
applied, the positive free charges are pushed along the same direction as the applied field, while the negative
free charges move in the opposite direction. This charge migration takes place very quickly. The free
charges do two things. First, they accumulate on the surface of the conductorand form an induced surface
charge. Second, the induced charges set up an internal induced field E, which cancels the externally applied
field Ee. This leads to an important property of a conductor: A perfect conductor cannot contain an
electrostatic field within it. A conductor is called an equipotential body, implying that the potential is the
same everywhere in the conductor. This is based on the fact that E = -div.V = 0. Another way of looking at
this is to consider Ohm's law, J = σ E. To maintain a finite current density J, in a perfect conductor (σ —>
∞), requires that the electric field inside the conductor must vanish. In other words, E —> 0 because σ —» ∞
in a perfect conductor. If some charges are introduced in the interior of such a conductor, the charges will
move to the surface and redistribute themselves quickly in such a manner that the field inside the conductor
vanishes. According to Gauss's law, if E = 0, the charge density ρ v must be zero. We conclude again that a
perfect conductor cannot contain an electrostatic field within it. Under static conditions, E = 0 and ρ v = 0 in
side the conductor.

5. CURRENT AND CURRENT DENSITY

Electric charges in motion constitute a current. The unit of current is the ampere (A), defined as a rate of movement of
charge passing a given reference point (or crossinga given reference plane) of one coulomb per second. Current is
denoted by I , and therefore, I = dQ / dt
Current is thus defined as the motion of positive charges, even though conduction in metals takes place through the
motion of electrons, as we will see shortly.In field theory, we are usually interested in events occurring at a point
rather than within a large region, and we find the concept of current density, measured inamperes per square meter
(A/m2), more useful. Current density is a vector1 representedby J.

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The increment of current ΔI crossing an incremental surface ΔS normal to the current density is
Δ I = J ΔS
and in the case where the current density is not perpendicular to the surface,
I = J · ΔS
Total current is obtained by integrating,

Conduction Current or drift current: Conduction Current is a movement ('flow') of charges due to the
presence of an electric potential. It is the electric current, or movement of charge carriers, which is due to
the applied electric field, often stated as the electromotive force over a given distance. ... The drift velocity
is the average velocity of the charge carriers in the drift current.
Conduction Current Density refers to the amount of current (charges) flowing on the surface of a
conductor (conduction band) in a time t.

Diffusion Current: Diffusion Current is a current in a semiconductor caused by the diffusion of charge
carriers (holes and/or electrons).

6. Equation of continuity:
Due to the principle of charge conservation, The principle of conservation of charge states simply that charges can be
neither created nor destroyed, although equalthe time rate of decrease of charge within a given volume must be equal
to the net outward current flow through the closed surface of the volume. The continuity equation follows from this
principle when we consider any regionbounded by a closed surface. The current through the closed surface is

and this outward flo of positive charge must be balanced by a decrease of positive charge (or perhaps an increase of
negative charge) within the closed surface. If thecharge inside the closed surface is denoted by Qi , then the rate of
decrease is−d Qi /dtand the principle of conservation of charge requires

this is called integral form of equation of continuity.

The differential, or point, form is obtained by using the divergence theorem to change the surface integral into a
volume integral:According to divergence theorem, surface integral over a closed surface is equal to the integral of the
divergence of the volume, thus

Therefore, we can write

this is mathmetically equating, if to keep the surface constant, the derivative becomes a partial derivative and may
appear within the integral,

Eleminating volume integral both sides, then we get

This is called equation of continuty, and remembering the physical interpretation of divergence, this equation indicates
that the current, or charge per second, diverging from a small volume per unit volume is equal to the time rate of
decrease of charge per unit volume at every point.

7. Ohm’s lawin point form: The relationship between Ciurrent density (J) and Electric field intensity
(E) for a metallic conductor, however, is also specified by the conductivity σ (sigma), given by J = σ E.

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We know that Ohm’s Law in electric circuits: R = ρ (L/S) , where ρ is called resistivity in Ohm-met.

And, I = V/R

By replacing voltage, V by E.L and current, I = J.S, where L is length of the conductor in mets. and S is the
area in m2.

Therefore, (V/L) σ = (I/S)

=> J = σ E this is called Ohm’s law in point form.

9. Polarization:
When an electric field E is applied, the positive charge is displaced from its equilibrium position
in the direction of Eby the force F+ = QE while the negative charge is displaced in the opposite direction by
the force F_ = -QE. A dipole results from the displacement of the charges and the dielectricis said to be
polarized. In the polarized state, the electron cloud is distorted by theapplied electric field E. This distorted
charge distribution is equivalent, by the principle ofsuperposition, to the original distribution plus a dipole
whose moment isp = Q d, where d is the distance vector from —Q to +Q of the dipole. If there are N dipoles
in a volume Δv of the dielectric, the total dipole moment due to the electric field is

As a measure of intensity of the polarization, we define polarization P (in coulombs/metersquare) as the

dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric; that is,

9.1 “Dielctric strength” or “Dielectric constant” or Break down strength:

‘It is the minimum value of the electric field, E in Kv/cm at which dielectric breakdown occurs is called the
dielectric strength of the dielectricmaterial’ or ‘it is the maximum value of the electric field, E in Kv/cm
under which dielectric can sustain without breakdown occurs in it’.Practicallyspeaking, no dielectric is ideal.
When the electric field in a dielectric is sufficientlylarge, it begins to pull electrons completely out of the
molecules, and the dielectricbecomes conducting. Dielectric breakdown is said to have occurred when a
dielectricbecomes conducting. Dielectric breakdown occurs in all kinds of dielectric materials(gases, liquids,
or solids) and depends on the nature of the material, temperature, humidity,and the amount of time that the
field is applied.
10. Capacitor and capacitance:To have a capacitor we must have two (or more) conductors
carryingequal but opposite charges. This implies that all the flux lines leaving one conductor must
necessarily terminate at the surface of the other conductor. The conductors are sometimesreferred to as the
plates of the capacitor. The plates may be separated by free spaceor a dielectric.

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We define the capacitance C of the capacitor as the ratio of the magnitude of the charge on one of the plates
to the potential difference between them; that is,

farads

The capacitance C is a physical property of the capacitor and in measured in farads (F). C can be obtained
for any given two-conductor capacitance by following either of these methods:
1. Assuming Q and determining V in terms of Q (involving Gauss's law)
2. Assuming Vand determining Q in terms of V(involving solving Laplace's equation).

10.1. Capacitance of Parallel-Plate Capacitor:

Consider the parallel-plate capacitor of Fig. Suppose that each of the plates has an area A and they are
separated by a distance d. We assume that plates 1 and 2, respectively, carry charges +Q and —Q uniformly
distributed on them so that, surface charge density, ρs = Q / A C/m2

An ideal parallel-plate capacitor is one in which the plate separation d is very small compared with the
dimensions of the plate. Assuming such an ideal case, the fringing field atthe edge of the plates, as
illustrated in Fig., can be ignored so that the fieldbetween them is considered uniform. If the space between
the plates is filled with a homogeneousdielectric with permittivity e and we ignore flux fringing at the edges
of the plates, from the eq. D = ρsax
By considering magnitude only, D = ρs and Charge, Q = D. A = ρs. A
Capacitance, C = Q / V and E = - grd V = V/d
=> Potential, V = E .d

But, D = ɛ E, thus Capacitance

This formula offers a means of measuring the dielectric constant, and the capacitance, C of a parallel-plate
capacitor will depends on the area of the plate, space between the plates and nature of the filled dielectric.

10.2. Capacitance of Parallel-Plate Capacitor:

Consider the parallel-plate capacitor of charge Q Coloums, having uniform suface charge density ρ s C/m2
filled with two dielectrics of different relative permitivities ɛr1 & ɛr2 and thickness d1 & d2 respectively.
Suppose that each of the plates has an area A and they are separated by a distance d. We assume that plates
1 and 2, respectively, carry charges +Q and —Q uniformly distributed on them so that, surface charge
density, ρs = Q / A C/m2

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A parallel-plate capacitor containing two dielectrics with the dielectric interface parallel to the conducting
plates.

Let total d = d1 + d2 and Potential across the plates, V = V1 + V2, V1 is potential across 1st dielectric and V2
is potential across 2nd dielectric.
And let, permitivities ɛ1 = ɛ0 ɛr1& ɛ2 = ɛ0 ɛr2

Thus,
If there are N no.of dielectrics filled with parallel plate capacitor of each dielectric with prmitivity and
thickness of ɛ1, ɛ2, ɛ3, ………ɛN and d1,d2, d3 ……… dN respecively, then

10.3. Capacitance of Spherical Capacitor

This is the case of two concentric spherical conductors. Consider the inner sphere of radius a and outer
sphere of radius b (b> a) separated by a dielectric medium with permittivity ɛas shown in Fig. We assume
that charges +Q and -Q on the inner and outer spheres respectively. By applying Gauss's law to an arbitrary
Gaussian spherical surface of radius r(a<r<b),

20
By letting b —> ∞, and C = 4πɛa, which is the capacitance of a spherical capacitor whose outer plate is
infinitely large. Such is the case of a spherical conductor at a large distancefrom other conducting bodies—
the isolated sphere. Even an irregularly shaped object ofabout the same size as the sphere will have nearly
the same capacitance. This fact is usefulin estimating the stray capacitance of an isolated body or piece of
equipment.
11. Energy and Energy density in electrostatic field: Energy is the total workdone by the total
charge in electrostatic field. It is denoted by WE and measured in joules. It is the product of charge and
potential, WE = Q.V => dWE = V. dQ is the differential workdone by the differential charge.

Energy stored in the electrostatics fields, in terms of Flux density (D) and EFI (E):

From this, we can define electrostatic energy density is Energy per unit area, and measured in J/m3 as

*******************
UNIT – III: Magneto statics and Ampere’s Law
1. Magnetic flux and Magneticflux density:
The total imaginary lines of force around the magnetic material is called magnetic flux, it is measured in
Webers (Wb) and denoted by Φ.

21
 The magnetic flux-density is the flux passing through unit area, it is vector and denoted byB,
measured in weber per square meter. B is measured in webers per square meter (Wb/m2) or in a newer unit
adopted in the International System of Units, tesla (T). An older unit that is often used for magnetic flux
density is the gauss (G), where 1 T or 1Wb/m2 is the same as 10,000 G.

In vector form

dQ = B .dS for differential elements

Therefore,
2. Magnetic field Intensity (H):
Magnetic Field intensity at any point in the magnetic field is defined as the force experienced by a unit north
pole of one Weber strength, when placed at that point, measured in Newton /Webers (or) Ampere Turns/
meteres. It is denoted byH and it is vector. It is also called magnetic field strength.

2.1. Magnetic field Intensity (H) and Magnetic flux density (B):
Magnetic field Intensity and Magnetic flux density are related by

In free space or air, μr = 1 then the magnetic flu density B as

B = μ0 H
The constant μ0 is obsolute permeabilityin henrys per meter (H/m), of μ0 = 4π ×10−7 H/m and μr is the
relative permeability.
3. Biot-Savart's law:
Biot-Savart's law states that the magnetic field intensity dH produced at a point P, as shown in Fig, by the
differential current clement I dl is proportional to the product of I dl and the Sine of the angle α between the
clement and the line joining P tothe element and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance R
between Pand the element.

22
3.1. H for different charge distributions:
If we define K as the surface current density (in amperes/meter 2) and J as the volume current density (in
amperes/meter3), the source elements are related as

4. Maxwell’s second Equation (div.B =0):

In an electrostatic field, the flux passing through a closed surface is the same as the charge enclosed; that is,
φ = ʃD • dS = Q. Thus it is possible to have an isolated electric charge which also reveals that electric flux
lines are not necessarily closed. Unlike electric flux lines, magnetic flux lines always close upon themselves.
This is due to the fact that it is not possible to have isolated magneticpoles (or magnetic charges). For
example, if we desire to have an isolated magnetic pole by dividing a magnetic bar successively into two, we
end up with pieces each having north and south poles. We find it impossible to separate the North Pole from
the South Pole. An isolated magnetic charge does not exist.
Thus the total flux (Φ) through a closed surface in a magnetic field must be zero;

This equation is referred to as the law of conservation of magnetic flux or Gauss's law for magneto static
fields just as
is Gauss's law for electrostatic fields. Although the magnetostatic field is not conservative,
magnetic flux is conserved.
By applying the divergence theorem to eq. above, we obtain

=> i.e. div. B = 0is called Maxwell’s 2 nd equation.

5. Ampere’s circuital law:

Ampere’s circuital law, also called Ampere’s work law. This law may be derived from the Biot-Savart law.
Ampere’s circuital law states that the line integral of H about any closed path isexactly equal to the direct
current enclosed by that path. Ampere's law is similar to Gauss's law and it is easily applied to determine H
when thecurrent distribution is symmetrical. Ampere's law is a special case ofBiot-Savart's law.

Proof: Consider a long conductor carrying a current I along the z-axis as shown in fig. Let a closed circlar
path of radius ρ around the conductor and current element I dL. According to Biot-Savart's law MFI, Hat a
point P on the circular path, due to an infinite length is

23
Applications of Ampere’s circuital law:
5.1. MFI due to infinitely long current carrying conductor byAmpere’s circuital law:
Consider an infinitely long filamentary current I, along the z-axis as in Fig. To determineH at an bservation
point P, we allow a closed path pass through P. This path, onwhich Ampere's law is to be applied, is known
as an Amperian path (analogous to the termGaussian surface). We choose a concentric circle as the
Amperian path in view of equation which shows that H is constant provided ρ is constant. Since this path
encloses the whole current I, according to Ampere's law

5.2. MFI due to a Solenoid byAmpere’s circuital law:

Consider a solenoid of a finite length d and consists of N closely wound turns of a filament that carries a
current I, as ahown in fig,then the field at points well within the solenoid is given closely by

24
5.3. MFI due to a Solenoid byAmpere’s circuital law:
We apply Ampere's circuit law to the Amperian path, which is a Toroid circle of radius ρ shown in fig. Since
N wires cut through this path each carrying current I, for N no. of turns, the total currentt enclosed by the
Amperian path is NI. Hence,

Notice that this is the same as the formula obtained for H for points well inside a very long solenoid (l> a).
Thus a straight solenoid may be regarded as a special toroidal coil for which ρ —»∞. Outside the toroid, the
current enclosed by an Amperian path is NI - NI = 0 and hence H = 0.
6. Stokes’ theorem:
Stokes’ theorem relates a surface integral to a closed line integral. It should be recalled that the divergence
theorem relates a volume integral to a closed surfacentegral. Both theorems find their greatest use in general
vector proofs. This theorem applies to anyvector field for which the appropriate partial derivatives exist, although it
is easiestfor us to develop it for the magnetic flux density. Stoke’s theorem stated as follows:
“The line integral of any vector field over a closed path is equal to the integral of the curl of this vector field over the
surface enclosed by theclosed surface”.
Mathematically, if A is a vecor then according to Stokes’ theorem

MFI, H is a vecor then according to Stokes’ theorem:

9. Maxwell’s third Equation (curl H = J):

From the Ampere’s Circuital law

But current, dI = J. dS

i.e. curl H = J is called ‘Maxwell’s 3rd equation’ and also called point form or vector form of
‘Ampere’s circuital law’
***********************
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 UNIT – IV Force in Magnetic fields
FORCES DUE TO MAGNETIC FIELDS
There are at least three ways in which force due to magnetic fields can be experienced. The force can be
(a) Force due to a moving charged particle in a magnetic field,
(b) On a current element in an external magnetic field,
(c) Magnetic force between two current elements.

A. Force on a Charged Particle:

A magnetic field can exert force only on a moving charge. From experiments, it is found that the magnetic
force Fm experienced by a charge Q moving with a velocity v in a magnetic field B is
Fm = Q (v X B)

This clearly shows that Fm is perpendicular to both v and B.

Unlike Fe, Fm depends on the charge velocity, v and is normal to it. Fm cannot perform work because it is at
right angles to the direction of motion of the charge (Fm • dl= 0); it does not cause an increase in kinetic
energy of the charge. The magnitude of Fm is generally small compared to Fe except at high velocities.
For a moving charge Q in the presence of both electric and magnetic fields, the total force on the charge is
given by F = Fm + Fe

This is known as the ‘Lorentz force equation’. It relates mechanical force to electrical force. If the mass of
the charged particle moving in E and B fields is m, by Newton's second law of motion.
F = Q (E + v x B)

The solution to this equation is important in determining the motion of charged particles in Electrical and
magnetic fields.
B. Force on a differential current carrying element:
To determine the force on a current element I dl of a current-carrying conductor due to the magnetic field
with flux density B, using the fact that for convection current density in terms of the velocity of the volume
charge density,
J = ρvv
I dl = K dS = J dv
Therefore, I dl = (ρvv) dv = (ρvdv) v

Therefore, I dl = dQ v

This shows that an elemental charge dQ moving with velocity v (thereby producing convection current
element dQ) is equivalent to a conduction current element I dl. Thus the force on a current element Idl in a
magnetic field with B is found from eq. dF = dQ v x B
by replacing dQ v by Idl;

dF = I dl x B
that is,if the current I is through a closed path L or circuit, the force on the circuit is given by

N
It is notice that the magnetic field produced by the current element I dl does not exert force on the element
itself just as a point charge does not exert force on itself. The B field that exerts force on I dl must be due to

26
another element. If instead of the line current element I dl, we have surface current elements K dS or a
volume current element J dv, then force equation,
Becomes

One simple result is obtained by applying above to a straight conductor in a uniform magnetic field,
F = I (L × B) N
The magnitude of the force is given by the familiar equation
F = BIL sin θ N
Where θ is the angle between the vectors representing the direction of the current flow and the direction of
the magnetic flux density.

Force between two infinitely long, straight, parallel conductors:

Consider two infinitely long, straight, parallel, filamentary conductors carrying currents I1 and I2 equal but
opposite currents and distance between them is ‘d’ meters as shown in Figure. Since two currents are in the
same direction so that an attractive force exists between them.
We know that the magnetic field intensity due to an infinite current carrying conductor at a distance of ‘d’ is
given by

* Definition of one ampere of current: The force of attraction or repulsion exists between two straight
long current carrying conductors is given by

Magnetic Dipole and Dipole moment:

27
A small filamentary current loop carrying a current I or a permanent bar magnet of length, lis called a
magnetic dipole. The magnetic dipole moment is the product of current and area of the loop; its direction is
normal to the loop, it is vector and denoted by ‘m’ and measured in A-m2
If I is the current of the loop of area S then the magnetic dipole moment is

Torque on the differential current loop placed in a magnetic field:

Consider the force on a current loop in a magnetic field, we can determine the torque on it. The concept of a
current loop experiencing a torque in a magnetic field is of paramount importance in understanding the
behaviour of orbiting charged particles, d.c. motors, and generators. If the loop is placed parallel to a
magnetic field, it experiences force that tends to rotate it.
The torque T (or mechanical moment of force) on the current loop is the vector product of the force F and
the moment arm Rand its units are Newton-meters (N - m).
T = R x FN-m
Let us apply this to a rectangular loop of length‘l ’and width ‘w’ placed in a uniform magnetic field B as
shown in Fig.(a). From this figure, we notice that dl is parallel to B along sides 1-2 and 3-4 of the loop and
no force is exerted on those sides.

Thus,

or F = F0 - F0= 0
Where |F0| = I B l, because B is uniform. Thus, no force is exerted on the loop as a whole. However, Fo and
- Fo act at different points on the loop, thereby creating a couple. If thenormal to the plane of the loop makes
an angle a with B, as shown in the cross-sectionalview of Fig.(b), the torque on the loop is

28
 As the magnetic dipole moment, m is the product of current and area of the loop; its direction is
normal to the loop. (in A-m2) of the loop. In the equation above, an is a unit normal vector to the plane of the
loop and its direction is determined by the right-hand rule: fingers in the direction of current and thumb
along an. Therefore the torque is given by T = m x B

This expression is generally applicable in determining the torque on a planar loop of any arbitrary
shape although it was obtained using a rectangular loop. The only limitation isthat the magnetic field must
be uniform. It should be noted that the torque is in the direction of the axis of rotation. It is directed such as
to reduce a so that m and B are in the same direction.

***************

UNIT – V: Self and Mutual inductance

1. Inductors and Self-inductance and Mutual inductance:
A circuit (or closed conducting path) carrying current I amps produces a magnetic field B which causes a
flux Φ = ʃ B . dS to pass through each turn of the circuit. If the circuit has N identical turns, we define the
flux linkage ‘λ’ as
λ = N Φ in Weber – Turns

Also, if the medium surrounding the circuit is linear, the flux linkage λ is proportional to the current I
producing it; that is,
λ α I, or λ = L I
Where ‘L’ isa constant of proportionality called ‘self-inductance’ of the circuit. The inductance L is a
property of the physical arrangement of the circuit and measured in Henrys (H). A circuit or part of a circuit
that has inductance is called an inductor. We may define inductance L of an inductor as the ratio of the
magnetic flux linkage λ to the current I through the inductor; that is,

The unit of inductance is the henry (H) which is the same as Webers-Turn/ampere. Since the henry is a fairly
large unit, inductances are usually expressed in mill henrys (mH).

If instead of having a single circuit we have two circuits carrying current I1 and I2 as shown in Fig, a
magnetic interaction exists between the circuits. Four component fluxes Φ 11, Φ12, Φ22 and Φ21a r e produced.

29
Where Φ11is the flux passing through the circuit 1 due to current I1 in circuit 1.
Φ12is the flux passing through the circuit 1 due to current I2 in circuit 1.
Φ22is the flux passing through the circuit 2 due to current I2 in circuit 2
Φ21is the flux passing through the circuit 2 due to current I2 in circuit 2.
We define the mutual inductance M12 as the ratio of the flux linkage λ12= N1Φ12 on circuit 1 due to current
I2, that is,

Similarly, the mutual inductance M21 as the ratio of the flux linkage λ21= N2Φ21 on circuit 2 due to current I1,
that is,

The mutual inductance M12 or M21 is expressed in henrys, and both are equal.
Coefficient of coupling: It is defined as the ratio of the total flux linkages between two coils to the flux
produced by one coil. It is represented by ‘k’

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4. Energy stored and Energy density in a magnetic field:

Energy Density: Energy density is defined as energy per unit volume and it is measured in Joules/m3.

*************
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 UNIT – VI: Time Varying Fields

1. Faraday’s law:
According to Faraday's experiments, a static magnetic field produces no current flow, but a time-varying
field produces an induced voltage (called electromotive force or simply emf) in a closed circuit, which
causes a flow of current. Faraday discovered that the induced emf (in volts), in any closed circuit is equal to
the time rate of change of the magnetic flux linkage by the circuit.

where N is the number of turns in the circuit and Φ is the flux through each turn. The negative sign shows
that the induced voltage acts in such a way as to oppose the flux producing it. This is known as Lenz's law,
and it emphasizes the fact that the direction of current flow in the circuit is such that the induced magnetic
field produced by the induced current will oppose the original magnetic field.
Transformer and Motional emf
A. Transformer emf

This emf induced when the time-varying current is applied, it produces a time-varying magnetic flux in the
primary coil that induces an emf in a stationary loop is often referred to as transformer emf or statically
induced emf. Since it is due to transformer action.

For one conductor i.e. N = 1, emf (V) = - dΦ/dt and

called transformer emf.

B. Motional or generator emf

Consider a stationary magnetic field applied on a conducting circuit which is moving or revolving on its axis
with respect to time. When the circuit cuts the magnetic field an electromagnetic field is induced across the
circuit terminals. This emf is called generator emf or dynamic or motional emf.
Let us now consider this example using the concept of motional emf. The force on a charge Q moving at a
velocity v in a magnetic field B is

this is generator emf.

Maxwell’s 4 equation:
th
From the transformer emf

By applying Stoke’s theorem, we get

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Where the surface integrals may be taken over identical surfaces. The surfaces are perfectly general and may
be chosen as differentials,

Thus,
This is differential or point form Maxwell’s fourth equation.

Poynting's theorem: This theorem states that the cross product of electric field vector, E and magnetic
field vector, H at any point is a measure of the rate of flow of electromagnetic energy per unit area at that
point that is given by P=ExH
Here P → Poynting vector and it is named after its discoverer, J.H. Poynting. The direction of P is
perpendicular to E and H and in the direction of vector E x H.

***********

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