Surveying

Civil Engineering
GATE
SURVEYING

AUTHOR:
SHAILENDRA KUMAR
AAYUSHI AGRAWAL


 CONTENT SHEET
Surveying

1. Introduction and Linear Measurement......................................................................................1

2. Compass Surveying......................................................................................................................47

3. Theodolite.......................................................................................................................................85

4. Levelling and Contouring...........................................................................................................109

5. Area & Volume..............................................................................................................................151

6. Plane Table Surveying.................................................................................................................169

7. Traversing and Triangulation......................................................................................................187

8. Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling............................................................................215

9. Theory of Errors..........................................................................................................................245

10. Curves............................................................................................................................................271

11. Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing...................................................................................315

mmmm

Content Sheet
Content Sheet

4.
 1 Introduction and Linear
Measurement

Chapter 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
y Surveying can be defined as the method of determining relative position
of the points on, above and below the surface of earth through direct or
indirect measurement of direction, elevation & distance.
y It can also be defined as the method of establishing the points by
predetermined linear or angular measurements.

NOTE: Earth is an OBLATE SPHEROID (Here spheroid is obtained by rotating

an ellipse about its one of the axis).
y Since the polar diameter of earth is approx 42.95 km smaller than equatorial
diameter, it is termed as OBLATE SPHEROID.
y Surveying is primary classified into two categories on the basis of curvature
of the earth:

(a) Plane Surveying

y In this survey the curvature of earth is not considered, or the mean surface
of earth is assumed as planner.
y It is suitable to be used for small area of work.
y It is considered suitable for an area less than 250 km2.
y The lines & triangles constructed during this survey will be considered as
plane lines and plane triangles.
In this survey, the level line is assumed as straight line & the plumb line is
Introduction and Linear Measurement
y
assumed to be parallel to each other at different points.

Definitions

Level line- It is the distance between two points on the level surface
that follows the earth curvature.
Plumb line : A line represented by the freely suspended plumb bob.

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Figure 1.1: Representation of Level line and plumb line

(b) Geodetic Surveying

y In this survey, the shape of earth is taken into consideration.
y In this survey the triangles are spherical triangles & the lines lying in the
surface are curved lines.
y It is suitable to be used when the area of surface is large (generally > 250
km2) and high degree of precision is required.
y To establish the control points, the geodetic survey is carried out by the
department of national survey of India (Control points-Those points which
are taken as the reference points for making other points in plane surveying).
Note :
(i) For any triangle with area 195.5 km2, sum of interior angles would
be just 1” (1sec) extra in geodetic surveying.
Introduction and Linear Measurement

(ii) For any line of length 12 km, it is just 1cm extra in geodetic
survey.

1.1.1 Classification of Survey

(I) Based upon the nature of survey :
(a) Land Survey
y The purpose of this survey is to determine the features on land.
y It is further classified into –

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(b) Marine / Hydrographic Survey
y It deals with water bodies for the purpose of navigation, water supply,
mean sea level, reservoir functioning, waste disposal.
y It consists of measurement of discharge of streams, stage of water bodies
and fluctuation in oceans tides.
(c) Astronomical survey
y The purpose of this survey is to determine the absolute location of any
points on the surface of earth with the help of heavenly/ spatial bodies.
Example - sun, any fixed star.

(II) Based on object of survey

Introduction and Linear Measurement

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Introduction and Linear Measurement Chapter 1

(III) Based on instrument used

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 Chapter 1
Previous Year’s Questions

Question: The survey carried out to determine natural features such

as hills, rivers, forests and man-made features such as town, village,
buildings, roads, transmission lines and canals is classified as
(a) Engineering Survey (b) Geological Survey
(c) Land Survey (d) Topographic Survey
Answer: (d) (GATE- 2014, SET-II)

1.2 PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING

The fundamental principles of surveying are as follows:
(A) Working from whole to part
y Whether geodetic or plane surveying is carried out the work is to be done
from whole to part. First the system of control points with higher degree of
accuracy is established then by less precise methods, minor control points
are established.
y In working from whole to part the accumulation of errors is avoided and
minor errors are localised.
y (B) Location of a point by measurement from two reference points
y The two points are taken as reference whose position is already fixed.
With the help of these two points the relative position of the points to be
surveyed will be located.

Introduction and Linear Measurement

Figure 1.2 : Location of point C

(a) Measurement of distances AC & BC is carried out, plotting of another

point C can be done by swinging the two arcs to the same scale to
which AB has plotted. This principle is used in chain surveying.
(b) A perpendicular CD can be dropped on the reference line AB and lengths
AD and CD are measured. The point C can then be plotted using set
square. This principle is used in offset method.

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Chapter 1

(c) The distance BC and the angle ABC can be measured, and point C
is plotted either by means of a protractor or trigonometrically. This
principle is used in traversing.
(d) In this method, the distance AC and BC are not measured but angle CAB
and angle CBA are measured with an angle – measuring instrument.
Knowing the distance AB, point C is plotted either by means of
a protractor or by solution of triangle ABC. This principle is used in
triangulation.
(e) Angle CBA and distance AC are measured, and point C is plotted
either by protracting an angle and swinging an arc from C or plotted
trigonometrically. This principle is used in traversing.
Note: In (b), (c), (d) case, the concerned point ‘C’ can be vertical plane also.

Example-1.1 Match list I with list II and select the correct answer.

List I List II

To determine the natural and

1. 
artificial features of a country such
A. Cadastral survey
as rivers, roads, valleys, hills, lakes,
and railways etc.

For laying out plots and construction

2. 
B. Engineering Survey of streets, sewers, water pipelines,
and optical fibres.

3. To locate the boundaries of fields,

C. Topographical Survey
houses etc.

4. Collection of data for engineering

D. City Survey design works such as roads,
Introduction and Linear Measurement

reservoirs, sewers etc.

A B C D
(a) 3 2 1 4
(b) 1 3 4 2
(c) 3 4 1 2
(d) 1 2 4 3

Solution:
Topographical survey is carried out for determining the position of natural
and artificial features, cadastral survey is done for fixing the property lines,

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 Chapter 1
city survey is done for the construction of street, water pipeline, etc and
engineering survey is carried out to find the data for engineering design
works. So the correct answer is (c).

Example 1.2 In the figure given below, for the location point C by measurement
from point A and B, the principle used is –
(a) Chain surveying (b) Triangulation
(c) Traversing (d) Offset method

Solution: The distance BC and the angle ABC can be measured, and point
C is plotted (by means of protractor or trigonometrically).
So the correct answer is (c).

1.3 PLAN AND MAPS

y A plan is a graphical representation to some scale, of the features on, near
or below surface of earth.
y Since, the surface of earth is curved, and the paper of plan is plane, no part
of the surface can be represented on such map without distortion.
y Hence it is suitable for plane surveying, in which area involved is
comparatively smaller.
y If the scale is large, the representation is termed as plan, and if the scale
is small, the representation is termed as map.
y In the maps, the direction is represented with the help of contours & the
vertical distance can also be represented with the horizontal distances.

Definitions

Distance : It is the linear measurement in horizontal plane.

Elevation : It is the linear measurement in vertical plane.

Introduction and Linear Measurement

1.4 SCALE
y It is the fixed ratio, that every distance on the plan/map bears with
corresponding distance on the ground.
y Scale can be represented in the following manners:

(a) Engineer’s Scale

Here one ‘cm’ on the plan represents some whole number of meters on
the ground.
Example- 1 cm = 100 m

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Chapter 1

(b) Representative Fraction (RF)

Here one unit of length on the plan represents some number of same
units of length on the ground.
1
Example - 1 : 10000 or
10000
Note : Here distance is independent of units of measurement.
(c) Graphical Scale
This is the most suitable method used to represent the scale of a map. It
is a line drawn on the map so that its distance on the map corresponds
to a convenient unit of length on ground.

Rack your Brain

Q : What is the advantage of graphical scale over numerical scales?

A : With the passage of time, map or plan paper undergoes to
dimensional changes (shrink /expand) due to which lesser accurate
result obtained by numerical scales than the graphical scales.
Graphical scales is shrink or expands proportionally, and
the distance can thus be found more accurately.

1.4.1 Shrunk Scale

y Shrunk factor/ shrunk ratio is defined as the ratio of shrunk length to the
original length
Shrunk length Shrunk Scale
=
Shrunk factor ( SF ) =
Original length Original Scale

Shrunk length
Corrected distance on map in terms of original scale =
Introduction and Linear Measurement

Shrunk factor
Shrunk area
Correct area on map in terms of original scale =
(Shrunk factor)2
Example -

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Consider ab be the distance on the map and AB be the distance on the
ground
ab = 2.5 cm, AB = 2.5 × 10 = 25 m
Shrunk Scale = Shrunk factor × Original Scale
0.9 1 1
= × =
1 1000 1111.11

Distance on ground (AB) = 2.25 ×1111.11 = 2500 cm = 25 m

2.25 cm
Or Correct distance =
(S.F)

2.25
= = 2.5 cm (distance on map)
 0.9 
 
 1 
AB = 2.5 × 1000 = 2500 cm = 25 m
Example 1.3 The area of the plan of an old survey is now found to be 100.9
m2, which was plotted to a scale of 10 m to 1 cm. The plan has shrunk such
that a line originally 10 cm long now measures 9.3 cm only. Compute the
following
(i) Shrunk scale (ii) True area of survey
Shrunk length 9.3
Solution: (i) =
SF = = 0.93
Original length 10
1 1
Shrunk scale = SF × Original Scale = 0.93 × =
1000 1075.27
Shrunk Area 100.9
(ii) True area = 2
= = 116.66 cm2
(Shrunk factor) (0.93)2
Scale of plane is 1cm = 10 m
Area of survey = 116.6609 (10)2 = 11666.09 m2 ~ 11666.1 m2 Introduction and Linear Measurement
Or
True area of survey = 100.9× (1075.27)2 ×10–4
= 11666.1 m2
Example 1.4 Plan of a rectangular field was drawn in 1950 with a scale of
1 cm = 40 m. The present dimension of field read as 40 cm × 10 cm. If an
original reference line of 9.2 cm now reads 10 cm, then what is the actual
area of field?
Expandedlength 10
Solution: Expasion factor
= = = 1.087
Original length 9.2

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Expanded scale = Original scale × Expanded factor

1 1
= × 1.087 =
4000 3679.85

Expanded area 40 × 10
True area of field = = = 338.53 cm2
(Expanded factor)2 (1.087) 2

Scale of plane is 1 cm = 40 m
Area of field = 338.53(40)2= 541652.67m2
1.4.2 Error due to wrong measuring scale-
y If a wrong measuring scale is used to measure the length of an already
drawn line, the measured length will be incorrect similarly if the wrong
measuring scale is used to measure the area of an already drawn area on
the plan, the measured area will incorrect.
RF of wrong Scale
Corrected length = × Measured length
RF of correct Scale

2
 RF of wrong Scale 
Correct Area =   × measured area
 RF of correct Scale 

Example 1.5: The distance between the two points marked on the plane
drawn to a scale of 1cm = 1 m is measured by a surveyor and found to be
60 m. Later it was found that a wrong scale of 1 cm = 50 cm is used for the
measurement. Then what will be the correct length and correct area, if the
measured area is 70m2 ?
RF of wrong scale
Solution: Correct length = × measured length
RF of correct scale
1
= 50 × 60 = 120m
1
Introduction and Linear Measurement

100
2
 RF of wrong scale 
Correct area =   × measured area
 RF of correct scale 
2
 
 1 
 50 
=  1  × 70 =
280m2
 
 100 
 
 

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1.4.3 Choice of scale of a map
y The choice of scale of map to be selected is dependent upon-
(a) The use of map
(b) The extent of territory to be represented
 During deciding the scale of map, the following points are taken into
consideration:
(i) Scale should be chosen larger enough, so that in scaling or plotting
distance from the finished map it will not be necessary to read the
scale closer than 0.25 mm.
(ii) Choose as small a scale as is consistent with a clear representation of
smallest detail desired.

Table 1.1 : Scales used in various survey

Purpose of Survey Scale R.F

1 1
(a) Geographical Survey 1 cm = 5 km to 160 km to
500000 16000000

(b) Cross Sections (both horizontal 1 1

1 cm = 1 m to 2m to
and vertical scales are equal) 100 200

(c) Longitudinal Sections

(i) Horizontal Scale 1 1

1 cm = 10 m to 200 m to
1000 20000
1 1
(ii) Vertical Scale 1 cm = 1 m to 2 m to
100 200

(d) Topographic Survey

Introduction and Linear Measurement

(i) Building Sites 1
1 cm = 10 m or less or less
1000

(ii) T
 own Planning Schemes, 1 1
reservoirs etc. 1 cm = 50 m to 100 m to
5000 10000

(iii) Location Surveys 1 1

1 cm = 50 to 200 m to
5000 20000

(iv) S
 mall Scale Topographic 1 cm = 0.25 km to 2.5 1 1
to
Maps km 25000 250000

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1.4.4 Types of Scale

The classification of scale is as follows:

(a) Plain Scale :

y The scale on which only two dimensions can be measured (i.e. units and
tenths) is known as plane scale.
Example- cm and mm, m and dm

Figure 1.3: Plain Scale

Example 1.6 Construct a plain scale of 1cm = 5 meters and show 56 meters.
Solution :

Take a 16 cm length and divide it into 8 parts (16×5=80m), each part

representing 10 meters. The first left hand division should be divided into
10 equal parts. Now to take 56 meters, place one leg of the divider at 50
and other at 6 as shown in figure.

(b) Diagonal Scale

y The scale on which three dimensions (i.e. units, tenths, hundredth) can be
measured is known as diagonal scale.
Introduction and Linear Measurement

Example- m, dm, cm

Draw line AB, at B draw perpendicular BC to AB of any convenient

length. Divide it into ten equal parts. Join a diagonal AC. From each of
the divisions 1’, 2’, 3’ etc, draw lines parallel to AB to cut the diagonal
in corresponding points 1,2, 3, etc, thus dividing the diagonal into ten
equal parts.
∴ In ∆ C 1’1 and ∆ CAB (from law of similarity)
C1 11'
=
CB AB

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1 11'
=
10 AB
1
11' = AB
10
1
So, 1-1’ represent AB
10
2
Similarly, 2-2’ = AB
10
9
9-9’ = AB
10

Figure 1.4: Diagonal Scale

Example – Representation of 25.6 m on diagonal scale.

Introduction and Linear Measurement

(c) Vernier scale

y The device used for measuring accurately the fractional part of the smallest
division on graduated scale or main scale in known as vernier scale. In
vernier scale the readings are taken closer than the smallest reading on
the graduated scale.

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y The vernier consist of small scale called the “Vernier scale” which moves along the graduated
scale / main scale.
y The division of vernier scale are made either slightly longer or shorter than that of main
scale and it has an index mark (arrow) which represents zero of vernier scale.

Figure 1.5: Vernier Scale

Rack your Brain

Q: What is the least count of vernier scale ?

A: The difference in length of one division of main scale and one division of vernier
scale is defined as the vernier scale.
Introduction and Linear Measurement

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(a) Direct vernier
y In direct vernier, the reading on both vernier & main scale increases in the same
direction and the divisions on vernier scale are slightly shorter than the division of
main scale.
y Considering the n divisions on the vernier scale are equal to the length of (n–1)
division on main scale.
nV = (n–1)S

(n − 1) S
V=
n

V = length of one division on vernier scale

S = length of one division on main scale
Least count (LC) = S–V
(n − 1)S nS− (n − 1)S S
= S− = = LC =
n n n

Figure 1.6: Direct Vernier

Double Direct Vernier Introduction and Linear Measurement

y It is the type of vernier in which the vernier extends on both sides of the index
mark & the main scale is also figured in both the directions.

S
LC =
n     
Figure 1.7: Double Direct Vernier

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(b) Retrograde Vernier

y In retrograde vernier, the divisions on the vernier scale are slightly longer
than those on main scale.
y Here reading in case of retrograde vernier increases in direction opposite
to that of main scale.
y Considering the n divisions of vernier scale are equal to (n+1) division of
main scale.
nV = (n+1) S

n + 1
V= S
 n 

Figure 1.8 : Retrograde Vernier

LC = V–S (smallest division of vernier scale is longer than smallest division

on main sacle)

n + 1
=LC  S − S
 n 

S
LC =
n

(c) Extended Vernier

y It may happen that the divisions on the main scale are very close and it
would then be difficult, if the vernier were of normal length to judge the
exact graduations where coincidence occurs. In this case extended vernier
may be used.
Introduction and Linear Measurement

y Considering the (2n–1) divisions on main scale are equal to n divisions of

vernier.

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(2n–1) S = nV

(2n − 1)S
V=
n

(2n − 1)S
LS = 2S–V = 2S–
n

2nS− (2n − 1)S

LC =
n
S
LC =
n

Figure 1.9 : Extended Vernier

1.5 ACCURACY AND ERROR

(i) Precision : Degree of perfection or degree of fineness used in instruments, Introduction and Linear Measurement
methods of observations and observation is termed as precision.
(ii) Accuracy : Degree of perfection obtained in using instruments, methods
of observation and observation is termed as accuracy.
Note :
(a) The difference between two measured values of same quantity is
known as discrepancy.
(b) It is not same as an Error.
(c) A small discrepancy may have great error and a large discrepancy
may have small error.

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(iii)  Error : It is the difference between a measured value and true value of
quantity.
Since true value of the quantity is not known, true error of measurement
cannot be found, hence measurement is done in a certain limits of error
prescribed.

Error = Measured value – True value

Correction = True value – Measured value

Error = (–) correction

The sources of arising error are as follows:

(a) Instrument: This error which may arise due to faulty or imperfect
instrument used for the measurement.
Example – A Chain/tape being used that is too short or too long than
actual.
(b) Personal : This error arise due to imperfection in human response like
weak eyesight, imperfection of touch etc.
(c) Natural : The error caused due to natural phenomena such as humidity,
refraction, wind, magnetic declination, temperature, gravity etc.

Error are classified into following –

(a) Mistake
y These are errors which arises from inattention, inexperience, carelessness,
poor judgement, confusion in mind of observer.
y It can be identified by taking same measurement by another observer.
y It can also be overcome by comparing several measurements of same
quantity and discard the odd value.
Example – A reading of 70 m is booked as 17 m.
Miscounting of the number of tape length.
Introduction and Linear Measurement

(b) Systematic (Cumulative error)

y It arises from the source that act in similar manner on observation.
y The method of measurement, the instrument used and the physical
condition at the time of measurement causes systematic error.
Example – Expansion of steel tapes
Using compass in a particular magnetic field.
y These error are cumulative in nature.
y These can be eliminated by applying correction.
y The proper way to check systematic error is to measure the same quantity
by an entirely different method.

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(c) Compensation / Accidental / Random Error
y The errors which remains after the mistakes and systematic error are
removed is known as compensation error. These are random in nature and
caused mainly due the limitations of observer and instruments.
y These errors follow the law of probability:
(i) Small error occurs more frequently than large once.
(ii) Positive and negative errors are equally likely.
(iii) Very large errors are seldom.
(iv) It can be represented by normal distribution curve.
1
(v) Random error is proportional to , where N is number of observations.
N
Example 1.7: Which of the following error follows the theory of probability
(a) Random error (b) Cumulative error
(c) Both random and cumulative error (d) Mistakes
Solution : The compensation or random errors follows the law of probability.
The error is mainly caused due to limitations of observer and instruments
and these are random in nature.
So the correct answer is (a).

1.6 LINEAR MEASUREMENTS

y The linear measurement is done by tape or chain in chain surveying.
y It is applicable for small, open area having few simple details. Here details
may be classified as –
(a) Hard details : Building, roads, walls
(b) Soft details : Rivers, trees
(c) Overhead details : Power and telephones lines
(d) Underground details : Water and sewer pipes

1.6.1 Chain Survey

(i) Main Station
y Main station is the point in chain Introduction and Linear Measurement
survey at which the two sides of
triangle meet. These stations acts
like control point, or boundary of
survey area.
Example – A, B, C, D (ref. figure 1.10)

Figure 1.10

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(ii) Tie/ Subsidiary Station

y Subsidiary station is the point on the line joining the two main stations.
Interior details of the area are located with the help of tie stations.
Example- e, f, g, h, i, j(ref. figure 1.10)

(iii) Main Survey Line

y The line connecting the two main survey station is defined as main survey
line.
Example- AB, BC, BD, AC, AD(ref. figure 1.10)

(iv) Subsidiary/ Tie/ Auxiliary Line

y Auxiliary line is the line joining the two tie stations and it is used for locating
interior details of survey area which are located at far distance from the
main survey line.
Example= ef, gh(ref. figure 1.10)

(v) Base line

y Base line is the longest main survey line that passes through the centre of
survey area.
y It is the most important survey line, as the location of rest of survey line is
fixed on the basis of this line only.
Example- AB(ref. figure 1.10)

(vi) Check/ Proof line

y Check line is provided to check the accuracy of field work.
y The measured length of the check line and the computed line (from the
plan) must be same.
Example- Cj, Di(ref. figure 1.10)

(vii) Offset
y It is the distance of offset from the survey line.
Introduction and Linear Measurement

y It may be perpendicular or oblique.

Example 12, 34(ref. figure 1.10)

(viii) Chainage
y It is the distance measured along the main survey line in the direction of
progress of work.
y It is generally used in linear construction projects.
Example- Roads, railways, sewers, water pipelines, tunnels etc.

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1.6.2 Well condition triangle
y It is a triangle if all intersections of lines are clear for plotting purpose.
y If the angle between the lines is 30o-120o, clear intersection is achieved.
y Triangle having angle less than 30o are considered as ill conditioned triangle

1.6.3 Equipment’s used in chain surveying

(i) Surveying chain
y It is used for measuring distance where high accuracy is not required. The
large links present in surveying chain are made of galvanized mild steel wire
of 4mm diameter.
y To enable the reading of fraction of chain length without difficulty brass
tallies/ tages are provided at fixed interval. [For example- in 10 m surveying
chain, it is provided after every 1m interval]

Figure 1.11: Surveying chain

Types of Chain : -

(a) Revenue Chain – It is a 33ft. long chain, having 16 links, each link being Introduction and Linear Measurement
1
2 ft. long. It is used for the measurement of fields in cadastral survey.
16
(b) Gunter’s Chain – It is a 66 ft. long chain, having 100 links, each link
being 0.6 ft or 7.92 inches long. Gunter chain is preferred if the linear
measurements are required in furlong and miles.
(c) Engineer’s Chain- It is a 100 ft. long chain, having 100 links, each link being
1 ft. long. It is used if the distances measured are in feet and decimal.
(d) Metric Chain – The availability of these chains are in the lengths of 5,
10, 20 and 30 meters. Normally 20 m chain with 100 links and 30 m
chain with 150 links are used.

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Figure1.12 : Details of Metric Chain

Figure1.13: Shapes of tallies for 5m and 10 m chains

Note :
(a) 1 mile = 80 Gunter’s chain
(b) 1 acre = (10 Gunter’s chain)2
(c) As per IS specification, every meter length of chain should be individually accurate to
within ± 2mm when measured under a tension of 80 N.
(d) The limit for overall length of the chain should be as follows:
(i) 20 m ± 5mm for 20 m chain
Introduction and Linear Measurement

(ii) 30 m ± 8 mm for 30 m chain

Gray Matter Alert!!!

On testing, if a chain is found to be long, it can be adjusted by -

(i) Closing the joints of the rings if opened out
(ii) Reshaping the elongated rings
(iii) Adjusting the links at the end
(iv) Replacing worn out rings
(v) Removing one or more small circular rings

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(ii) Tapes
y The tapes are easy to handle and more precise than chains.

The tapes are classified as follows based on the material used:

(a) Cloth / Linen Tape

y It is made up of synthetic material.
y Its length varies from 10-30 m and width
varies from 12-15 mm.
y It gets shrunk in the presence of moisture.
y It gets damaged when stretched more and it
Figure 1.14: Linen Tape
is likely to twist during measurement.

(b) Metallic Tape

y It is linen tape reinforced with brass or copper
wire.
y Its accuracy is more than linen tape.

Figure 1.15: Metallic Tape

(c) Steel Tape
y It is more accurate than metallic tape.
y Its length varies from 1-50 meters and width
from 6 – 10 mm.
y It is affected by temperature and moisture.

Figure 1.16: Steel Tape

(d) Invar Tape Introduction and Linear Measurement

y It is made up of alloy of nickel and steel (36%
nickel and 64% steel).
y It is highly precise.
y It is less affected by temperature
(α = 0.122×10–6/ oC).
y It is soft and deforms easily.

Figure 1.17: Invar Tape

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(iii) Pegs
y There are used to mark definite points on ground from which measurements
are to be taken or any instruments is to be set.

Figure 1.18: Wooden Peg

(iv) Arrow

y While measuring length of long line, chain/ tape is to be laid numbers of

times and position of the end is marked with the help of arrows.
y Its length varies from 25 cm to 50 cm, and the most common length being
40 cm. The one end of the arrow is made sharp, and the other end of the
arrow is bent into a loop or circle for the facility of carrying it.
Introduction and Linear Measurement

Figure 1.19: Arrow

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 Chapter 1
(v) Ranging Rod
y Intermediate points lying on the straight line used to join the end stations,
can be located using ranging rod.
y The material of these rod is generally well-seasoned, straight grained timber
and cross-sectional shape consists of circular or octagonal pattern in 3cm
nominal diameter.
y The length of rod kept between 2m to 3m.
y For clear identification of measurement alternate bands of red/black and
white colour having 200 mm length are imprinted on them.
y Major difficulty in measurement occurs when the observation point lies at
more than 200m distance. To overcome this each rod should have a flag(30
to 50 cm square) tied near its top having colour any of red, white or yellow.

Figure 1.20: Ranging Rod

Introduction and Linear Measurement

Gray Matter Alert!!!

Ranging : It is the method in which number of points are located on

the long survey line.

25.
Chapter 1

(vi) Offset Rod

y The offset rod differs with the ranging rod as they consist of two narrow
vertical slots at right angle to each other at eye level and a hook or opening
at the top of the rod. The offset line is aligned using the offset rod.

Figure 1.21 :Offset Rod

Rack your Brain

Q. What is the purpose of providing a notch or hook at the top of the

offset rod ?
A. The hook facilitates pulling and pushing the chain through hedges
and other obstructions.
Introduction and Linear Measurement

(vii) Cross Staff

(a) It is the simplest instrument used for setting out offsets to the chain
line from a given point known as “OPEN CROSS STAFF”.It consist of two
slits providing two line of sight mutally at right angles
y It is also used for setting out right angles at a given points on the survey line.
(b) In order to set out angles in multiple of 45o “FRENCH CROSS STAFF”
can be used, accuracy of which is less than cross staff.

26.
 Chapter 1
(c) In order to set out any desired angle from the survey line “ADJUSTABLE CROSS
STAFF”can be used.
It consists of two cylinders of equal diameter which can rotate over each other.
Lower cylinder consists of main and submain scale and upper cylinder consist of
vernier scale and a slit to provide a line of sight.

Figure 1.22 :Types of Cross Staff

(viii) Optical Square

Introduction and Linear Measurement

Figure 1.23 :Optical Square

y It is a small instrument used to set out right angles and is more convenient and
accurate than cross staff.
y The two mirrors Horizontal (H) and Index (I) are placed at an angle of 45o.

27.
Chapter 1

y The fully silvered mirror ‘I’, is placed opposite to the opening F & the mirror
H, which is half silvered (silvered on the top and unsilvered at the bottom) is
placed, facing the opening E.
y It works on the principle of “Double Reflection” i.e. If a ray of light is reflected
or undergoes reflection successively than the angle between the incident and
reflected light is twice the angle between the reflecting surface.
Note : Instead of using two mirrors, a prism can also be used having
two reflecting sides at angle of 45o and the unit is termed as “PRISM
SQUARE”.

Rack your Brain

Q. What is the difference between a prism square and optical square?

A. The prism square works on the same principle as that of optical
square, the only difference is that, in prism square no adjustment
is required since the angle between the reflecting surfaces (i.e.45o)
cannot vary.

(ix) Simple Clinometer

y The instrument is in the shape of a semi-circle, a light plumb bob suspended
from its centre. It is used for the measurement of the angle of slope of a ground.
y The flat base is attached to the semi-circle to lay the clinometer on the surface
whose slope is to be measured.
Introduction and Linear Measurement

Figure 1.24: Clinometer

28.
 Chapter 1
(x) Line Ranger
y It is a device which is used to set intermediate points, on the
survey lines.
y It consist of two right angled isosceles triangular prism placed
one over each other.
y The diagonal of these two prisms are painted silvered to from the
reflecting surface.

1.7 RANGING
y Ranging can be carried out through any of the following methods:
(a) Direct Ranging
Figure 1.25: Line Ranger

Figure 1.26

 On the intermediate points along the chain line, the ranging rods
are placed by the direct observation from either of the end stations.
(b) Indirect Ranging

Introduction and Linear Measurement

Figure 1.27

 In the indirect ranging, the end stations are not visible due to the
long distances between them or due to the raised ground level. It
can be carried out as follows:

29.
Chapter 1

 In this case two chainmen’s stand at some arbitrary point C1, D1 in

between two end stations A, B such that chainmen at C1 can see
both D1 and B and chainmen at D1 can see both C1 and A.
 Now these both chainmen direct each other towards the survey line
AB upto an extent they reach the intermediate point C, D on the
survey line AB.

(c) Random Line Ranging

 This method is used when the survey stations to be ranged are

obstructed by inaccessible area eg- forest.

Figure 1.28

 In this case a random line in the estimated direction of line to be

ranged is established such that from the end point of this random
line, the end survey station is visible and is at right angles.
 Then ranging of intermediate points is done using similarity.

=
AB AB'2 + BB'2
AB' AP ' AB' AQ '

= = , [Law of similarity of triangles]
BB' P 'P BB' Q 'Q
Introduction and Linear Measurement

Example 1.8: Which of the following statement(s) is/are true ?

(a) The total number of links provided in Gunter’s chain is 66.
(b) Every 20 m chain should be accurate to within ±5mm.
(c) Check lines are drawn to collect the details of an object in an area.
(d) A well condition triangle does not have any angles less than 30o.

Solution : The total numbers of links provided in a Gunter’s chain is 100 and
the length of the Gunter’s chain is 66 ft.
To collect the details of the object in an area, tie line is used.
So, the correct answer is (b) and (d).

30.
 Chapter 1
Example 1.9: The correct order of the tapes based on their accuracy is –
(a) Metallic tape > Invar tape > Steel tape >Linen tape
(b) Linen tape > Metallic tape > Invar tape > Steel tape
(c) Invar tape > Steel tape > Metallic tape >Linen tape
(d) Metallic tape >Linen tape > Steel tape > Invar tape

Solution : The correct order of the tapes based on their accuracy is –

Invar tape > Steel tape > Metallic tape > Linen tape
So, the correct answer is (c).

Example 1.10: The chain which is found to be too short on testing can be
adjusted by
(a) Replacing one or more small circular rings by bigger ones
(b) Straightening the links
(c) Flattening the circular rings
(d) All the above

Solution: If a chain is found to be short, it can be adjusted by -

(i) Replacing one or more small circular rings by bigger ones.
(ii) Straightening the links
(iii) Flattening the circular rings.
(iv) Inserting additional circular rings.
(v) Adjusting the links at the end.
So, the correct answer is (d).

1.8 CHAINING
The methods used to carry out chaining are as follows:
(a) On smooth level ground
y It is necessary to establish the intermediate points through ranging, for the

Introduction and Linear Measurement

distance longer than 1 chain length.
y To carry out the process a leader & a follower is required. The duty of the
leader is to move forward along the survey line & insert arrows at the end
of chain whereas the duty of the follower is to collect the arrows. Thus, the
number of chain length measured is represented by the number of arrows
collected by the follower at the end of the survey.

Definitions

Chaining : Linear measurement with means of chain is termed as

chaining.

31.
Chapter 1

(b) On sloping ground

y The distance measured should be horizontal in the plane surveying.
y In some cases, the chain cannot be kept horizontal because the change in
elevation is larger between one end of the chain to another end.
y In such case chaining can be carried out by any of the following methods:
Introduction and Linear Measurement

Rack your Brain

Q. What is the disadvantage of stepping method ?

A. It is difficult to measure the length along the uphill as compared
to downhill. Because it is a difficult job to hold a tape / chain by
the follower at a particular height and while holding the chain,
follower have to direct the leader.

32.
 Chapter 1
1.9 ERRORS AND CORRECTION IN CHAINING / TAPING
1.9.1 Error
y The difference between the measured length and true length is termed as
error.
Error = Measured length – True length
True length = Measured length – Error
Correction = True length – Measured length
True length = Measured length + Correction
y Error in chaining can be of following types:
(a) Mistakes
(b) Cumulative / Systematic error: This error is directly proportional to the
length of line and may be positive or negative.
(c) Compensating / Random error: : This error is directly proportional to
square root of length of line to be measured.

Rack your Brain

Q. Error due to bad ranging, is a type of cumulative error or

compensating error?
A. The error due to bad ranging is classified as cumulative positive
error. If the chain is stretched out of the line, the measured
distance will always be more and hence the error will be positive.
For each and every stretch of the chain, the error due to bad
ranging will be cumulative.

1.9.2 Correction in Chaining and Taping

(i) Correction for Standardisation (Cs)
y Due to incorrect length of chain/tape this correction needs to be provided

Introduction and Linear Measurement

which can be positive or negative according to the actual distance.
y It is applicable to both chain or tape.

L'
L= l '×
l

l'
L =  L '
l

33.
Chapter 1

Where, L = Correct length of line measured

Lʹ= Incorrect length of measured line
l = True length of chain/tape
lʹ= Wrong length of chain/tape
Note : The same concept can be used for area & volume :
2
l'
(a) True area =   × measured area
l
3
l'
(b) True volume =   × measured volume
l
Correction for standardisation
Cs = True length – Measured length
Cs = L – L’
l'
= Cs   L '− L '
l

l ' 
=
Cs L '  − 1
l 
 l '− l 
Cs =  L '
 l 

Example 1.11: A plan of an old survey was plotted to a scale of 1 cm = 10 m,

which has shrunk such that the original line of 10 cm length is now 9.77 cm.
It was mentioned on plan that the chain (20 m) used for the measurement
was 0.8 link (16 cm) too short. If the area of a plot on the available plan was
found to 58.2cm2, then the correct area (in hectare) of plot will be

Solution : Scale of plan: 1 cm = 10 m

1
So, RF =
Introduction and Linear Measurement

1000
l = 20 m
l’ = 20 – 16 × 10–2 = 19.84 m
Shrunk length
Shrunk factor =
Original length

9.77
=SF = 0.977
10
58.2 58.2
Actual area before shrunk = 2
= = 60.972cm2 ≈ 60.97cm2
(SF) (0.977)2

34.
 Chapter 1
Area of survey = 60.97(10)2
= 6097 m2
= 6097×10–4 Hectare
= 0.6097 Hectare
2
l'
Correct area of survey
=   ×A
l 
2
 19.84 
=   × 0.6097 = 0.59998 Hectare
 20 
Example 1.12 : A 20m chain was used to measure a distance of 2500 m
and found that the chain was 10 cm too long. By the end of the day a
total distance of 5000 m was measured, and chain was found to be 18
cm too long. What is the true distance if the chain was correct before the
commencement of work?

Solution : For first 2500 m measurement:

0 + 10
Average error = = 5 cm = 0.05 m
2
l’ = 20 + 0.05 = 20 .05 m
l' 20.05
Correct length, L1 = × L ' = × 2500
l 20
L1 = = 2506.25 m
For second 2500 m measurement
10 + 18
Average error = = 14 =
cm 0.14m
2
l’ = 20 + 0.14 = 20.14 m
20.14
so, correct length,
= L2 × 2500 = 2517.5 m
20

Introduction and Linear Measurement

Total correct length (L) = L1 + L2 = 2506.25+2517.5
L = 5023.75 m

(ii) Correction for Slope (Cg)

It is applicable to both chain & tape.
Cg = D–L
(a) When slope angle (q) is known
Cg = Lcosθ –L

Cg =−L(1 − cos θ)
Figure 1.29

35.
Chapter 1

Note- Slope correction is always negative.

(b) When elevation difference (h) is known
Cg = D–L

Cg = L2 − h2 − L

 h2 
= L  1 − 2 − 1
 L 

 1 h2 h4  
Cg = L  1 − − + other higher terms  − 1 (by Binomial expansion)
 2 L2 8L4  
Neglecting higher terms of h
 h2 
Cg = L 1 − 2 − 1
 2L 

h2
Cg = −
2L

h4
Note: Correction is increased by when higher terms of h are considered.
8L3
Note: Now all the further correction are applicable for TAPE only.

(iii) Correction for Pull (Tension) (Cp)

Correction due to pull is given by :

(P − Ps )L
Cp =
AE

Where, Ps = Standard pull

Introduction and Linear Measurement

P = Applied pull
A = Cross section area of tape
E = Modulus of elasticity of tape
L = Measured length.
Case 1: When applied pull is greater than the standard pull (P > PS), the length
of tape increases and the measured distance is found to be lesser than the
actual distance, then the applied correction (CP) becomes positive (+).

36.
 Chapter 1
Case 2: When applied pull is lesser than the standard pull (P < PS), the length
of tape decreases and measured distance is found to be greater than the
actual distance, then the applied correction (CP) becomes negative (-).

(iv) Correction for Temperature (Ct)

y Due the temperature variation the length of tape varies, and correction is
given by:
Ct = α (Tm – To ) L

Where, Tm = Mean temperature during measurement

To = Temperature during standardisation
α = Coefficient of thermal expansion
L = Measured length
Case 1: When temperature during measurement is greater than the standard
temperature, the applied correction (Ct) becomes positive (+).
Case 2: When temperature during measurement is lesser than the standard
temperature, the applied correction (Ct) becomes negative (-).

(v) Correction for Sag (Csag)

y For higher accuracy in taping, tape must be hanged in catenary and
correction for the sag in the tape needs to be applied.
y For sag correction the profile is considered to be parabolic

Figure 1.30 Introduction and Linear Measurement

w2l 3
Csag =
24p2

Where, w = Weight per unit length of tape

l = Length of tape suspended between supports.
p = Applied pull

37.
Chapter 1

Case (a): If the tape has been standardised on flat and used in catenary,
then applied sag correction (Csag) would be negative (-).
Case (b): If the tape has been standardised on catenary and is used on flat,
then applied sag correction (Csag) would be positive (+).

(vi) Correction for Misalignment (Cm):

y When the survey line is not accurately ranged out, error due to misalignment
takes place.
y In such case the measured distance would be greater than the correct
distance, and positive error would take place which results in negative
correction.

Figure 1.31

Cm = – [AC1 × (1–cosq1) + BC1 × (1–cosq2)]

(vii) Reduction of length to mean sea level (MSL)

y The measured length at different altitudes is sometimes reduced to a
common level, generally MSL.
y As the earth is spheroidal in shape, the measured distance at any altitude
h above the MSL would be greater than the equivalent length at MSL.
L L
=θ = e
R+h R
 R 
Le = L  
Introduction and Linear Measurement

R + h

Ch = Le –L

 R 
=L   −L
R + h

hL
Ch = −
R+h

Since, R ~ 6400 km Figure 1.32

38.
 Chapter 1
i.e, R >> h ⇒ R + h ~ R

hL
Ch = −
R
Where, L = Measured horizontal distance
h = Mean equivalent of the base line above MSL
R = Radius of earth
θ = Angle subtended at the centre of the earth

Example 1.13: A steel tape of nominal length 30 m was used to measure

the length of a line PQ by suspending it between supports. The measured
length was 29.861 m. The slope angle was 3o45’ and the mean temperature
and tension applied were respectively 10oC and 100 N. If the standard length
of tape was 30.004 m at 20oC and 44.5 N tension, then what is the correct
horizontal length of the tape (Take cross-section area of the tape = 2mm2,
a = 1.12 ×10–5/oC, weight of the tape is 0.16 N/m & E = 2 × 105 N/mm2)?

Solution:
Given: P0 = 44.5 N; P = 100 N
A = 2 mm2; measured length = 29.861 m
a = 1.12×10–5/oC; l’ = 30.004 m
E = 2×105 N/mm2 ; l = 30 m
Tm = 10oC
T0 = 20oC
w = 0.16 N/m
 l '− l 
Correction due to standardisation = measured length  
 l 
Introduction and Linear Measurement
 30.004 − 30 
Cs = 29.861  
 30 
Cs = 0.00398 m
Correction for slope (Cg) = –L (1– cos θ)
Cg = –29.861 (1– cos 3o45’)
Cg = –0.064m
(P− P0 )L
∴ Correction for pull (Cp) =
AE

39.
Chapter 1

(100 − 44.5)29.861
C p=
2 × 2 × 105
Cp= 0.004m
Correction for temperature (Ct) = α (Tm –T0)L
Ct = 1.12 ×10–5 (10–20) 29.861
Ct = –0.003 m
w2l 3
Correction for (Csag) = -
24P2

(0.16)2 (29.861)3
Csag = −
24(100)2
Csag = –0.00284 m
Total correction = 0.00398 –0.064 + 0.004 – 0.003– 0.00284 = –0.0619 m
Correct horizontal distance = 29.861 – 0.0619 = 29.799 m

Previous Year’s Questions

QuestionA survey line was measured to be 285.5m with a tape having

a nominal length of 30m. On checking, the true length of the
tape was found to be 0.05 m too short. If the line lay on a
slope of 1 in 10. The reduced length (horizontal length) of the
line for plotting of survey work would be –
(a) 285.6 m (b) 284.5 m
(c) 283.6 m (d) 285.0 m
Answer: (c)  (GATE 2019, SET-I)

1.10 OPERATIONS (FIELD WORK) IN CHAIN SURVEYING

The operations involved in chain surveying includes-
Introduction and Linear Measurement

(a) Reconnaissance
y Reconnaissance is the method of preliminary inspection of the area to be
surveyed to collect information of the principle features of the ground & get
some idea of the terrain.
y In this ground is examined and decided upon for best possible arrangement
of triangles and best possible marking of main survey stations and survey
lines.
(b) Marking of Stations
y Once reconnaissance is done, the main stations are being marked on
ground such that station can be readily located after words.

40.
 Chapter 1
(c) Running Survey Lines
y Survey lines are run to measure the distance between main stations and
locate the adjacent details by offset.
(d) Taking Offset
y It is defined as lateral distance measured from the survey line to the station
whose detail is to be plotted.
The offsets are of two types:
(i) Perpendicular offset / offset
(ii) Oblique offset

Figure 1.33

Maximum / Limiting length of offsets:

y The maximum length of offset is generally determined for the consideration
that the error produced in plotting the detail should not exceed 0.25 mm
or 0.025cm.
y 0.25 mm is the minimum value that the human eye can differentiate, hence
a good draught’s man can distinguish a distance of 0.25 mm on the paper.

Introduction and Linear Measurement

Gray Matter Alert!!!

The factors on which the maximum length of offset depends is as

follows –
(a) Scale of plotting
(b) Accuracy desired
(c) Possible error in direction and length

Error in laying offset may be due to following -

(a) Error in laying offset only
(b) Error in laying direction and linear measurement

41.
Chapter 1

(a) Error in laying offset only

P = Actual point on ground
θ = Error in laying direction
P1 = Point located on paper
Length of error on ground = PP2 = l sin θ
If scale of map is 1 cm = S m
l sin θ
Length of error on paper = cm
S
For limiting length of offset :
Length of error on paper < 0.025 cm or ≥/ 0.025 cm
l sin θ
< 0.025
S
Figure 1.34
0.025 S
l<
sin θ

(b) Error in laying direction and linear measurement both

Length of error on ground PP1 = (l sin θ)2 + x2
P = Actual point on ground
P1 = Point located on plan
θ = Error in laying direction
x = Error in linear measurement

If scale of map is, 1 cm = S m

(l sin θ)2 + x2
Length of error on plan =
S
For limiting length of offset :
Length of error on plane < 0.025 cm

(l sin θ)2 + x2
Introduction and Linear Measurement

< 0.025
S Figure 1.35
1
l< (0.025 S)2 − x2
sin θ

Gray Matter Alert!!!

If offset length is measured with an accuracy of “1 in r”

Then error in linear measurement (x)
l
x=
r

42.
 Chapter 1
Example 1.14: If the maximum error allowed in laying direction of offset is
6o, then calculate the limiting length of offset for following drawing scales
(i) 1 cm = 60 m (ii) 1 cm = 6m

Solution : Given : Maximum allowed error = 6o

0.025 S
l=
sin θ
For (1) case, S = 60 0.025 × 60
l=
sin6o
l = 14.35 m
For (2) case, S = 6
0.025 × 6
l=
sin6o
l = 1.435 m
Example 1.15: The maximum allowable length of an offset and maximum
allowable error in length measurement are 30 m and 25 cm, respectively. If
scale of drawing is 1 cm = 60 m, then what will be the maximum allowable
error in laying direction of offset.
Solution : Here error is in both laying direction and linear measurement
1

= l (0.025 S)2 − x2
sin θ

1

= 30 (0.025 × 60)2 − (0.25)2
sin θ

1.479
sin θ =
30
θ = 2.82o
Example 1.16: An offset is measured with an accuracy of 1 in 100. If the Introduction and Linear Measurement
scale of plotting is 1 cm = 10 m and the displacement of the point due to
incorrect length and that due to incorrect direction are equal, then what
would be the limiting length of the offset ?
Solution: Given, Accuracy = 1 in 100
l l
Error in linear measurement (x) = = m
r 100
Error due to incorrect direction = l × sin q
l
= l sin θ
100

43.
Chapter 1

1
= 100
sin θ
Given, the error is in both linear measurement and direction
1
So,
= l (0.025S)2 − x2
sin θ
1 l
= 100,
= =
S 10, x
sin θ 100
2
 l 
=l 100 (0.025 × 10)2 −  
 100 

l l2
= 0.0625 −
100 104
2
 l  l2
=  0.0625 −
 100  104

2l 2
= 0.0625
104
l = 17.67m
1.11 OBSTACLES IN CHAINING
The obstacles may be divided into two classes :
(a) Obstacles to measurement
(b) Obstacles to alignment
Introduction and Linear Measurement

Figure 1.36

44.
 Chapter 1
1.12 CROSS STAFF SURVEY

Figure 1.37

A = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 + A5 + A6
A = ∑Ai

y The cross staff survey is a special type of chain survey to locate the
boundaries of a field for calculating area.
y In this survey a base line is selected through the middle portion of the field
and the entire area is divided into a number of simple regular figures like
triangle and trapezium.
y In this method cross staff is used for setting out the perpendicular to base
line.

Example 1.17: Show the cross-staff survey of a field ABCDEF and from the
field book measurement given and complete the area of field.

Introduction and Linear Measurement

45.
Chapter 1

Solution :

Mean
Area Chainage Base Length Perpendicular
Perpendicular Area (m2)
No (m) (m) offset
offset
1 0-200 200 120 60 12000
2 0-300 300 150 75 22500
3 200-600 400 120-140 130 52000
4 300-750 450 150-160 155 69750
5 600-1000 400 140 70 28000
6 750-1000 250 160 80 20000
∑=
204250m2
Introduction and Linear Measurement

Keywords

Š Classification of Survey Š Linear Measurement

Š Principles of Surveying Š Chain Surveying
Š Plane and Map Š Ranging
Š Scale Š Chaining
Š Errors Š Offset Measurement
Š Corrections Š Obstacles in chaining
Š Well condition triangle Š Cross staff survey

46.
 2 Compass Surveying

Chapter 2
2.1 INTRODUCTION
y A network of control points is made with using the linear measurement
done by chain in chain surveying.
y Whereas in compass surveying these control points are plotted by using
the both linear and angular measurements and this process is called
“Traversing”.

Table 2.1: Basic Differences Between Chain and Compass Surveying

S.No. Chain Surveying Compass Surveying

Only linear measurement is Both linear and angular

1.
taken. measurements are taken.

Here framework consists of

Here framework consists of
2. connected lines forming an
network of triangles.
open or closed polygon.

Accuracy is checked by check Accuracy is checked by

3.
lines. methods of adjustment.

Suitable for small, flat area Suitable for large area

4. where high precision is not where hight precision is
required. required.

Definitions

Traverse Survey: It is the type of survey in which framework is formed

by a number of connected survey lines, and the direction and length
of the survey line are measured with the help of an angle (or direction)
measuring instrument and a tape or chain, respectively.

2.1.1 Traverse Survey

y The framework consists of number of connected lines, forming open or
closed polygon. Based on the type of framework, traverse survey is further
classified as:
(a) Close Traverse
Compass Surveying

y A closed traverse starts from a station and closes either on the same
station or another station whose location is already known.
y Loop traverse: Closed traverse which starts and ends at the same point
whose location is known.

47.
Chapter 2

y Link traverse: Closed traverse which starts and end at different point
whose location is not known.
y In closed traverse detection and adjustment or balance of errors is easy

Figure 2.1: Closed Traverse

(b) Open Traverse

y An open traverse starts at an established station whose location is known
but closes at a unknown or unestablished station.
y Open traverse is used for the survey of roads, railways, canals, tunnels etc.

Figure 2.2: Open Traverse

y Traversing can be done by any of the following methods:

(a) Compass traverse
(b) Plane table traverse
Compass Surveying

(c) Theodolite traverse

(d) Stadia traverse

48.
 Chapter 2
Do You Know?

Compass Traverse: In compass traverse, angles are measured with a

magnetic compass and linear measurements done with chain or tape.

2.2 MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES

y A “MERIDIAN” is the reference line used to show the direction of the traverse
line by a horizontal angle between meridian and traverse line.

Compass Surveying

49.
Chapter 2

Bearing :

Definitions

Bearing: The horizontal angle made by the traverse line with reference
line/meridian is termed as bearing.

y Depending upon the reference line selected, these bearings are of following
types:

2.2.1 Representation /Designation of Bearing

y Bearing of traverse line can be designated by following two systems-
(a) Whole Circle Bearing System (WCB)
(b) Quadrantal Bearing System (QB)

(a) Whole Circle Bearing System (WCB)

y In this system bearing of a line is the horizontal angle between the line and
the north end of the reference meridian.
y It is measured in clockwise direction.
y The WCB of a line varies from 0 – 360°.
y It is also termed as AZIMUTH if reference is true north.
y It is measured with the help of “PRISMATIC COMPASS”
Compass Surveying

Figure 2.3: WCB System

50.
 Chapter 2
(b) Quadrantal Bearing System (Reduced bearing)
y Quadrant bearing (Q.B.) a line is the acute angle, which the line makes with
the reference meridian.
y It can be measured from north or south point whichever is closer.
y It is measured in both clockwise and anticlockwise direction.
y It varies in range the of 0 – 90°.
y It is measured with the help of “SURVEYOR’S COMPASS”.

y QB is reported as follows:
(i) First the letter N or S representing north or south point is mentioned.
(ii) Mention the angle of the bearing.
(iii) Lastly E or W representing east or west point is reported.

Figure 2.4: Q.B System

Table 2.2: Conversion of Q.B. into W.C.B

Line QB WCB WCB Range

OA NαE QB 0° - 90°

OB SβE 180° - QB 90° - 180°

OC SθW QB + 180° 180° - 270°

Compass Surveying

OD NfW 360° - QB 270° - 360°

51.
Chapter 2

Table 2.3: Conversion of WCB to Q.B. (ref. fig. 2.3)

Line WCB Range QB Quadrant

OP 0-90° WCB NE
OQ 90° - 180° 180° - WCB SE
OR 180° - 270° WCB - 180° SW
OS 270° - 360° 360° - WCB NW

Gray Matter Alert!!!

When a line points towards north, south, east and west it is reported
as due north, due south, due east and due west respectively.
S0° : Due South
N0° : Due North
N90°W or S 90°W : Due West
N90°E or S 90°E : Due East

2.2.2 Fore Bearing (FB) and Back Bearing (BB)

y Fore Bearing: The bearing of line in the direction of the progress of survey
is called fore bearing (FB).

y Back Bearing: The bearing of line in the direction opposite to the progress
of survey is called back bearing (BB).

Line FB BB
AB a β
BA β a
Compass Surveying

Figure 2.5: Fore Bearing & Back Bearing

52.
 Chapter 2
y FB and BB of a line differ by an angle of 180°.
(i) If FB < 180°, BB = FB + 180°
IF FB > 180°, BB = FB – 180°
Hence if bearing of the line is reported in WCB system then BB = FB ± 180°.
(ii) If bearing of line reported in QB system, then
Back bearing angle = Fore bearing angle
But N → S and E → W and vice versa.

Example 2.1: Fore bearing of different lines are given, compute the
corresponding back bearing of the lines.
(a) 26° 45′ (b) 340°
(c) S40° 40′W (d) N37°W

Solution:
(a)

FB = 26°45′ (FB < 180°)

BB = 26°45′ + 180° = 206°45′
(b)

Compass Surveying

FB = 340° (FB > 180°)

BB = 340° - 180° = 160°

53.
Chapter 2

(c)

FB = S40°40′W
BB = N40°40′E
(d)

FB = N37°W
BB = S37°E

Example 2.2: Convert the following quadrantal bearing to whole circle

bearing.
(i) S30°36′E (ii) N6°40′W

Solution:
(i)
Compass Surveying

54.
 Chapter 2
QB = S30°36′E
It lies in second quadrant.
So, WCB = 180° - 30°36′
WCB = 149°24′
(ii)

QB = N6°40′W
It lies in IV quadrant
So, WCB = 360° - 6°40′
WCB = 353°20′

2.2.3 Included Angles

y When two lines meet at a point the angle enclosed between them is termed
as included angle.
y Included angle may either be interior or exterior angle.
y In surveying included angle is defined as the angle measured in clockwise
direction from preceding line to forward line.
Case I: If the traverse runs in clockwise direction, included angle are
exterior angles.

Compass Surveying

Figure 2.6

55.
Chapter 2

Case II: If the traverse runs in anticlockwise direction, included angles
are interior angles.

Figure 2.7

2.2.3.1 Calculation of Included Angles from Bearing

Case I: When QB of lines are given

(a) When bearing is measured on same side of common meridian.

Compass Surveying

Figure 2.8

q=β–α, θ is the included angle.

56.
 Chapter 2
(b) When bearings are measured on opposite side of common meridian.

Figure 2.9

Interior angle θ = α + b

(c) When bearings are measured in same side of different meridian.

Compass Surveying

Figure 2.10

Interior angle θ = 180° – (α + β)

57.
Chapter 2

(d) When bearings are measured in opposite direction on different sides of

meridian.

Figure 2.11

q = 90° – α + 90° + b
q = 180°+ β – α

Case II: When WCB of lines are given

(a) The traversing is done in clockwise direction OPQO, OP is forward line
and QO is previous line.

Figure 2.12

Included angle = FB of forward line – BB of previous line

Compass Surveying

θ=α–b

NOTE: If α – β is (-) ve, add 360° to get the included angles, which will be
an exterior included angle.

58.
 Chapter 2
(b) The traversing is done in anticlockwise direction OQPO, OQ is forward
line and PO is previous line.

Figure 2.13

Included angle = FB of forward line – BB of previous line

θ = β – α (interior included angle)

2.2.3.2 Calculation of Bearing from Included Angle

y By knowing the included angle of traverse and bearing of a line, the bearings
of other lines can also be computed.

Figure 2.14

Fore bearing of next line = Fore bearing of previous line + Included angle
Compass Surveying

NOTE:
(a) If this sum is more than 180°, subtract 180°.
(b) If this sum is less than 180°, add 180°.
(c) If this sum is more than 540°, subtract 540°.

59.
Chapter 2

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: Traversing is carried out for a closed traverse PQRS. The

internal angles at vertices P, Q, R & S are measured 92°, 68°, 123°, 77°
respectively. If fore bearing of line PQ is 27°, fore bearing of line RS (in
degree, in integer) is________.
Answer: (196°, 218°) (GATE-2021, SET-I)

Example 2.3: The following bearings were observed for a closed traverse
ABCDEA, compute the interior angles.

Line AB BC CD DE EA

FB 140°30′ 80°30′ 340°0′ 290°30′ 230°30′

Solution:
Method-I

Included angles = FB of forward line – BB of previous line.

Compass Surveying

(Here we are calculating interior angles)

∠A = FB or AB – BB of EA
= 140°30′ - [230°30′ - 180°]

60.
 Chapter 2
∠A = 90°
∠B = FB of BC – BB of AB = 80°30′ - [140° 30′ + 180°]
= -240° + 360° (Since 240° is negative, add 360°)
∠B = 120°
∠C = FB of CD – BB of BC = 340° - [80°30′ + 180°]
∠C = 79°30′
∠D = FB of DE – BB of CD = 290°30′ - [340° - 180°]
∠D = 130°30′
∠E = FB of EA – BB of DE = 230°30′ - [290° 30′ - 180°]
∠E = 120°
Check = (2n – 4) × 90°= ( 2 × 5 – 4)90° = 540°
∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D + ∠E = 540°
Method-II
By calculating interior angles through simple mathematical operations

Compass Surveying

∠A = 140°30′ - 50°30′
∠A = 90°
∠B = 39°30′ + 80°30′

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Chapter 2

∠B = 120°
∠C = 340° - 180° - 80°30′
∠C = 79°30′
∠D = 290°30’ - 180° + 20° = 130°30′
∠E = 69°30′ + 50°30′ = 120°
Check: (2n – 4) × 90° = 540°
∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D + ∠E = 540°
NOTE: (a) Sum of all interior angles of a polygon = (2n – 4)90°
(b) Sum of all exterior angler of a polygon = (2n + 4)90°

Example 2.4: The following angles were observed in clockwise direction

in an open traverse. If the magnetic bearing of line AB is 242° and interior
angles are given as ∠ABC = 125°15′, ∠BCD = 146°30′, ∠CDE = 104°, ∠DEF =
100°15′, ∠EFG = 210°45′. What would be the bearing other lines?

Solution:
Compass Surveying

62.
 Chapter 2
Method-I
FB of a line = FB of previous line + clockwise included angles
[Generally clockwise angles will be obtained if we proceed in the
anticlockwise direction round the traverse]
FB of AB = 242°
FB of BC = FB of AB + ∠ABC
= 242° + 125°15′
= 367°15′ (Since > 180°, subtract 180°)
= 367°15′ - 180°
FB of BC = 187°15′
FB of CD = FB of BC + ∠BCD
= 187°15′ + 146°45′
= 333°45′ (Since > 180°, subtract 180°)
FB of CD = 333°45′ - 180° = 153°15′
FB of DE = FB of CD + ∠CDE
= 153°45′ + 104°
= 257°45′ (Since > 180°, subtract 180°)
FB of DE = 257°45′ - 180°
= 77°45′
FB of EF = FB of DE + ∠DEF
= 77°45′ + 100°15′
= 178° (since < 180° add 180°)
FB of EF = 178° + 180°
= 358°
FB of FG = FB of EF + ∠EFG
= 358° + 210°45′
Compass Surveying

= 568°45′ (since > 540°, subtract 540°)

FB of FG = 568°45′ - 540°
= 28°45′

63.
Chapter 2

Method-II

FB of AB = 242°

FB of BC = BB of AB + ∠ABC

= (242° -180°) + 125°15′

FB of BC = 187°45′

FB of CD = BB of BC + ∠BCD
= (187°15′ - 180°) + 146°30′

FB of CD = 153°45′

FB of DE = BB of CD + ∠CDE

= (153°45′ + 180°) + 104°

= 437°45′ (since > 360°, subtract 360°)

FB of DE = 437°45′ - 360° = 77°45′

FB of EF = BB of DE + ∠DEF

= (77° 45′ + 180°) + 100°15′

FB of EF = 358°

FB of FG = BB of EF + ∠EFG

= (358° - 180°) + 210°45′

= 388°45′ - 360° (since > 360°, subtract 360°)

FB of FG = 28°45′

2.3 MAGNETIC DECLINATION

y In general, magnetic meridian and true meridian at a place do not coincide
with each other.

Definitions
Compass Surveying

Magnetic Declination: The horizontal angle between the magnetic

meridian and true meridian is termed as magnetic declination or
declination at that place.

64.
 Chapter 2
Figure 2.15: Magnetic Declination

y If magnetic north (MN) is on west side of true north, then declination is

termed as declination west or negative and if it is on east side of true north
(TN) it is termed as declination east or positive.
y TN can be established by astronomical observations and MN can be
established with the help of compass and difference between the two is
declination.
y Declination can also be established by astronomical observation.
y The declination changes from one place to other and also varies at a place
from time to time.

Rack your Brain

Q: What are isogonic and agonic lines?

A: The lines passing through the points on earth surface at which the
declination is same are termed as Isogonic lines.
Agonic lines are those isogonic lines which passes through the
point of zero declination (i.e. at these points TN and MN coincides).

2.3.1 Variation of Magnetic Declination

Compass Surveying

y Declination at a point is not constant and varies from time to time due to

different reasons according to which variations are classified as follows:

65.
Chapter 2

2.3.2 Determination of True Bearing

y If magnetic declination is known, true bearing can be computed from
Compass Surveying

magnetic bearing & vice-versa as follows:

66.
 Chapter 2
Figure 2.16

NOTE: The above analysis is valid, if bearing is in WCB system, if bearings are
in quadrantal bearing system, then either convert it in WCB system and do
the above analysis or find the relation for each quadrant between TB & MB.

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: In a region with magnetic declination of 2°E, the magnetic

fore bearing (FB) of a line AB was measured as N79°50′E. There was
local attraction at A. To determine the correct magnetic bearing of the
line, a point O was selected at which there was no local attraction.
The magnetic FB of line AO and OA was observed to be S52°40′E and
N50°20°W, respectively. What is the true FB of line AB?
(a) N77°50′E (b) N84°10′E
(c) N81°50′E (d) N82°10′E
Answer: (b) (GATE-2015, SET-I)

Example 2.5: A line AB was drawn to have a MB of 25°20′ in an old map, at

that time the declination was 2°20′E. if the present declination is 4° 30′ W,
Compass Surveying

then the MB of the line will be

(a) 32°10′ (b) 45°20′
(c) 30° (d) 35°2′

67.
Chapter 2

Solution: True bearing of the line = MB + d

= 25°20′ + 2°20′
= 27°40′
Present declination = 4°30′W
TB = MB – δ ⇒ MB = TB + d
= 27°40′ + 4°30′
= 32°10′
So, the correct answer is (a).

Example 2.6: A line AB had the MB 44°20′ in 1910, when the declination was
4°20′W. Determine the MB of the same line in 1990 if the annual declination
change is observed as 6′ eastward?

Solution:
TB in 1910 = MB – d
= 44°20′ - 4°20′ = 40°
1
Total change in declination = (1990 − 1910)6 ×
60
1
= 80 × 6 ×
60
= 8°E
Compass Surveying

d1990 = 8° - 4°20′ = 3°40′E

TB1990 = MB1990 + d

68.
 Chapter 2
MB1990 = 40° - 3°40′

MB1990 = 36°20′

Running a Compass Traverse

y In this traverse linear measurement of traverse line is done with the help
of chain/tape and angles are being measured with the help of magnetic
compass.
y Here generally traverse in anticlockwise direction is preferred.
y It is not mandatory to observe both FB & BB of a line, but it is recommended
to observe both to identify the error in traverse due to instrument or
presence of local attraction.
y In closed traverse sum of internal angles observed must be equal to
theoretical sum of internal angles (2N – 4)90°.
y If both are not same, then correction is applied equally to all angels.

2.4 LOCAL ATTRACTION

y It is the attraction of the magnetic needle to the local magnetic field other
than earth’s magnetic field.
y It is caused by iron fences, steel pipes, electric wires, watch, pen, vehicles,
railroad rails etc.
y A freely suspended magnetic needle takes the direction of the earth’s
magnetic field only if there is no local attraction present in the area.
y The magnetic needle deviates from the magnetic meridian under local
magnetic force, thereby affecting the magnetic bearing of the traverse line.
y Local attraction can be identified by noting the FB and BB of a line.
y If the difference between FB and BB of a line is not 180° in that case either
there is observational error in FB or BB or both or there is local attraction
at one or both stations of that line.

2.4.1 Elimination of Local Attraction

y There are two methods by which local attraction can be eliminated:
(a) By calculating the local attraction at each station: Local attraction
at each station is calculated and then the corrections are applied to
observed bearing.

The steps involved are:

Compass Surveying

(i) Observe a line whose fore and back bearing differ exactly by 180°.
(ii) The end stations of such a line are free from local attraction. All the
bearings observed on these stations are assumed to be free from
local attraction.

69.
Chapter 2

(iii) The BB of the preceding line and the FB of the next line will also
be correct since these are observed at the station free from local
attraction. The correct FB of the preceding line or BB of the next line
can be calculated by adding or subtracting 180°.
(iv) If the observed bearing is more than correct bearing determined in
step (iii), the error at the station will be positive and therefore the
correction will be negative and vice versa.
(v) The bearings of the lines are thus corrected one by one in continuation.

(b) By Included angles: This is most suitable for a closed traverse. The
following process is carried out:
(i) Calculate the interior angles of the traverse and their sum against
(2N ± 4)90°. If there is any error in the observed bearing other than
local attraction, the theoretical sum of included angles will not be
equal to the sum of calculated angles.
(ii) Distribute the error, if any equally to all the angles.
(iii) Locate the line, whose FB and BB differ by 180°. The bearings of this
lines are taken to be correct.
(iv) Calculate the correct bearing of the successive lines by using the
corrected observed bearing and the corrected included angles.
NOTE: It may happen that in a closed traverse no lines have a difference of
180° in FB & BB. In such a case, the line with least discrepancy is selected.
Then the FB and BB of this line are adjusted to make the difference exactly
180°. Now assuming the FB of this line to be correct, the correct FB of all
other lines are calculated.

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: The observed bearings of a traverse are given below:

Line Bearing Line Bearing

PQ 46°15′ QP 226°15′

QR 108°15′ RQ 286°15′

RS 201°30′ SR 20°30′

ST 321°45′ TS 141°45′
Compass Surveying

The station (s) most likely to be affected by the local attraction is/are
(a) Only R (b) R and S
(c) P and Q (d) Only S
Answer: (a) (GATE-2017, SET-I)

70.
 Chapter 2
Example 2.7: A compass traverse ABCDEA was run anticlockwise and
following bearings were taken, where local attraction was suspected.
Determine the local attraction and corrected bearings.

Line FB BB

AB 150° 329°45′

BC 77°30′ 256°

CD 41°30′ 222°45′

DE 314°15′ 134°45′

EA 220°15′ 40°15′

Solution:

Compass Surveying

Both FB and BB are to be used in calculating the interior angles

∠A = FB of AB – BB of EA

71.
Chapter 2

= 150° - 40°15′ = 109°45′

∠B = FB of BC – BB of AB
= 77°30′ - 329°45′
= -252°15′ = 360° - 252°15′ = 107°45′
∠C = FB of CD – BB of BC
= 41°30′ - 256°
= -214°30′ = 360° - 214°30′ = 145°30′
∠D = FB of DE – BB of CD
= 314°15′ - 222°45′ = 91°30′
∠E = FB of EA – BB of DE
= 220°15′ - 134°45′ = 85°30′
∑Angles (Observed) = ∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D + ∠E = 540°
∑Angles(Theoretical) = (2N – 4) × 90° = 540°

There is no error in the sum of interior angles.

Line FB BB BB-FB

AB 150° 329°45′ 179°45′

BC 77°30′ 256° 178°30′

CD 41°30′ 222°45′ 181°15′

DE 314°15′ 134°45′ 179°30′

EA 220°15′ 40°15′ 180°0′

Since for line EA = FB – BB = 180°, station E & A are free from local attraction.
Therefore, the BB of DE and FB of AB is also correct.
∴ FB of AB = 150°
BB of AB = 150° + 180° = 330°
Observed BB of AB = 329°45′
Local attraction = 329°45′ - 330° = - 15′
Compass Surveying

∴ FB of BC = BB of AB + Interior angle B
= 330° + 107°45′ - 360° = 77°45′
BB of BC = 77°45′ + 180° = 257°45′

72.
 Chapter 2
∴ FB of CD = BB of BC + Interior angle C
= 257°45′ + 145°30′ - 360° = 43°15′
BB of CD = 43°15′ + 180° = 223°15′
∴ FB of DE = BB of CD + interior angle D
= 223°15′ + 91°30′ = 314°45′
BB of DE = 314°45′ - 180° = 134°45′
∴ FB of EA = BB of DE + interior angle E
= 134°45′ + 85°30′ = 220°15′
BB of EA = 220°15′ - 180° = 40°15′
OR
Since there is no error in the sum of interior angles and the station E & A
are free from local attraction.
FB of AB = 150°
BB of AB = 150° + 180° = 330°
Observed BB of AB = 329°45′
Hence, local attraction = 329°45′ - 330° = -15′
Error = -15′, correction = + 15′
Correction at station B = +15′
∴ FB of BC = 77°30′ + 15′ = 77°45′
BB of BC = 77°45′ + 180° = 257°45′
Observed bearing of BC = 256°
Error = -1°45′
Correction = +1°45′
Correction at station C = +1°45′
∴ FB of CD = 41°30′ + 1°45′ = 43°15′
BB of CD = 43°15′ + 180° = 223°15′
Observed bearing of CD = 222°45′
Error = -30′, correction = +30′
Correction at station, D = +30′
∴ FB of DE = 314°15′ + 30′ = 314°45′
Compass Surveying

BB of DE = 314°45′ - 180° = 134°45′ (correct)

73.
Chapter 2

Example 2.8: Find which stations are affected by local attraction. Work out
correct bearing of the lines of a closed traverse ABCDEA.

Line FB BB

AB 195°30′ 17°
BC 73°30′ 250°30′
CD 36°15′ 214°30′
DE 266°45′ 84°45′
EA 234°15′ 57°

Solution:

Line FB BB BB - FB

AB 195°30′ 17° 178°30′

BC 73°30′ 250°30′ 177°

CD 36°15′ 214°30′ 178°15′

DE 266°45′ 84°45′ 182°

EA 234°15′ 57° 177°15′

Compass Surveying

74.
 Chapter 2
Included angles (interior) can be determined by using both FB & BB of line.
∠B = FB of BC – BB of AB
= 73°30′ - 17° = 56°30′
∠C = FB of CD – BB of BC
= 36°15′ - 250°30′ = -214°15′ + 360° = 145°45′
∠D = FB of DE – BB of CD
= 266°45′ - 214°30′ = 52°15′
∠E = FB of EA – BB of DE
= 234°15′ - 84°45′ = 149°30′
∠A = FB of AB – BB of EA
= 195°30′ – 57° = 138°30′
Sum of included angles = ∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D + ∠E
= 542°30′
Theoretical Sum = (2N – 4)90° = (2 × 5 – 4)90° = 540°
Error = 542°30′ - 540° = 2°30′
2°30′
Correction for each angle = − =−30′
5
Hence corrected angles, ∠A = 138°30′ - 30′ = 138°
∠B = 56°30′ - 30′ = 56°
∠C = 145°45′ - 30′ = 145°15′
∠D = 52°15′ – 30′ = 51°45′
∠E = 149°30′ - 30′ = 149°
∴ Since the difference in FB and BB of line AB is nearest to 180°, it is
considered for computation.
Error in difference of FB and BB of AB = 178°30′ - 180°
= -1°30′
Hence correct FB of AB = 195°30′ + 45′ = 196°15
Correct BB of AB = 17° - 45′ = 16°15′
∴ FB of BC = BB of AB + interior angle B
= 16°15′ + 56° = 72°15′
BB of BC = 72°15′ + 180° = 252°15′
Compass Surveying

∴ FB of CD = BB of BC + interior angle C
= 252°15′ + 145°15′ - 360° = 37°30′
BB of CD = 37°30′ + 180° = 217°30′

75.
Chapter 2

∴ FB of DE = BB of CD + interior angle D
= 217°30′ + 51°45′ = 269°15′
BB of DE = 269°15′ - 180° = 89°15′
∴ FB of EA = BB of DE + interior angle E
= 89°15′ + 149° = 238°15′
BB of EA = 238°15′ - 180° = 58°15′

Example 2.9: In an anticlockwise traverse ABCA all the sides were equal.
Magnetic fore bearing of BC was obtained to be 15°20′. The bearing of
sun was observed to be 185°30′ at local noon with a prismatic compass.
Calculate the MB & TB of all sides of the traverse?

Solution:
TB of sun at noon = 180°
MB of sun at noon = 185°30′
d = TB – MB = 180° - 185°30′ = 5°30′W

∴ FB of BC = 15°20′
BB of BC = 15°20′ + 180° = 195°20′
∴ FB of CA = BB of BC + interior angle C = 195°20′ + 60° = 255°20′
BB of CA = 255°20′ - 180° = 75°20′
Compass Surveying

∴ FB of AB = BB of CA + interior angle A
= 75°20′ + 60° = 135°20′
BB of AB = 135°20′ + 180° = 315°20′

76.
 Chapter 2
MB TB
Line
FB BB FB BB

AB 135°20′ 315°20′ 129°50′ 309°50′

BC 15°20′ 195°20′ 9°50′ 189°50′

CA 255°20′ 75°20′ 249°50′ 69°50′

Example 2.10: Three ships A, B & C started sailing from Kerala at the same
time in three directions. The speed of all the three ships was same equal
to 60 km/hr. Their bearings were measured to be N70°E, S60°E, S10°E
respectively. After an hour, the captain of ship B determined the bearings
of the other two ships with respect to his own ship. After that he found out
the distances. Calculate the value of bearings and distances which might
have been determined by the captain.

Solution:

∠COB = 60° - 10° = 50°

Compass Surveying

180° − 50°
∠OCB = ∠OBC =
2
= 65° (isosceles triangle)

77.
Chapter 2

∴ Now for calculating CB, we draw the perpendicular from O to CB and

this perpendicular divides CB in two equal parts.

CD
Cos65° =
30

CD = 60cos65°

CB = 2 × 60 cos 65°
CB = 50.71 km  ………(i)
Bearing of Line OB = S60°E
WCB = 180° - 60°
= 120° = FB of OB
BB of OB = 120° + 180° = 300°
FB of BC = BB of OB – ∠B
= 300° - 65° = 235°
FB of BC = 235° (WCB)
In QB, 235° is in 3rd quadrant, QB = 235° - 180° = S55°W
∠BOA = 180° - 60° - 70° = 50°
180° − 50°
∠OAB = ∠OBA = = 65°
2
AB = 2 × 60cos65°
= 50.71 km [Similar as step (i)]
FB of BA = BB of OB + ∠B
= 300° + 65° = 365° > 360°
Compass Surveying

Hence FB of BA = 5° = N5°E

78.
 Chapter 2
Previous Year’s Questions

Question: Bearing of the given system is shown below:

Line Fore Bearing Back Bearing

AB 126°45′ 308°00′

BC 45°15′ 227°30′

CD 340°30′ 161°45′

DE 258°30′ 78°30′

EA 216°30′ 31°45′

Applying correction due to local attraction, the correct bearing of line

BC will be
(a) 48°15′ (b) 49°15′
(c) 48°45′ (d) 50°15′
Answer: (c)  (GATE-2013)

2.5 DIP

Compass Surveying

Figure 2.17: Cross-Section of Earth’s Magnetic Field

79.
Chapter 2

y As earth has its own magnetic field, line of forces are created by this and
are directed towards the north and south magnetic poles.
y A freely suspended magnetic needle aligns itself with the lines of magnetic
forces of the earth.
y The angle made by the lines of magnetic field with the earth surface is
called as ‘Dip’.
y Dip is zero at equator and 90° at poles.
y At other places, the value of dip varies between (0 - 90°).

2.6 TYPES OF COMPASS

y Magnetic compass used in compass traversing are generally of two types:
(A) Surveyor Compass

Figure 2.18: Surveyor Compass

y It consists of circular box of brass or aluminium.

Compass Surveying

y The graduated ring is directly fixed to the box which governs the size of
the compass, normally that is in range of 10 – 15 cm (but can extend upto
5cm – 20 cm).
y The graduations are marked in degree and half degree.

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 Chapter 2
y When compass is not in use, object vane is folded which lift the needle
above the pivot point, thereby avoids the unnecessary wear and tear of
pivot.
y The magnetic needle is made up of magnetic steel.
y It is used to measure quadrantal bearing.
y Since the graduated ring turns with the sight vane not with the needle, the
direction E and W on the ring are reversed from the actual.
y The N-mark rotates as the line of sight is rotated, but the north end of
needle aligned to the magnetic north, hence directly giving the QB.

Rack your Brain

Q. What is the reason of providing small metallic rider over the needle
in surveyor compass?
A. A small metallic rider is provided in order to avoid the dip of the
needle, it is capable of sliding over it.

Compass Surveying

Figure 2.19: Graduation in Surveyor Compass

Prior to the observation of bearings adjustment of the compass is to be

done which are of following types:

81.
Chapter 2

(a) Temporary Adjustment/ Station Adjustments

 There are the adjustments which are made at every set up of the
instrument.
(i) 
Centering: It is the process of setting up the instrument over the
station peg, by adjusting the legs of tripod and by centering the
plumb bob over the station peg.
(ii) Levelling: Levelling is required so that the graduated ring is in
horizontal plane and swing freely about the pivot point and must
be in line of needle. It is done with the help of levelling screws
or ball and socket arrangement.

(b) Permanent Adjustment

 These adjustments once made generally last for a long period
of time and are not required to be carried out for every
station.
 They are needed for the proper functioning of different components
of the instruments:
(i) Adjustment of levels
(ii) Adjustment of sight vane
(iii) Adjustment of sensitivity of the needle
(iv) Adjustment of straightness of the needle
(v) Adjustment of Pivot

B. Prismatic Compass
 In this prism is used for taking the observation, thereby it is termed
as prismatic compass.
 Its size is comparatively smaller than surveyor’s compass (8.5 - 10
cm).
 The ring is graduated in degrees and half degrees and is
attached with needle and not with vane as in case of surveyor’s
compass.
 Here graduations increases in clockwise direction with zero
coinciding with the south end of the needle.
Compass Surveying

 It is used for determination of WCB.

 Here simultaneous sighting of the object and noting of reading from
the ring is carried out.

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 Chapter 2
Figure 2.20: Prismatic Compass

Figure 2.21: Graduations in Prismatic Compass

(a) Temporary adjustments of prismatic compass

(i) Levelling
(ii) Centring
(iii) Focusing the Prism: In this case prism is moved up and down upto an
extent, graduations on ring are clearly visible.
(b) Permanent adjustments of Prismatic Compass
Compass Surveying

(i) Adjustment of sensitivity of needle

83.
Chapter 2

S.No. Prismatic Compass Surveyor’s Compass

Magnetic
1. Edge bar type needle. Broad needle
Needle

(i) The graduated ring does

(i) The graduated ring rotates
not rotate along with the
along with the line of sight
line of sight because ring
because it is not attached
is attached with magnetic
to the needle but to the
needle.
box.
(ii) The graduations on
(ii) Quadratic bearing system
graduated ring are in
Graduated is adopted on graduated
2. whole circle bearing
Ring ring having 0° at North and
system and 0° is at South
South and 90° at East &
end, 90° at West, 180° at
West.
North and 270° at East.
(iii) The graduated ring is
(iii)The graduated ring is read
read through the prism
directly as graduations are
because graduations are
engraved erect.
engraved inverted.

The eye vane consists of a The eye vane consists of a

3. Sighting
small metal vane with slit. metal vane with a fine slit.

(i) The reading is taken by

(i) The reading is taken
directly seeing through the
with the help of a prism
top of the glass.
provided at the eye slit.
Reading (ii) From one position of the
4. (ii) From one position of
System observer, the reading &
the observer, the reading
sighting cannot be done
& sighting can be done
simultaneously.
simultaneously.

The instrument can be used

even by holding suitably The instrument cannot be
5. Tripod
in hand in the absence of used without a tripod.
tripod.

Keywords
Compass Surveying

Š Meridian Š Local Attraction

Š Bearing Š Dip
Š Magnetic Declination Š Types of Compass

84.
 3 Theodolite

Chapter 3
3.1 INTRODUCTION

y Theodolite is an instrument used to measure both horizontal and vertical

angles.

y It can also be used for different surveying operations like levelling, extension
of line and measurement of distance.

3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF THEODOLITE

Theodolite

85.
Chapter 3

3.3 ASSEMBLIES AND PARTS OF THEODOLITE

Figure 3.1: Transit Theodolite (Sectional view)

(i) Levelling Head Assembly

y The levelling head assembly consists of two parallel plates, which is separated by three
screws. “Tribrach” is the upper parallel plate of the levelling head and “Trivet/Foot plate” is
the lower plate of the levelling head.
y The trivet is a casing having a large hole in the centre with threads.
y The plumb bob can be suspended to a hook at the lower end of the inner spindle in the
trivet.
y It consists of foot screws for the levelling through bubble tube.
Theodolite

86.
 Chapter 3
Figure 3.2

(ii) Horizontal Circle Assembly

y The horizontal circle assembly consists of following:
(a) Lower Plate/Main Plate
 Lower plate is mounted on a hollow spindle, also defined as the outer spindle.
 The lower plate is graduated in degrees from 0° to 360° in clockwise direction with
least count of 20 minutes.
 The lower plate consists of lower clamp screw, which if tightened the outer spindle
is fixed to tribrach & hence the lower plate is fixed in the position. When the lower
screw is tightened, the lower plate can be rotated slightly by turning the lower
tangent screw.
 Diameter of main plate gives the size of theodolite (size of theodolite = dia. of main
plate).
 Readings are measure in degree and minutes.

Figure 3.3: Graduations on main plate

(b) Upper Plate/Vernier Plate

 It supports the STANDARD/A-FRAME at its upper surface.
 At its lower face, the upper plate is attached to the vertical spindle defined as the
inner spindle.
 The inner spindle rotates in the outer spindle attached to the lower plate where the
Theodolite

upper plate is unclamped.

87.
Chapter 3

 By using the upper clamp screw, the upper plate can be clamped to
the lower plate.
 The upper plate consists of two verniers, designated as vernier A &
vernier B, which are fixed diametrically opposite to each other.
 On clamping the upper clamp, the upper plate rotates with respect
to the lower plate and the vernier readings are changed.
 If the upper clamp is clamped, the vernier readings does not change.
 Readings are measured in minutes and seconds.
 Least count = 20”

Figure 3.4

(c) Plate level

 The centring of bubble is done by rotating the levelling screws.
 A level tube is mounted on the upper plate.
 To make the vertical axis of the instrument truly vertical, the plate
levels are provided.

(iii) Alidade Assembly

y It is the topmost assembly which includes a telescope supported by two
standards in the shape of letter A forming U-frame and the vertical circle.
y It consists of following:
Theodolite

88.
 Chapter 3
(a) Telescope
 For sighting the objects, the telescope can be rotated in the vertical plane about the
horizontal axis.

Figure 3.5

(b) Vernier frame / T- frame / index frame

 It consists of vertical leg called clipping arm and a horizontal bar called as index arm.
 At the two ends of the index arm, the vernier C and vernier D are fitted.
 It is provided in front of vertical circle which has main scale attached with it, that
rotates along with the telescope.
 By using vertical clamp screw, the vertical circle and the telescope can be clamped
at any desired vertical angle and for small movements/ rotations, vertical tangent
screw can be used.
(c) Altitude bubble
 It is attached to the index arm hence to make the index arm truly horizontal during
adjustment (temporary), it is used.
 Its sensitivity is more than the plate bubble, due to fact that the entire instrument
need not to be levelled before taking every reading.

(iv) Clamp Screws

y Upper screw - loose - upper plate move
Lower screw – tight - lower plate does not move
y Both screw tight - no rotation
y Upper screw – tight - upper plate does not move
Lower screw – loose - lower plate move

Both screws clamped

y No rotation in instrument
y No rotation between plates
Theodolite

89.
Chapter 3

Lower screw clamped, upper is loose

y Rotation occurs between the upper and lower plate
y Outer spindle will not rotate
y Used at the time of horizontal angle measurement
When upper screw is clamped
y Out spindle will rotate
y Machine/theodolite can rotate
y No rotation between plates

(v) Vertical Circle

y Vertical angles are measured with the help of vertical circle.

Figure 3.6 Vertical circle

(a) Main Plate

 Readings are measured in degree & minutes.
 LC is 20′.

Figure 3.7

(b) Vernier Plate

 Readings are measured in minutes and seconds.
 LC is 20′′.
Theodolite

90.
91.
Theodolite Chapter 3
Chapter 3

Example 3.1: Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct?

(i) The horizontal circle of a vernier theodolite is graduated in the quadrantal
bearing system.
(ii) The vertical circle of a vernier theodolite is graduated from 0° to 90°.
(a) Only (i) is correct
(b) Only (ii) is correct
(c) Both (i) and (ii) correct
(d) Neither (i) nor (ii) is correct

Solution: The horizontal circle of a vernier theodolite is graduated in the whole

circle bearing system from 0° to 360°. And the vertical circle of a vernier theodolite
is graduated from 0° to 90°.

So, the correct answer is (b)

3.2 BASIC TERMS

(i) Axis of plate level: It is the line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the
level tube at its centre. If the bubble is centred, the axis of the plate level is
horizontal. The axis of plate level is perpendicular to the vertical axis.
(ii) Vertical/ azimuth axis: Vertical axis is defined as the axis about which the
instrument rotates in the horizontal plane.
(iii) Double sighting: It is also known as double centring, in this method the
measurement of vertical angle or horizontal angle is done twice, once with
the telescope in the inverted condition & once with the telescope in normal
condition.
Theodolite

92.
 Chapter 3
(iv) Horizontal axis: The axis about which the telescope and the vertical
circle rotate in the vertical plane. The horizontal axis is perpendicular
to the vertical axis.
(v) Telescope normal & inverted : Telescope is said to be normal / direct
when its vertical circle is to the left hand side of the observer and the
“bubbles (of the telescope) up” and it is said to be inverted when its
vertical circle is on right hand side of the observer and the “bubble
down”.
(vi) Centring: It is defined as the process of setting up the instrument
exactly over the station mark. For the purpose of centring, the plumb
bob suspended from a small hook attached to the underside of the
inner spindle is used.
(vii) Axis of level tube: The axis of level tube or the bubble line is a straight-
line tangent to the longitudinal curve of the level tube at its centre. It
is horizontal when the bubble is at centre.
(viii) Face right: When the vertical circle of a theodolite is on the right-
hand side of the observer, the position is known as face right and the
observation made is known as face right observation.
(ix) Face left: When the vertical circle of a theodolite is on the left-
hand side of the observer, the position is known as face left and the
observation made is known as face left observation.
(x) Transit/Plunging/Reversing: It is the process in which the telescope
is revolved about the horizontal axis in vertical plane by an angle of
180°, thus making it point in just opposite direction.
(xi) Swinging the telescope: It is the operation of revolving the telescope
in horizontal plane about its vertical axis. If swing is done in clockwise
direction, it is termed as right swing and if it is done in anti-clockwise
direction, it is termed as left swing.
(xii) Changing face: It is the operation of bringing the telescope from the
face left condition to the face right condition & vice-versa. It is done
by plunging the telescope and by swinging it by 180°.
(xiii) Line of sight: It is the imaginary line passing through the intersection
of the horizontal and vertical crosshairs of the diaphragm and the
optical centre of the object glass and its continuation. When the line
of sight comes in horizontal plane it is called as line of collimation.
The line of collimation axis is at right angle to the horizontal axis.
Theodolite

93.
Chapter 3

Gray Matter Alert!!!

The errors eliminated by changing face are as follow:

y Error due to line of collimation not being perpendicular to the
horizontal axis.
y Error due to line of collimation not being parallel to the axis of the
altitude level.
y Error due to horizontal axis not being perpendicular to the vertical
axis.

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: Group I lists tool/instrument while group II lists the method

of surveying. Match the tool/instrument with the corresponding method
of surveying.
Group I Group II
P. Alidade 1. Chain surveying
Q. Arrow 2. Levelling
R. Bubble tube 3. Plane table surveying
S. Stadia hair 4. Theodolite surveying
(a) P-3, Q-2, R-1, S-4 (b) P-2, Q-4, R-3, S-1
(c) P-1, Q-2, R-4, S-3 (d) P-3, Q-1, R-2, S-4
Answer: (d) [GATE-2014,SET-I]

Example 3.2: The imaginary line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the
level at the centre of the tube is called as:
(a) Vertical axis (b) Horizontal axis
(c) Line of collimation (d) Axis of level tube

Solution: The straight line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the plate
level tube at its centre is known as axis of level tube.
So, the correct answer is (d).

Example 3.3: Turning of the theodolite telescope in vertical plane by 180°

about the horizontal axis is knowns as
(a) Setting (b) Swinging
(c) Centring (d) Transiting
Theodolite

94.
 Chapter 3
Solution: Transiting is defined as the process of turning the theodolite telescope in the
vertical plane by 180° about the horizontal axis.
So, the correct answer is (d).

3.5 TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS

y During the setting of the instrument before taking observations, the temporary adjustments
are required to be carried out.
y The five temporary adjustments carried out are as follows:

Theodolite

95.
Chapter 3

Definitions

Parallax: It is the condition arises when the image formed by the

objective is not in the plane of cross hairs. Unless parallel is eliminated,
accurate sighting in not possible

3.6 PERMANENT ADJUSTMENT OF THEODOLITE

The following are the permanent adjustments of transit theodolite:
(i) Adjustment of plate level: The axis of the plate bubble should be
perpendicular to the vertical axis when the bubble is central.
(ii) Adjustment of line of sight: The line of sight should coincide with the
optical axis of the theodolite.
(iii) Adjustment of horizontal axis: The horizontal axis should be
perpendicular to the vertical axis.
(iv) Adjustment of altitude level and vertical index frame: To make the
line of sight horizonal when the bubble is central and the vertical
circle reading is zero.

NOTE: The permanent adjustments of theodolite are so arranged in sequence,

that the next adjustment does not disturb the previous adjustment.
The order is given as follows:
(a) Plate Level Test
(b) Cross-Hair Ring Test
(c) Collimation Test
(d) Spire Test
(e) Bubble Tube Test
(f) Vertical Arc test

Example 3.4: The temporary adjustments which are carried out before
taking observation at every set-up of the theodolite consist of
(i) Setting of the theodolite over a station
(ii) Levelling
(iii) Elimination of parallax
Select the correct option
(a) (i) and (ii) (b) Only (i)
Theodolite

(c) (ii) and (i) (d) (i), (iii) and (iii)

96.
 Chapter 3
Solution: The temporary adjustment of theodolite includes the following
operations:
(i) Setting up
(ii) Centring
(iii) Levelling
(iv) Elimination of parallax
So, the correct option is (d).

3.7 MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL ANGLES

A. General Procedure

Figure 3.9

y The very first step is to set the instrument over B.

y After setting of theodolite, the lower clamp is kept fixed and loosen the
upper clamp.
y Turn the telescope in clockwise direction and set the vernier A and B at 0°
and 180° (approx) respectively.
y Tightly fix the upper clamp and then by using the upper tangent screw,
vernier A is exactly set to 0° and vernier B is exactly set to 180°.
y Upper clamp is tightened, and lower clamp is loosened, then the telescope
is directed towards A and bisect the ranging rod at A.
y Tightly fix the lower clamp, and the lower tangent screw is turned to
perfectly bisect the ranging rod at A.
y Loosen the upper clamp, and the telescope is rotated in clockwise direction
to bisect the ranging rod at C which is tightened at the upper clamp and
adjustment is being done.
y Finally, note down the readings on vernier A and B. Vernier A results in the
angle directly and vernier B results with the reading by subtracting the
initial reading (180°) from the final reading.
Theodolite

97.
Chapter 3

B. Method of Repetition

Figure 3.10

y Set the instrument over B (The face of the instrument should be left).

y Using the upper clamp and its tangent screw, set the vernier A to 0°. After
setting the vernier A to 0°, loosen the lower clamp and direct the telescope
towards the left-hand object A, and by using the lower clamp and its
tangent screw, bisect A exactly.

y Loosen the upper clamp and turn the telescope in clockwise direction and
with the help of upper clamp bisect the right-hand C exactly.

y Take the readings on both the verniers.

y By losing the lower clamp, turn the telescope in clockwise direction until
the object (A) or station A is sighted again. Check the vernier reading, it
should be same as before.

y By losing the upper clamp, turn the telescope in clockwise direction and
again sight C. With the help of the upper tangent screw, bisect C accurately.
The verniers will now show twice the value of the angle.

y Carry out the same process until the angle is repeated the required number
of times (usually 3). Take the readings from both the verniers. The final
readings after n repetitions should be approximately n × (∠ABC). Now the
sum is divided by the number of repetitions and the final result obtained
gives the correct value of angle ABC.

y Change the face of the instrument (now the face will be right). Repeat the
same process and determine another value of the angle ABC.

y At last, the required precise value of the angle (ABC) can be obtained by
taking the average of the two values of the angle obtained in the above
process.
Theodolite

98.
 Chapter 3
Gray Matter Alert!!!

The errors eliminated by method of repetition are as follows:

y By taking both vernier readings, the error due to eccentricity of
centres and verniers can be eliminated.
y By taking both face readings, the error due to in adjustments of
trunnion axis and line of collimation can be eliminated.
y By taking the reading at different parts of the circle, the error due
to inaccurate graduations can be eliminated.
y Errors due to eccentric centring and inaccurate bisection of the
object, may be to some extent counter-balanced in different
observations.

C. Method of Reiteration

Figure 3.11

y Set up the instrument over the station point O and carry out the levelling.
y By using the upper clamp and its tangent screw, set the vernier A to 0°.
y Station point A is known as the ‘Reference object’, thus direct the telescope
towards the station point A. Bisect it accurately by using the lower clamp
and its tangent screw. Now check the vernier A reading which should still
be 0°.
y By losing the upper clamp, rotate the telescope in clockwise direction until
the point B is exactly sighted by using the upper tangent screw. By using
both vernier, readings can be carried out whose average give the angle AOB
(after deducting 180° from the reading at vernier B).
Theodolite

99.
Chapter 3

y In the same way bisect C and D successively, take the readings on both
verniers at each bisection and determine the values of the angle BOC and
COD.
y By sighting towards the reference object (P) or the station-point A, close
the horizon.
y The reading at vernier A should be 360°. If not, then find the error (The
error occurs due to slip etc).
y If the error come out small then distribute it uniformly among the several
observed angles. But if error come out large, the existing readings make no
significance, and a new set of readings should be taken.
y Now change the face of the instrument and repeat the same process.
y True value is the mean of the two results for each angle.

Gray Matter Alert!!!

Comparison between method of repetition and reiteration:

y Method of repetition is preferred for the measurement of a
single angle and when accuracy is desired beyond the least
count of the instrument with a coarsely graduated circle.
Method of reiteration is preferred in triangulation, when a number
of angles may be required at one point by the instrument with a
finely graduated circle.
y Method of repetition appears to be better, but it is more time
consuming, and chances of personal errors are more.

Example 3.5: The method preferred, to observe an included angle with

better accuracy then what is achieved by reading the verniers of a theodolite,
will be
(a) Double observation (b) Repetition
(c) General method (d) Reiteration

Solution: To obtain the higher accuracy and to eliminate even the smallest
error, the method preferred is repetition.
So, the correct answer is (b).
Theodolite

100.
 Chapter 3
3.8 MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL ANGLES
y Set up the theodolite at O. Carry out the centring and levelling. Set the
zeros of the verniers at 0° mark of the vertical circle. Then clamp the
telescope.

Figure 3.12: Measurement of vertical angle

y Bring the altitude bubble to the centre by clip screw. The line of the
collimation is exactly horizontal at this position.
y To measure the angle of elevation, the telescope is raised slowly to bisect
the point A accurately. Finally note the readings on both the verniers and
record the angle of elevation.
y Now change the face of the instrument and once again bisect the point A.
Note down the verniers readings.
y The correct angle of elevation is assumed to be the mean of the angles of
the observations.
3.9 MISCELLANEOUS OPERATIONS WITH THEODOLITE
A. Measurement of Direct Angle

Figure 3.13: Direct angle measurement

y Set the theodolite at Q and carry out the levelling. With the face left and
telescope normal, the vernier A is set to zero.
y Loosen the lower clamp, direct the telescope towards P and using the
lower tangent screw, bisect it accurately.
y After losing the upper clamp, swing the telescope in clockwise direction
and sight R and using the upper tangent screw, bisect R accurately. Note
Theodolite

the reading on both the verniers.

101.
Chapter 3

y Now transit the telescope, and by losing the lower clamp, take the back sight
on P. The reading obtained on the vernier will be same as in previous step.
y After losing the upper clamp, bisect R again. Note the readings on both the
verniers. The reading obtained will be equal to twice the angle. The angle
PQR will be determined by dividing the final reading by two.
Similarly, other angles can be measured.

Definitions

Direct angle: These are the angles measured clockwise from the
preceding line to the following line. They are also known as angle to
the right or azimuths from the back line and may vary from 0° to 360°.

B. Measurement of Deflection Angle

Deflection angle at R is q° L and that at Q is a° R. The deflection angle at Q
can be measured in the following steps:

Figure 3.14: Measurement of deflection angle

y Set the instument at Q and carry out the levelling

y Clamp both the plates at 0°, take back sight on P.
y Telescope is transited and thus the line of sight is in the direction PQ
produced when the reading on vernier A is 0°.
y After losing the upper clamp, turn the telescope in clockwise direction to
take the foresight on R. Read both the verniers.
y Loose the lower clamp and turn the telescope towards P to sight it again. The
reading shown by the vernier is same as in pervious step. Transit the telescope.
y Loosen the upper clamp and turn the telescope to sight R. Take the readings
shown on both the verniers. By taking both face readings, the deflection
angle is doubled thus one-half of the final reading gives the deflection
angle at Q.
Theodolite

102.
 Chapter 3
Definitions

Deflection angle: It is the angle is the angle which a survey line makes
with the prolongation of the preceding line. It is designated as Right
(R) or Left (L) according as it is measured to the clockwise or anti-
clockwise from the prolongation of the previous line. Its values vary
from 0° to 180°.

3.10 FUNDAMENTAL LINES OF THEODOLITE

Figure 3.15: Fundamental lines of theodolite

Theodolite

103.
Chapter 3

3.10.1 Relationship Between Fundamental Lines of a Theodolite

y The axis of plate level must lie in a plane perpendicular to the vertical axis.
y Horizontal axis must pass through the centre of vertical circle.
y Vertical axis must pass through the centre of horizontal circle.
y The horizontal axis must be perpendicular to the vertical axis.
y The axis of the altitude level must be parallel to the line of sight.
y The vertical circle vernier must read zero when the line of collimation is horizontal.
y The line of collimation must be perpendicular to the horizontal axis at its intersection with
the vertical axis.

3.11 SOURCES OF ERRORS IN THEODOLITE

Theodolite

104.
 Chapter 3
3.11.1 Instrumental Error
(i) Vertical index error
 The axis of the altitude level tube must be truly horizontal when the bubble is in center.
 The line of collimation should be parallel to the axis of the tube when vertical circle
reads zero.
 But if it is not, vertical vernier C & D would not read zero when line of sight is
horizontal.
 By taking the average of readings of face right and face left measurements, the error
can be eliminated.
(ii) Error due to imperfect graduations on circle
 Imperfect graduations on circle are either due to manufacturing defect or due to
continuous use of the instrument.
 By taking the observation in different parts of circle or by the method of repetition,
the error can be eliminated.
(iii) Error due to horizontal axis not being perpendicular to vertical axis

(a)

Theodolite

(b)
Figure 3.16

105.
Chapter 3

Angle measured between A & B in face left position :

θ1 = θ – e1 + e2
Angle measured between A & B in face right and face left position :
θ2 = θ + e1 – e2
Average of angle measured between A & B in face right and left position.
q1 + q2 q − e1 + e2 + q − e2 + e1
= = q
2 2
 If the horizontal axis is not perpendicular to the vertical axis, the line sight moves in
inclined plane when the telescope is raised or lower.
 This error is cused due to the horizontal axis not perpendicular to vertical axis, it can be
eliminated by taking the average of face left & face right measurement i.e. “Double Sighting”.
Note : In order to identify this error spire test is performed.

(iv) Error due to line of sight not being perpendicular to the horizontal axis

(a)

Theodolite

(b)
Figure 3.17

106.
 Chapter 3
Angle measured between A & B in face left position :
θ1 = θ – e1 + e2
Angle measured between A & B in face right position :
θ2 = θ + e1 – e2
Average of angle measured between A & B in face right and left position.
q1 + q2 q − e1 + e2 + q − e2 + e1
= = q
2 2
 In this case the line of sight does not revolve in vertical plane when
the telescope is lifted and lowered.
 In this case it will generate a cone, axis of which coincide with the
horizontal axis.
 The error due to line of sight not being perpendicular to the horizontal
axis can be eliminated by taking the average of face left and face
right measurements i.e. by double sighting.

(v) Error due to plate bubble tube not perpendicular to the vertical axis

Figure 3.18

a+β
q=
2

Theodolite

Figure 3.19

107.
Chapter 3

Example 3.6: The line of collimation in the theodolite is

(a) Parallel to vertical axis
(b) Parallel to axis of plate levels
(c) Parallel to the horizontal axis
(d) Perpendicular to the trunnion axis

Solution: The line of collimation must be perpendicular to the horizontal

axis (trunnion axis) at its intersection with the vertical axis.
So, the correction answer is (d).

Example 3.7: In a transit theodolite, the instrumental error caused due to

eccentricity of verniers is primarily counteracted by
(a) Reading both the verniers
(b) Reading left and right faces
(c) Reading different parts of main scale
(d) Taking both right swing readings

Solution: By reading both the verniers & taking mean of two, the error due
to eccentricity of verniers can be eliminated.
So, the correct answer is (a).

Keywords

Š Theodolite and its type Š Temporary adjustments

Š Measurement of horizontal Š Permanent adjustments
angle Š Fundamental lines
Š Measurement of vertical angle Š Sources of error
Š Measurement of direct and
deflection angle
Theodolite

108.
 4 Levelling and Contouring

Chapter 4
PART-A: LEVELLING

4.1. INTRODUCTION
y Levelling is the process of determining the difference of elevations or levels
of different points on the earth surface.
y If all the heights of different points are measured relative to a plane, the
plane is termed as DATUM PLANE.
y In general, the datum plane is taken to be Mean Sea Level (MSL) to
standardize the measurement of height internationally.
y If the vertical distance of the point above or below the datum surface is
noted, it is termed as ELEVATION and if it is noted with respect to MSL, it
is termed as ALTITUDE.

Figure 4.1

NOTE: If Datum surface is MSL than elevation is same as altitude.

y Here value of MSL is obtained by averaging high and low tides level at
different points on the sea for a period of 19 years.

Definitions

Level Line: A level line is the line lying in a level surface. It is

perpendicular to plumb line.
Horizontal Line: It is a straight line tangential to the level line at a
Levelling and Contouring

point.
Vertical Line: It is a line normal to the level line at a point. It is
represented by a plumb line.
Horizontal Plan: It is a plane tangential to the level surface at the
point under consideration. It is perpendicular to plumb line.

109.
Chapter 4

4.1.1 Bench Mark (BM)

Definitions

Bench Mark: It is a fixed point of known elevation above the datum.

y Bench marks are classified as follows:

(a) GTS BM: The GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY (GTS) BM are those
which are established by SURVEY OF INDIA (SOI) with very high accuracy
throughout the country.
(b) Permanent BM: The BM are established by PWD or SOI at an interval
closer to that of GTS BM, and it is used for local survey.
(c) Temporary BM: These are established temporary as and when required
to continue the execution of the previous day work.
(d) Arbitrary BM: These are BM whose elevation is assumed arbitrarily for
small survey.

4.2 TYPES OF LEVELLING

Types of levelling

Direct Levelling Trigonometric Levelling

 It is the most common form of  It is the type of levelling used when
levelling also termed as spirit the point under consideration is
levelling. di cult to access e.g., top of
 In this case, levelling is done with towers, mountain etc.
the help of spirit level and  Here di erence in elevation is
telescope. determined indirectly from the
horizontal distance and vertical
angle of concerned point.

H = D tan 
Levelling and Contouring

110.
 Chapter 4
NOTE: Direct levelling is further classified as follows:
(i) Simple levelling
(ii) Differential levelling
(iii) Check levelling
(iv) Profile levelling
(v) Cross-section levelling
(vi) Fly levelling
(vii) Reciprocal levelling

4.3 INSTRUMENTS USED FOR LEVELLING

4.3.1 Telescope
y It is an instrument used for sighting the object.
y Commonly KEPLER TELESCOPE is used in surveying.
y It consists of two convex lenses on either side of the tube.
Levelling and Contouring

y The principal axis of both the lenses must be in the same line.
y Principal axis is the common normal to both surface of the lenses.
y The optical centre may be defined as the point through which all the rays
of light passes without getting deviated.
y The line passing through optical centre and the centre of curvature of
lens is called optical axis.

111.
Chapter 4

Optical
axis
Convex
1′ Telescope tube
1 lens

3 3′

Principal
axis 2 2′ Principal
axis Convex lens

Figure 4.2

y Lenses used in telescope may suffer the following defects:

(a) Chromatic aberration: This defect occurs when the white light splits
into its component colours.
 The image is therefore surrounded by rainbow of colours, which
makes focussing difficult.
 It can be corrected using two lenses joined together one of which is
convex & other one is concave.

Convex lens

Concave lens
Figure 4.3

NOTE: Absence of chromatic aberration is termed as “ACHROMATISM”.

(b) Spherical aberration: This defect occurs due to spherical surface of

lens.
Levelling and Contouring

 Due to spherical surface the ray of light incident on the edges of

lens are reflected more than the rays incident near to the centre of
lens.
 This defect can also be corrected by using combined lens.

NOTE: Absence of spherical aberration is termed as “APLANATION”.

112.
 Chapter 4
Gray Matter Alert!!!

Most commonly used eyepiece is termed as “RAMSDEN EYEPIECE”. It

is made of two identical plano convex lens with their curved surface
pointed towards each other. This eyepiece is free from spherical
aberration but has chromatic aberration.

2
f
3
Figure 4.4: Ramsden eyepiece

4.3.2 Level Tube/Bubble Tube/Spirit Level

Adjusting screw
Glass tube
Bubble

Fluid with
Spring low viscosity
Levelling and Contouring

Figure 4.5: Level tube

y It is an instrument which is used to establish horizontal line or surface.

y It consists of glass tube partially filled with liquid, which should be stable,
does not freeze at normal temperature & must have low viscosity. Example:
spirit, synthetic alcohol, chloroform.

113.
Chapter 4

y The space above liquid is occupied by vapour or air or bubble.

y The longitudinal section of tube is curved (i.e. an arc of circle).
y The graduations are marked over its upper surface which are equally spaced
from each other (2 mm).

NOTE: Since the curved surface is exactly circular, equal distance on the
d
tube subtends equal angle at the centre of arc/curvature. i.e., f =
R
y The longitudinal tangent to the curved surface at mid-point represents the
axis of tube.
y When the bubble is centred the axis of tube is said to be horizontal and is
perpendicular to vertical axis.

Bubble

Bubble tube

Figure 4.6

4.3.2.1 Sensitivity of level tube

Definitions

Sensitiveness of bubble tube: It is defined as the angle subtended at

the centre of the arc of the level tube by one division of the tube in
seconds.
Levelling and Contouring

d = Distance between two consecutive graduations

f = Angle subtended at the centre
d
f= radians
R

114.
 Chapter 4
d 180 d
f= × × 60 × 60
R π
d
f =206265 seconds [1 radian = 206265 seconds]
R
If d = 2 mm
R R
206265 × 2 × 10−3
f =
R 

412.53
f= (1 division is magnified)
R
Figure 4.7
NOTE: (a) The sensitivity is expressed as seconds/division.
(b) This is not a definite quantity unless the length of division is also
specified.
(c) If not mentioned length of division maybe taken as 2 mm.

NOTE: If the bubble is off centre by one division, the tube axis will also
make an angle of f with horizontal.
I
II
f
Divisions

R R
ff
ff f f

Figure 4.8
Levelling and Contouring

The sensitiveness of bubble tube increases with:

(a) Increase in internal radius of tube
(b) Decrease in viscosity of liquid
(c) Decrease in roughness of the walls
(d) Increase in length of the bubble
(e) Increase in diameter of the tube

115.
Chapter 4

Sensitivity of the level tube can be determined as follows:

E
b

S

C a
F
D

Bubble 
tube Bubble Sta

A L
Figure 4.9

Difference between readings on staff s = b – a

Distance between reading on level tube (CD) = nd …(i)
d
f=
R
S
In DECF, tan a =
L
S
If a is small, a = tan a =  …(ii)
L

From level tube CD = R a …(iii)

from equation (i), (ii) & (iii)
RS
nd =
L
ndL
R=
S
Levelling and Contouring

d ds
f = =
R ndL

S
f= radian
Ln

116.
 Chapter 4
Example 4.1: A staff reading taken on a staff held at a distance of 80 m from
the instrument with the bubble centre was 1.555 m. When the bubble was
moved to 6 divisions out of the centre of the staff reading was observed to
be 1.587 m. If the length of one division is 2 mm. Find the radius of curve
and sensitivity of tube.

ndL
Solution: R = 1.587 m
S

n = 6 divisions, d = 2 × 10–3m, L = 80 m
S
S = a – b = 1.587 – 1.555
nd a
S = 0.032 m
1.555 m
−3
6 × 2 × 10 × 80
R = = 30 m
0.032 a

S
Sensitivity f = radians
Ln
80 m
A B
S
= 206265 seconds
Ln

0.032
= 206265 ×
80 × 6

f = 13.75″ /division of 2 mm

Example 4.2: If the sensitivity of a bubble tube of a levelling instrument is

35″ per 2 mm division. Find the error in staff reading on a staff held at a
distance of 80 m, caused by a bubble being out of two divisions from the
centre.
206265 S
Solution: f=
Ln

L = 80 m, n = 2, f = 35″ per 2 mm division

Levelling and Contouring

206265 S
35 =
80 × 2

S = 0.027 m

117.
Chapter 4

4.3.3 Levelling Staff

y The levels are used to take the readings over the levelling staff which is a
graduated rod of rectangular cross section.
y These staff are either of 3 or 4 m in length.
y Graduations on these staff gives the distance from the bottom.
y Each meter in the staff is divided into 200 divisions i.e., thickness of each
division is 5 mm, and these are painted white and black alternatively.
y These staff are held vertical at the station under consideration, which is
checked with the help of bubble tube provided behind it.

4.4 LEVEL
y Levelling is done with the help of unit termed as level which are generally
of following types:

(i) Dumpy level

y In a dumpy level, telescope & vertical spindle are rigidly casted as one
piece.
y The levelling head consists of two plates, where upper plate has telescope
mounted over it and lower plate is attached to the tripod.
y These plates are held apart with the help of three levelling screws.
y Before any readings are taken, the telescope has to be set horizontal in all
directions.

Bubble Tube Bubble Tube

Adjusting Screws Longitudinal Adjusting Screws
Diaphragm Bubble Transverse Bubble Tube
Adjusting Screws

Eye-Piece Focusing
Screws Objective End
Telescope

Ray Shade
Diaphragm
Adjusting Screws
Levelling and Contouring

Foot Screws

Upper Parallel Plate (Tribrach)

Foot plate (Trivet Stage)

Figure 4.10: Dumpy level

118.
 Chapter 4
(ii) Tiling level
y In tilting level, the telescope and vertical spindle are not casted rigidly with
each other.
y In this case telescope can tilt slightly in vertical plane with the help of tiling
screw.
y Here line of collimation is need not to be perpendicular to the vertical axis,
as it was must in dumpy level.

Definitions

Line of collimation: It is the line joining the point of intersection of

cross hairs and the optical centre of the objective.

Bubble Tube Focusing Screws

Diaphragm
Fixing Screws
Adjusting Screws

Objective Telescope
End Eye-Piece
Level Tube

Spring Loaded
Diaphragm
Plunger
Ray Adjusting Screws
Shade

Tilting Screws

Tribrach

Foot Foot
Screws Screws
Levelling and Contouring

Trivet Stage

Figure 4.11: Titling level

119.
Chapter 4

4.5 PROCEDURE IN LEVELLING

x y
BM

A B E
C
PLAN D F

Levelling
2.5 m staff
1.5 m 2m
1m 2m 2m 1.5 m (BS)
(IS) (IS) 1.8 m
(BS) (IS) (IS) (FS)
(FS)

100 m F
B D
A E
L-x section BM C

Figure 4.12

Definitions

Back Sight (BS): It is the first reading made with staff on a point
whose RL is known.
Fore Sight (FS): It is the last reading made with staff on a point before
changing instrument station.
Intermediate Sight (IS): All reading in between BS and FS made with
staff is termed as intermediate sight.
Changing Station: The station at which position of level is changed
is termed as changing station. At this station both BS and FS are
observed.

1.936 1.321
Levelling and Contouring

B
A

BM
201.132
Figure 4.13

120.
 Chapter 4
y The level is set in the middle of both the points, a backsight is taken on the
rod held at the benchmark.

=HI Elv of BM + BS

On turning the telescope to view the rod held at point B, a foresight is taken

= HI − FS
Elv

4.5.1 Rise & Fall Method

BS IS FS

BM
A B

Figure 4.14

y Previous reading – present reading → + ve (Rise)

y Previous reading – present reading → – ve (Fall)
y RL of point A → RL of previous point + Rise
RL of point A → RL of previous point – Fall
y Check: SRise – SFall = Last RL – First RL = SBS – SFS

c a
d b 1.5 1.5
Q P
3.5 3.5

e
100 m
(100 m) P
Levelling and Contouring

Q
100 m
MSL MSL

Case(i) Case(ii)    

Figure 4.15

121.
Chapter 4

In case I In case II
Dh = 3.5 – 1.5 = 2m (rise) Dh = 1.5 – 3.5 = –2m (fall)
RL of point Q RL of point Q
= RL of point P + Rise = RL of point P – Fall
= 100 + 2 = 102 m = 100 – 2 = 98 m

Example:

Station BS IS FS Rise Fall RL

A 0.663 100.000
B 1.946 1.283 98.717
C 1.008 0.938 99.655
D 1.153 0.145 99.510
E 2.787 1.585 0.432 99.078
F 2.270 0.517 99.595
G 1.218 1.052 100.647
H 0.646 0.572 101.219

S 3.450 2.231 3.079 1.860

Check:
Last RL – First RL = 101.219 – 100 = 1.219
SRise – SFall = 3.079 – 1.86 = 1.219
SBS – SFS = 3.45 – 2.231 = 1.219
Hence, the calculation is correct.

4.5.2 Height of Instrument / Collimation Method

IS
FS

BS
Levelling and Contouring

BM A
B

MSL
Figure 4.16

122.
 Chapter 4
y HI = RL of BM + BS
y RL at any point = HI – Reading on staff (IS or FS)
y Check = SBS – SFS = Last RL – First RL

c a
d b 1.5 1.5
Q P
3.5 3.5

e
100 m
P Q
(100 m)
100 m
MSL MSL

Case (i) Case (ii)

Figure 4.17

In case I In case II
HI = RL of P + staff reading at P HI = 100 + 1.5 = 101.5 m
HI = 100 + 3.5 = 103.5 m Level of point Q = HI – staff reading at Q
Level of point Q = HI – staff reading at Q = 101.5 – 3.5 = 98 m
= 103.5 – 1.5 = 102 m

Example:

Station BS IS FS HI RL

A 2.5 102.5 100.0

B 3.0 99.5
C 0.6 3.9 98.6 + 0.6 = 99.2 98.6
Levelling and Contouring

D 1.5 97.7
E 2.3 96.9

S 3.1 6.2

123.
Chapter 4

Check: SBS – SFS = 3.1 – 6.2 = – 3.1

Last RL – First RL = 96.9 – 100 = – 3.1
Hence, the calculation is correct.

Rack your Brain

Q: What is the difference between rise & fall method and height of
instrument method?
A: Height of instrument method is more rapid, less tedious and
simple but the check on the calculation for intermediate sights is
not available whereas rise and fall method is more tedious but it
provides full check in calculations for all sights (IS,FS,BS).
Height of instrument is suitable to be used for longitudinal and
cross-section levelling and rise and fall method is suitable when
exact difference between the level of two stations is required.

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: A levelling is carried out to establish the reduced level (RL)

of point R with respect to the benchmark (BM) at P. The staff readings
taken are given below:

Staff
BS IS FS RL
Station

P 1.655 m 100.000 m
Q –0.950 m –1.500 m
R 0.750 m
Levelling and Contouring

If RL of P is +100.000 m, then RL (in m) of R is

(a) 103.155 (b) 103.355
(c) 100.355 (d) 101.455
Answer: (d) [GATE 2014, SET-I]

124.
 Chapter 4
Previous Year’s Questions

Question: In a levelling work, sum of back sight (BS) & fore sight (FS)
have been found to be 3.085 m and 5.645 m respectively. If the reduced
level (RL) of the starting station is 100.000 m, the RL (in m) of last
station is ___________
Answer: 97.44 [GATE 2015, SET-II]

Example 4.3: The field level book readings from a fly level are as follow:

Staff Station RL BS FS

BM-1 100.00 3.635 -

A ? ? 2.375
B 104.15 4.220 1.030
C 106.65 3.990 ?
BM-2 108.00 - ?

(i) Calculate the missing value

(ii) Perform the arithmetic check
Solution: (i)

Staff Station BS IS FS RL Remark

BM-1 3.635 - - 100.00

A ? - 2.375 ? CP
B 4.220 - 1.030 104.15 CP
C 3.990 - ? 106.65 CP
BM-2 - - ? 108.00

\ Rise at station A = 3.635 – 2.375 = 1.26

Levelling and Contouring

RL of station A = 100 + 1.26 = 101.26

\ Since, the RL of station B is higher than station A, there will be rise at
station B.
Rise at station B = 104.15 – 101.26 = 2.89

125.
Chapter 4

Back sight of A, BS – FS = Rise

BS – 1.030 = 2. 89

⇒ BS = 3.92
\ RL of station C is higher than station B, thus there will be rise at
station C
Rise at station C = 106.65 – 104.15 = 2.5

FS of C = 4.220 – FS = 2.5

⇒ FS = 1.72

\RL of BM-2 is higher than point C, thus there will be rise at BM-2

= 108.00 – 106.65 = 1.35

FS of BM-2 = 3.990 – FS = 1.35

⇒ FS = 2.64

Staff Station BS IS FS Rise Fall RL

BM-1 3.635 - - - - 100.00

A 3.920 - 2.375 1.26 - 101.26
B 4.220 - 1.030 2.89 - 104.15
C 3.990 - 1.720 2.50 - 106.65
BM-2 - - 2.640 1.35 - 108.00

15.765 7.765 8.0 0

(ii) Arithmetic check

Last RL – First RL = 108 – 100 = 8

SBS – SFS = 15.765 – 7.765 = 8

SRise – SFall = 8 – 0 = 8
Levelling and Contouring

4.5.3 Inverted Staff

y If levelling staff is inverted in levelling work to find RL of ceiling point (top
point), it is known as inverted staff.
y Inverted staff reading is represented as negative value.

126.
 Chapter 4
Q
Inverted sta

h FS = –h
BS FS

BM
Figure 4.18

HI = RL of BM + BS
RL of top point Q = HI – FS
= HI – (– h) = HI + h
= HI + h
RL of top of Q

Example 4.4: A BM with RL = 155.305 m has been establish at the floor of a

room. It is required to find out the RL of underside of Roof (R) of the room
using spirit levelling. The BS to BM has been observed as 1.500 m and FS
to R has been observed as 0.575 m (staff held inverted). The RL of R will be
(a) 156.230 (b) 157.380
(c) 155.880 (d) 157.860 [GATE 2006]

Solution:
Roof (R )

1.500 0.575

155.305
HI = RL at floor + BS
= 155.305 m + 1.500 = 156.805 m
Levelling and Contouring

Since staff is inverted, FS will be negative

RL of R = HI + reading
= 156.805 + 0.575
= 157.380 m
So, the correct option is (b).

127.
Chapter 4

Example 4.5: A BM has been established at the soffit of an ornamental arch

at known elevation of 100 m above MSL. The back sight used to establish
height of instrument is an inverted staff reading of 2.105 m. A forward sight
reading with normally held staff of 1.105 m is taken on recently constructed
plinth. The elevation of the plinth is [GATE 2010]
(a) 101.000 m (b) 103.210 m
(c) 96.790 m (d) 99.000 m
Solution: HI = BM + BS
Staff is inverted, the back sight will be negative
HI = 100 + (– 2.105) = 97.895 m
Elevation of plinth = height of instrument – FS
= 97.895 – 1.105 = 96.790 m
So, the correct option is (c).

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: The staff reading taken on a workshop floor using a level

is 0.645 m. The inverted staff reading taken to the bottom of beam is
2.960 m. The reduced level of the floor is 40.500 m. The reduced level
(expressed in m) of the bottom of the beam is
(a) 43.460 (b) 44.105
(c) 41.145 (d) 42.815
Answer: (b)  [GATE 2016, SET-I]

4.6 EFFECT OF CURVATURE OF EARTH AND REFRACTION

(a) Effect of Curvature of Earth
Horizontal
line
Horizontal line A d
D
A D

h
Level
Level line R C h
x line
C
y R
Levelling and Contouring

d B

Figure 4.19

128.
 Chapter 4
y The effect of curvature of earth and refraction comes into the picture when
sight distance is long.
y This effect occurs because the difference between level line and horizonal
line increases with distance.
y The horizontal line is tangential to the level surface at a point,
whereas the level line is normal to the direction of gravity at all the
points.
y Hence while taking the observation from telescope the staff reading “x” is
obtained, however the level line has reading “y”.
y Therefore, there is positive error of “x – y = h”, due to curvature of earth
surface.
y Hence the correction to be applied is negative which is computed as
follows:
In DOAD OD2 = AD2 + OA2
(R + h)2 = d2 + R2
R2 + h2 + 2Rh = d2 + R2
h(h + 2R) = d2
2R >> h ⇒ 2R + h = 2R
h · 2R = d2
d2
h=
2R
Where h (m), d (km), R (km)
d2 × 103
h=
2 × 6367

h = 0.0785 d2
Where h(m), d(km)
Hence, correction due to curvature Cc.
Cc = –0.0785 d2

(b) Effect of Refraction

Horizontal line
A
D
D′
Levelling and Contouring

Level
line C
Refracted
ray of light

Figure 4.20

129.
Chapter 4

y The density of air decreases with increase in height above the surface of
earth.
y As the air is denser near to the earth surface, light from staff travels from
lighter medium to denser medium, hence gets deflected towards the
normal.
y Thereby the reading obtained over the staff is comparatively small (CD′)
then actual (CD).
y Hence error is negative in this case and correction is positive.
1 th
y Correction due to refraction is taken as 7
of the correction due to curvature

of earth surface.
1 0.0785 2
Cr = Cc = d = 0.0112 d2
7 7

Cr = 0.0112 d2 Cr (m), d (km)

If combined correction due to both is considered

C = Cc + Cr

C = – 0.0785 d2 + 0.0112 d2

C = −0.06728 d2 C (m), d (km)

NOTE:
(a) In case of longer sight, error due to curvature of earth and refraction,
can be eliminated by keeping the instrument at equal distance from
stations where backsight and foresight is taken.
(b) As in this case nature and magnitude of correction is same for both BS
and FS.
(c) If it is not possible to set the instrument in between the stations, in
that case RECIPROCAL LEVELLING is being carried out.
Levelling and Contouring

(c) Distance of Visible Horizon

y From point “A” over the surface of earth, if an object at point “B” over the
surface of earth is to be seen, only if the height of the object is given by

130.
 Chapter 4
Horizontal line
d
A
C

h
Level B
line
R

O
Figure 4.21

h=c

h = 0.0673 d2
h
d=
0.0673
d = 3.85 h d (km), h (m)
NOTE: If both the points of observation are in elevation in such cases.

d1 d2

hS
hL

Figure 4.22

D = d1 + d2
D = 3.85 hS + 3.85 hL
Levelling and Contouring

=D 3.85 ( hS + hL ) D (km), hS (m), hL (m)

NOTE: In the previous analysis the height “h” of the object under
consideration was assumed to be much smaller than the radius of the
earth, but if it is not

131.
Chapter 4

R2 + d2 = (R + h′)2 (h′ = correction)

R2 + d2 = R2 + h′2 + 2Rh′

d= h′2 + 2Rh′

Correction due to curvature = –h

h
Correction due to refraction =
7
−6
Combined correction = h
7

−6
h′ = h
7
Example 4.6: A level set up at point C, at a distance of 400 m from A and
1000 m from B. The staff readings on the staff kept at A was 0.545 m and
that on staff held at B was 3.845 m. Find the true difference in elevation
of A and B.

Solution:
0.545 3.845 m
CCA
CCB

C
A

400 m B

CCA = – 0.0673 dA2

= – 0.0673 (0.4)2 = – 0.010768 m
Corrected staff reading at A = 0.545 – 0.010768
= 0.53 42 m
CCB = – 0.0673 dB2
Levelling and Contouring

= – 0.0673 (1)2 = – 0.0673 m

Corrected staff reading at B = 3.845 – 0.0673 = 3.7777 m
Correct difference of elevation between A and B
= 3.7777 – 0.5342 = 3.2435 m

132.
 Chapter 4
Example 4.7: An observer standing on the deck of ship just sees the top
of a light house which is 44 m above the MSL. If the height of the observe
eye is 6m above the MSL, determine the distance of the ship and the light
house.

Solution: Let A be the position of top of the light house and B be the
position of observer’s eye. And AB is considered as the tangential to water
surface at O.
A O B

d1 = 3.85 C1 km C2
C1 d2
d1 B′
= 3.85 44 = 25.54 km A′

d2 = 3.85 6 km = 9.43km

Distance between A and B

= d1 + d2

= 25.54 + 9.43 O

= 34.97 km

Example 4.8: A light house of 120 m height is just visible above the horizon
from a ship. The correct distance (m) between the ship and the light house
considering combined correction for curvature and refraction, is
 [GATE 2008]
(a) 42.226 (b) 39.098
(c) 42226 (d) 39098

Solution: Combined correction due to refraction and curvature,

C = –0.06728 d2
C is in (m) and d is in (km)
Levelling and Contouring

Given, C = 120 m
120 = 0.0673 d2
d = 42.226 km
d = 42226 m
So, the correct answer is (c).

133.
Chapter 4

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: The combined correction due to curvature and refraction (in

m) for distance of 1 km on the surface of earth is
(a) 7.63 (b) 0.673 (c) 0.0673 (d) 0.763
Answer: (c) [GATE 2015, SET-II]

4.7 RECIPROCAL LEVELLING

x1 y1
e

x y

A B
d

x2 y2
e
x y

A B
d
Figure 4.23

y Reciprocal levelling is used to determine the correct difference in the

elevation of two points which are at large distance from each other, and it
is not possible to set up the instrument at mid way of both these stations/
points.
Levelling and Contouring

y For example to find difference in elevation of two points on opposite side

of river or valley.
y It eliminates the effect of curvature of earth, refraction and collimation,
but effect due to parallax is not being eliminated.

134.
 Chapter 4
Definitions

Error due to parallax: A parallax error is an error in reading an in-

strument due to eye of the observer not in plane perpendicular to
plane of scale.

e
e

Figure 4.24

Level at A
Apparent difference between elevation of A and B = xx1 – yy1
True difference between elevation of A and B = xx1 – (yy1 – e)
True difference between elevation of A and B = [Apparent difference
between elevation of A and B]A + e ...(i)

Level at B
Apparent difference between elevation of A and B = xx2 – yy2
True difference between elevation of A and B = xx2 – e – yy2
True difference between elevation of A and B = [Apparent difference
between elevation of A and B]B – e ...(ii)
from (i) and (ii)

1
True difference between elevation of A and B = [sum of apparent
2
difference]
Levelling and Contouring

1
e = [change in apparent difference]
2
Here, e = ec + er + ea
e = ecc + ea
ea = e – ecc

135.
Chapter 4

Where, e = total error

ec = error due to curvature
er = error due to refraction
ea = error due to collimation
ecc = combined error due to curvature and refraction
ea = e – 0.0673 d2

NOTE:
(a) In the above analysis two similar instruments adjusted to same extent
are being used.
(b) In case a single instrument is used at both the stations, this method
not only corrects error due to curvature and refraction, but also due to
adjustment of collimation.
(c) But in this case if temperature changes, while shifting the instrument
from one station to others, error due to refraction would also get changed.

NOTE: (a) If two instruments are used but are not adjusted to same extent,
in such case, they should be interchanged after taking 1st reading in such
case.
True difference between elevation of A and B
1 1
( xx1 − yy 1 ) + ( xx2 − yy2 )  + ( xx1 ′ − yy 1 ′ ) + ( xx2 ′ − yy2 ′ ) 
= 2 2
2
(b) Permissible error in ordinary levelling
e = ± 24 k
e (mm), k (km)
k = perimeter of traverse

Gray Matter Alert!!!

If staff is not held vertically, then error in reading is given by

Error (e) = AB′ – AB
AB
B′ Cos q =
B AB′
Levelling and Contouring

AB′ = AB sec q

=e AB[sec q − 1]
q

136.
 Chapter 4
Example 4.9: The following observations were taken in reciprocal levelling.

Staff readings at
Instruments at
A B

A 1.732 2.842

B 0.936 1.587

(a) Determine the RL of B, if the RL of A is 102 m.

(b) Also calculate the angular error in collimation if distance between A
and B is 1 km.

Solution: (a) When observations are taken from A,

Apparent difference between A and B = 2.842 – 1.732 = 1.110 m

When observations are taken from B,

Apparent difference between A and B = 1.587 – 0.936 = 0.651 m

1.110 + 0.651
\ True difference in elevation = = 0.8805 m
2

RL of B = 102 – 0.8805 = 101.12 m

1
(b) Total error e =
2
[(0.936 − 1.587) − (1.732 − 2.842)]

e = 0.2295 = 0.23
\ Error due to collimation ea = e – 0.0673d2
= 0.23 – 0.0673(1)2
ea = 0.1627 m (Positive error signifies, line if sight is upward)
\ Angular error of collimation
ea
tan a =
Levelling and Contouring

d
e 
a = tan−1  a 
 d 

 0.1627 
a = tan−1  3 
= 33.56″
 1 × 10 

137.
Chapter 4

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: Which of the following error can be eliminated by reciprocal

measurements in differential levelling?
I. Error due earth’s curvature
II. Error due to atmospheric refraction
(a) Both I and II (b) Only I
(c) Only II (d) Neither I nor II
Answer: (a) [GATE 2012]

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: Two pegs A and B were fixed on opposite banks of a 50 m

wide river. The level was set up at A and the staff reading on pegs A
and B were observed as 1.350 m and 1.550 m respectively. There after
the instrument was shifted and set up at B. The staff readings on peg
B and A were observed as 0.750 m and 0.550 m, respectively. If the RL
of peg A is 100.200 m, the RL (in m) of peg B is _________.
Answer: 100 [GATE 2015, SET-II]

PART-B: CONTOURING

4.8 INTRODUCTION OF CONTOURS

y The relative positions of different points on the surface of earth in plan are

represented by a map.

y In order to enhance the significance of these maps, relative elevation of

these points is also indicated with the help of “CONTOURS”.

Levelling and Contouring

Definitions

Contours: Contour are defined as the imaginary lines passing through

the points of equal elevation on the surface of the earth.

138.
 Chapter 4
Gray Matter Alert!!!

If contours are drawn below the water surface these are termed as
submarine contour/fathoms/bathymetric curve.

750 m
700 m
650 m
600 m
550 m
500 m

Figure 4.25

y Contours are used in engineering work in many ways:

(a) Precise location of roads, canals, railway tracks, sewers, pipeline etc.
(b) Planning & designing of dams, reservoirs, aqueducts etc.
(c) Selection of sites of new industries.
(d) Deciding the profile of country.
(e) To estimate the quantity of earthwork in cutting & filling.

4.9 CONTOUR INTERVAL

Levelling and Contouring

Definitions

Contour interval: It is the vertical distance between the two

consecutive contour.

139.
Chapter 4

y It is desirable to have constant contour interval, however in some special

case it can be varied, but in such cases, it becomes difficult to make an
idea about steepness or flatness of slope.
y It is generally kept in range of 1-15 m.
y Smaller is the contour interval more is the precision of the analysis.

y The contour interval depends upon several factors as follows:

(a) Scale of map: Contour interval is inversely proportional to the scale. If
the scale is small, contour interval should be large & vice versa.

(b) Purpose of map: For detailed designing, the contour interval should be
kept comparatively smaller.

(c) Nature of ground: Contour interval depends upon, wheather the country
is flat or undulated. The contour interval choosen for flat ground will be
unsuitable for undulated ground.

(d) Time: If time available is less, then greater contour interval is used & if
time available is more than smaller contour interval can be chosen.

(e) Cost: If cost is less, then contour interval is kept large.

Example 4.10: Consider the following figure, which is an extract from a

contour map (scale = 1:20000) of an area. An alignment of a road at a ruling
gradient of 4% is to be fixed from the point O & beyond. What should be the
radius of arc with “O” as the centre to that the point of alignment on the
next contour of the map. [GATE 2006]

O
Levelling and Contouring

10 m 30 m 50 m 70 m 90 m

140.
 Chapter 4
(a) 0.025 cm (b) 0.25 cm
(c) 2.5 cm (d) 5.0 cm

Solution:

50 m P
R
O

30 m
4%

10 m
10 m 30 m 50 m 70 m 90 m
Longitudinal section Plan

30 − 10 4
tanq = =
R 100
R = 500 m
500
Radius of arc on plan = × 100 = 2.5 cm
20000
So, the correct answer is (c).

4.10 PROPERTIES OF CONTOUR LINE

y The elevation of the contour is being marked on contour itself (hence zero-
meter contour indicates coast line (MSL)).
y Two contour lines do not intersect each other except in the case of
overhanging cliff or cave in hill side.
170

160

150

140

140
Levelling and Contouring

150
160
170

Figure 4.26: Contour of overhanging cliff

141.
Chapter 4

y In case of vertical cliff (generally found near sea cost) the contour lines
coincide with each other.

240

230

220

210

200

200
210
220
230
240

Figure 4.27: Contour of vertical cliff

y A contour line is a closed curve, however it may close inside or outside the
map depending upon the topography.
y Equally spaced contour signifies uniform slope/same slope however,
magnitude of slope will govern the magnitude of the spacing of the contour.

(i)Uniform but (ii) Uniform but (iii) Non uniform but (iii) Non uniform but
steep slope gentle slope steep slope gentle slope

Figure 4.28
Levelling and Contouring

y A set of close contours, having higher elevations inside and lower elevation
(values) outside represents hillock, cliff and lower elevation inside and
higher elevation outside represents depression, river, lake, ravine, valley
etc.

142.
 Chapter 4
170
170
160
180
150
190
200

(a) Hillock /cliff          (b) Pond/lake

Figure 4.29

y Watershed line/ridge line and valley line crosses contour at right

angles.

NOTE: Ridge line is the line joining the top most points across the different
sections of hill and valley line is the line joining the lower most point of a
valley.

100
100

95
105
90
110
115 85
Levelling and Contouring

Ridge Valley
line line
(a) Ridge line                      (b) Valley line
Figure 4.30

143.
Chapter 4

y Irregular contour represents uneven ground surface.

y The direction of the steepest slope is along the shortest distance
( ⊥ distance) between the contours.
y Two contour lines having same elevations cannot merge/unite and continue
as one line, similarly single contour cannot be split into two lines.

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: Which of the following is NOT a correct statement?

(a) The first reading from a level is a “Fore sight”.
(b) Basic principle of surveying is to work from whole to parts.
(c) Contours of different elevations may intersect each other in case
of an overhanging diff.
(d) Planimeter is used for measuring area.

Answer: (a) [GATE 2021, SET-I]

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: Which of the following is/are correct statement(s)?

(a) Back bearing of a line is equal to fore bearing ± 180°.
(b) If the whole circle bearing of a line is 270°, its reduced bearing is
90° NW.
(c) The boundary of water of a calm water pond will represent contour
line.
(d) In the case of fixed hair tachometry, the staff intercept will be
larger, when the staff is held nearer to the observation point.
Answer: (a, b, c) [GATE 2021, SET-I]
Levelling and Contouring

4.11 PROPERTIES OF LAND FEATURES TYPICALLY FOUND ON EARTH

SURFACE
(a) High-lying forms: E.g. hill, hillocks. These contours are more or less
circular in shape with elevation increasing in inward direction.
(b) Crag/scarp: Their contour will be closely spaced and overcrowded.

144.
 Chapter 4
NOTE: A very steep slope is termed as scarp and a high scarp is termed as
crag.
(c) Low lying forms: E.g. valley, lakes/pond, ravine etc. Their contour would
be having higher elevation outward.

(a) Ravine (b) Valley (c) Depression

Figure 4.31

1. Ravine: It is the depression of the earth surface, elongated in one

direction with the bottom inclined towards one side.
2. Valley: It is a broad ravine with gentle sloping bottom.
3. Depression: If the ground is low as compared to the surrounding land
and side slopes are gentle it is termed as depression.
4. Gorge/Canyons: If the valley floor is narrow and steep sides slopes are
available, it is termed as gorge.

190 190
180 180
170 180 170
170
160
160
150
160
150
150
Levelling and Contouring

(a) Depression                       (b) Gorge

Figure 4.32

145.
Chapter 4

(d) Saddle

Passes

200
210
220 220
230 230

Figure 4.33

y The lowest point on watershed line is termed as passes.

y Passes is low lying area, passing through high land forms (hillock/mountains)
on both sides.
y Through these passes river stream may also pass.
y When this low lying area is broad it is termed as saddle.

(e) Escrapment

150
160
170
180
190
Levelling and Contouring

Figure 4.34

y It is a high land, having narrow top flat with steep slopes on one side
(scrap) and gentle slope on other side.

146.
 Chapter 4
Example 4.11: Match list-I (land feature) with list-II (description) and select
the correct option.

List-I List-II

(i) Lake P. Contour lines of different elevations

intersect each other

(ii) Scrap Q. Closed contour lines with lower elevation

inside & higher elevation outside

(iii) Overhanging R. Contour lines coincide with each other

cliff

(iv) Vertical cliff S. Contour lines will be closely spaced and

overcrowded

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

(a) P S R Q
(b) Q S R P
(c) Q S P R
(d) R P Q S

Solution:
y Lake: Closed contour lines with lower elevation inside and higher elevation
outside.
y Scrap: The contour will be closely spaced and overcrowded. A very steep
slope is termed as scrap.
y Overhanging cliff: The contour lines can only intersect in the case of
overhanging cliff or cave in hill side.
y Vertical cliff: Contour lines of different elevations unite with each other.
Levelling and Contouring

So, the correct answer is (c).

4.12 METHODS OF CONTOURING

(i) Direct method
HI = 100 + 1 = 101 m

147.
Chapter 4

Staff 1m 1m

1m
2m
2m
2m 98 m
1m 1m
2m 99 m
BM
100.000 m
RL = 100
1m

Figure 4.35: Direct method

Contour of 100 m RL → reading 1 m

Contour of 99 m (RL) → reading 2 m
y Area → It is used for small areas, it is more accurate than indirect method.
y Time → More time required.
y Cost → More expensive.
y Contour interval → Small.

(ii) Indirect method

(a) Square method/Coordinate method/Grid method
y Method is used when area to be surveyed is not very large and the ground
is not much undulating.
y Area is divided into a number of squares, size of square depend on nature
of accuracy.
y Size of square may vary from 5m to 20 m.
HI = 100 + 1 = 101 m
15 m
98 99 100 101

98.5 99.5 100.5

1.000 m 99 100 101 102

100 101 102 103

20 m 20 m
BM
RL = 100 101 102 103 104
Levelling and Contouring

102 103 104 105

15 m

Figure 4.36: Square method

148.
 Chapter 4
y Properties:
⚪ Small area
⚪ Low accuracy
⚪ Less contour interval
⚪ Less time required
⚪ Low cost
(b) Cross section method
98.5
98 L2′ 99 100
L2

101 m L1 L1′
100 101

C C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7
R1′
RL = 100 R1
R2 R2′
98
Figure 4.37: Cross section method

y Usually it is used to determined contour along a fixed route.

y Properties
⚪ Used for large area
⚪ Less time required
⚪ Large contour interval
⚪ Low accuracy

Keywords

Š Types of levelling Š Reciprocal levelling

Š Levelling instruments Š Contour interval
Š Sensitivity of level tube Š Properties of contour line
Š Dumpy and tilting level Š Land features
Levelling and Contouring

Š Rise and fall method Š Methods of contouring

Š Height of collimation method
Š Effect of curvature of earth and
refraction

149.
Levelling and Contouring Chapter 4

150.
 5 Area & Volume

Chapter 5
5.1 INTRODUCTION
y Method selected for computation of area depends upon the shape of tract
and accuracy desired.
y Methods to measure area are as follows:
(a) By field measurement - It is done by dividing the area into small
geometric figures like rectangle, square etc. and by measuring base
line, coordinates of points.
(b) Plan measurement - It is done by calculation based on measurement
from field and scaled down to plan. Planimeter is used for this purpose.

5.2 COMPUTATION OF AREA OF GEOMETRICAL FIGURES

1
(a) Area of triangle = ×B×H
2
(b) Area of rectangle = Length × width
1
(c) Area of trapezium = (sum of parallel sides) × height
2
1
(d) Area of rhombus = × diagonal1 × diagonal2
2
(e) Area of parallelogram = base × perpendicular height
(f) Oblique triangle

Figure 5.1

=A s(s – a)(s − b)(s − c)

a, b, c are sides
a +b + c
s=
2
(g) Area of segment = Area of sector ACBO–Area of DAOB

πR2 1 α α
=A o
× α − × 2R sin × R cos
360 2 2 2

 πα sin α  Figure 5.2

Area & Volume

= R2  −
 360
O
2 

151.
Chapter 5

5.3 COMPUTATION OF AREA OF IRREGULAR TRACT

5.3.1 Calculation of Area From Offset
y In this method of calculation of areas, perpendicular area is drawn from a
base line to irregular boundary of land which is under consideration and
reducing the land portion in series of trapezium.

Figure 5.3

(i) Mid Ordinate Rule

h1, h2, h3 = height of offset measured at midpoint of each division
Area = average ordinate × base length
A = h1 d + h2d + h3d + ……
(h + h2 + h3 + h4 )(nd)
A= 1
n
h1 + h2 + h3 + ......... +hn
A= L (L = nd)
n
Where, n = no. of division
d = distance between two ⊥ offset
L = length of base line (nd)

(ii) Average Ordinate Rule

Area & Volume

Figure 5.4

152.
 Chapter 5
Offset O1, O2, …. On are measured at the end of each division and are spaced
at equal distance d.
Area = average ordinate × length of base

O1 + O2 + .....On
= (nd)
n+ 1

O1 + O2 + .....On
Area = (nd)
n+1

(iii) Trapezoidal Rule

Figure 5.5

y The accuracy of this method is more than mid-ordinate and average

ordinate method.

 O + O2 
Area of 1st trapezoid =  1 d
 2 

 O + O3 
Area of 2nd trapezoid =  2 d
 2 

 O + On 
Area of last trapezoid =  n−1 d
 2 
 O + O2 O2 + O3 O + On 
A= d  1 + + ....... n−1 
 2 2 2 
 O + On 
=A d 1 + O2 + O3 + .....On−1 
 2 

If the land boundary between any two consecutive offset is more or less a
Area & Volume

y
straight line, then the computation of area is carried out using trapezoidal
rule.

153.
Chapter 5

(iv) Simpson’s One Third Rule

y If the irregular boundaries are curved, simpson’s rule is preferred over the
trapezoidal rule to calculate the area.
y Here it is assumed that boundaries between the two extreme ends of three
consecutive offset is parabolic.

Figure 5.6

Area of figure = area of trap. PQRS + + area of parabolic portion SWRVS

1 2
= (O1 + O3 )(2d) + (area of parallelogram SRUT)
2 3

1 2
= (O1 + O3 )(2d) + (VW)(PQ)
2 3

1 2
= (O1 + O3 )(2d) + (XV − XW)(PQ)
2 3

1 2 O + O3 
= (O1 + O3 )(2d) + O2 − 1  2d
2 3 2 
d
= [3O1 + 3O3 + 4O2 –2O1 –2O3]
3

d
= [ O1 + 4O2 + O3]
3
Similarly, area of next segment O3, O4 and O5
Area & Volume

d
= (O3 +4O4 + +O5 )
3

154.
 Chapter 5
Similarly,

d
On–2, On–1 and On = [On–2 + 4On–1 + On]
3

d
Total area = [(O1 + 4O2 + O3) + (O3 + 4O4 + O5) + ……..(On–2 + 4On–1 + On)]
3

d
= [(O1 + 4O2 + 2O3 +4O4 + 2O5 + ……..+ 2On–2 + 4On–1 + On)]
3

d
= [(O1 + On) + 4(O2 + O4 + …. On–1) + 2(O3 + O5 + ….. On–2)]
3

d
Total area = [(first offset + last offset) + 4 (sum of even offset)
3
+ 2 (sum of odd offset)]

y This method is applied when the area is divided into even numbers i.e., the
number of ordinates is odd.

Gray Matter Alert!!!

If there are even number of offsets or odd number of segments, then

the simpson’s one third rule can be applicable in two parts.:
Firstly, the area upto second last segment is calculated using simpson’s
rule and then the area of last segment is calculated using trapezoidal
rule.

Area & Volume

155.
Chapter 5

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: The value of abscissa (x) and ordinate (y) of a curve area as
follows:

x 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

y 5.00 7.25 10.00 13.25 17.00

By Simpson’s 1/3rd rule, the area under the curve (round off to two
decimal places) is__________.

Answer: (20.00 to 21.00) [GATE 2021, SET-I]

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: A series of perpendicular offsets taken from a curved

boundary wall to straight survey line at an interval of 6 m are 1.22, 1.67,
2.04, 2.34, 2.14, 1.87 and 1.15 m. The area (in m2, round off to 2 decimal
places) bounded by the survey line, curved boundary wall, the first and
the last offset, determined using Simpson rule is______.
Answer: (67.00 to 70.00) [GATE 2019, SET-II]

Example 5.1: Determine the area between straight line PQ and undulating
line where offsets are taken at a regular interval of 20 m along the line PQ.
Use trapezoidal rule as well as simpson’s 1/3rd rule for the calculation of
area.
Area & Volume

156.
 Chapter 5
Point P Q

Distance (m) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Offset length (m) 14.3 16.4 15.2 13.1 17.8 16.2 17.4 15.5 13.1

Solution: d = 20 m
\ Area using trapezoidal rule
 O + On 
=A d 1 + O2 + O3 + .......On−1 
 2 

 14.3 + 13.1 
=A 20  + 16.4 +15.2 +13.1 +17.8 +16.2 +17.4 +15.5
 2 
A = 2506 m2.
\ Area using Simpson’s 1/3rd rule
d
A = [(O1 + O9) + 4(O2 + O4 + O6 + O8) + 2(O3 + O5 + O7)]
3
20
= [(14.3 + 13.1) +4 (16.4 + 13.1 + 16.2 + 15.5)
3

+ 2(15.2 + 17.8 + 17.4)]

20
= [27.4 + 244.8 + 100.8] = 2486.7 m2
3

Example 5.2: The method which is best suitable for the estimation of area of an irregular
and curved boundary is
(a) Trapezoidal method (b) Simpson’s method
(c) Average ordinate method (d) Mid-ordinate method

Solution: If the boundary between two offsets is curved, then simpson’s one-third rule is
preferred and if the boundary between the two offsets is straight then trapezoidal method
is preferred.
So, the correct answer is (b).

Example 5.3: Following offsets were taken from a survey line to a hedge:

Distance (in m) 0 10 20 30 40 55 70
Area & Volume

Offset (in m) 3 4 5.5 5 6 4 4.5

157.
Chapter 5

The area between survey line and the hedge is (by trapezoidal method):
(a) 185.5m2 (b) 328.75 m2
(c) 324.01 m2
(d) 289.5m2

Solution:
Here d is not constant, from offset O1 to O5, d is 10 m and from offset O5,
to O7, d is 15 m

 O + On 
=A d 1 + O2 + O3 + O4 + ....... + On−1 
 2 

3 + 6 
=A 1 10  + 4 + 5.5
= + 5 190m2
 2 

 6 + 4.5 
=A2 15  = + 4  138.75m2
 2 

A = A1 + A2 = 190 + 138.75 = 328.75 m2

So, the correct answer is (b).

5.4 MEASUREMENT OF VOLUME

y The determination of the volume of different quantities is required for
planning and designing of various engineering works:
(a) Earthwork for highway, railway, retaining walls etc
(b) Volume for reservoir capacity
(c) Concreting works
(d) Storage requirements
(e) Silos, bunker
Area & Volume

y The direct volume measurement is practically not possible in these

engineering works (because of their size), hence it is computed as follows –

158.
 Chapter 5
(A) Measurement of Volume Using Area of Cross-Section Method
y It is generally used to find the volume of earthwork in which cross-sections
are taken at right angles to the fixed center line.
y Spacing between cross-section depends on accuracy required, availability
of cost, type of terrain.
y Following types of cross sections are taken in this case:

Figure 5.7

(i) Level Section

Figure 5.8

1
A= [b + (b+2mh)]h
2

A = (b+mh)h
Area & Volume

(ii) Two-Level Section

A = Area ABH + Area BHE + Area EHC + Area CHD

159.
Chapter 5

Figure 5.9

1 b b 

=
A  h2 + hd2 + hd1 + h1 
2 2 2 

1 b 

=
A (h1 + h2 ) + h(d1 + d2 )
2  2 

FA = FH–AH

b
mh2 = d2 – ……..(i)
2
d2 = (h–h2)n ………(ii)

b b
mh2 = (h–h2)n– = hn–h2n –
2 2
b
h2 (m+n) = hn –
2

 b 1
=
h2  nh − 
 2m+n

 b 1
Similarly, =
h1  nh + 
 2n−m

b  b 1 b
d2= mh2 + = m  nh −  +
2  2n+m 2
Area & Volume

b  b 1 b
d1= mh1 + = m  nh +  +
2  2  n − m 2

160.
 Chapter 5
2
b
m   + n2 (bh + mh2 )
 2

A=
n2 − m2
(iii) Three-Level Section

Figure 5.10

1 b bh1 

=
A  h2 + hd2 + hd1 +
2 2 2 

1 b 

=
A (h1 + h2 ) + h(d1 + d2 )
2  2 
(iv) Side Hill Two Level Section

Figure 5.11
Area & Volume

1

=A [b2h2 + b1h1 ]
2

161.
Chapter 5

(B) End area / Trapezoidal Method

 A1 + A n 
=V  + A2 + A3 .......An−1  d
 2 
d = distance between conservative area cross section
(C) Prismoidal / Simpson’s rule

d
=
V (A 1 + An ) + 4(A2 + A 4 + A6 + .....An−1 ) + 2(A3 + A5 ....An−2 )
3 

y It is necessary to have odd number of cross-sections to use this method.

y If even number of cross sections are there, then volume is determined using
simpson’s rule upto odd cross-section and for the last segment volume is
calculated using end-area method.
y In case if only prismoidal method is to be used, then the area halfway
between the sections is interpolated by averaging the dimensions of any
two consecutive sections (not by averaging the end section area).

Note: For estimation of volume of water in reservoir, the contour map is

being used.

Gray Matter Alert!!!

For calculation of volume of earthwork (example-foundation work etc),

spot levels of the ground are being used. It is also termed as ‘Unit
area method’. In this method the entire area is divided into number
of regular geometrical figures (square, rectangle, triangle etc.) and
the level of the corner of these figures is measured before and after
construction.

 a + b1 + c1 
V= 1 A
 3 
Where, A = area of figure
Area & Volume

a1, b1, c1 = depth of excavation of the corner of the figure

162.
 Chapter 5
Example 5.4: A railway embankment is 18 m wide with a side slope of 2H:
1V. Assume the ground to be level in the direction transverse to the centre
line. Calculate the volume of earthwork contained in a length of 100 m
using trapezoidal and simpson’s method. The centre height at 20 m interval
in ‘m’ is 2.1 4.2, 3.8, 3.5, 2.3, 1.5 respectively.

Solution:
For a level section, the area is given by A = (b + nh)h
slope 2 : 1

Area at different section will be as follows:

A1 = (18 + 2 × 2.1)2.1 = 46.62 m2
A2 = (18 + 2 × 4.2)4.2 = 110.88 m2
A3 = (18 + 2 × 3.8)3.8 = 97.28 m2
A4 = (18 + 2 × 3.5)3.5 = 87.50 m2
A5 = (18 + 2 × 2.3)2.3 = 51.98 m2
A6 = (18 + 2 × 1.5)1.5 = 31.50 m2

Area & Volume

163.
Chapter 5

\ Volume using trapezoidal method

 A + An 
=V d 1 + A2 + A 3 + ........An−1 
 2 

 46.62 + 31.50 
=V 20  + 110.88 + 97.28 + 87.5 + 51.98
 2 

V = 7734 m3
\ Volume using simpson’s method
Since even number of cross sections are there, volume is computed
using simpson rule upto odd sections and for last segment volume is
computed using end area method.

d d
V= [(A 1 + A5 ) + 4(A2 + A4 ) + 2(A3 )] + (A5 + A6 )
3 2

20 20
=V
3
[ (46.62 +51.98) +4(110.88 + 87.5) + 2(97.28)] + [51.98 + 31.5]
2

V = 8079.33 m3

Example 5.5: An excavation has been made as shown in figure. Calculate the quantity of
earth excavated using trapezoidal rule and simpson rule.
Area & Volume

164.
 Chapter 5
Solution:

\ Volume using trapezoidal rule

A1 = 60×45 = 2700 m2

A2 = 70×55 = 3850 m2
Area & Volume

A3 = 90×75 = 6750 m2

165.
Chapter 5

 A + A3 
Vtotal = d  1 + A2 
 2 

 (2700 + 6750) 
= 5  + 3850
 2 

= 42875 m3

\ Volume using simpsons Rule

d
Vtotal = [(A 1 + An ) + 4(A2 + A4 + A 6 + ...) + 2(A3 + A5 ...)]
3

5
= [(2700 + 6750) + 4(3850] = 41416.67 m3
3

Gray Matter Alert!!!

Prismoidal Correction (CP): It is the difference between the volume

computed by the end area formula and the prismoidal formula.

dn
Level section ==
Cp (h − h')2
6
Where, h, n refers to the cross section at one end and h’, n’ refers to
the cross-section at another end.

Curvature Correction (CC): In above formula centre line of the cutting

or embankment is assumed as straight, if C/l is curve then CC will be
applied.
Level section: No correction is necessary since the area is symmetrical
about the centre line.
d  b 
Two level section and three level section: Cc = (w21 − w22 )  h + 
6R  2n 
Cc → +ve → If centroid and centre of curvature are to the opposite
side of centre line
→ –ve → If centroid and centre of curvature are to the same side
Area & Volume

of centre line.

166.
 Chapter 5
Example 5.6: If the cross-sectional area of an embankment at 20 m
intervals are 10, 30, 50, 40 and 20 m2 respectively. Then the volume of the
embankment using trapezoidal rule is
(a) 2142 m3 (b) 1375 m3
(c) 2700 m 3
(d) 2284 m3

Solution:
 A + An 
=V d 1 + A2 + A 3 + ...... + An−1 
 2 

 10 + 20 
=V 20  + 30 + 50 + 40
 2 

V = 2700 m3
So, the correct answer is (c).

Keywords

Š Area of geometrical figures Š Cross section method for

Š Mid ordinate rule measurement
Š Average ordinate rule Š End area method
Š Trapezoidal rule Š Prismoidal method
Š Simpson’s one third rule

Area & Volume

167.
Area & Volume Chapter 5

168.
 6 Plane Table Surveying

Chapter 6
6.1 INTRODUCTION
y The graphical method of surveying, in which the field observation and
plotting is carried out simultaneously is known as plane table surveying.
y The main feature of this surveying is that, the chances of missing any
topographical feature to be mapped is very less, as it is carried out in field
itself.
y The suitability of plane table surveying is for small and medium scale
mapping (i.e. 1 : 10,000 to 1 : 250,000) in which high accuracy is not
required.

Table 6.1 : Advantages and disadvantages

Advantage Disadvantage

• Sighting and plotting are done

• It is not suitable to be used in
simultaneously, thus the time
wet climatic condition.
required is less.

• There is no need of special

instrument or skilled • Difficulty in handling due to its
manpower in this case thus it weight.
is economical.

• Since in this case field

• Since plotting in this case is
measurement is not recorded,
done simultaneously, checks
it is difficult to reproduce it at
can be applied in the field only.
different scale.

• It can be used in areas which

are affected by magnetic fields • Accurate results are not
as in such case compass obtained.
surveying is not suitable.

6.2 ELEMENTS OF PLANE TABLE SURVEYING

(i) Plane table board

y Plane table is a wooden drawing board constructed from a well-seasoned
timber, whose upper surface is kept smooth.
y Wing nut can be used to attach the tripod to the underside of the plane
table.
Plane Table Surveying

y Plane table boards are available in different sizes and these are designated
as follows: B0 : 1500 mm × 1000 mm
B1 : 1000 mm × 700 mm
B2 : 700 mm × 500 mm
B3 : 500 mm × 350 mm

169.
Chapter 6

(ii) Tripod
y It is used for placing the plane table board over it, levelling of which is done
with the help of tripod legs and levelling screws.

(iii) Alidade
y It is a straight edge ruler having a sighting device at its ends in the form of
vanes. It can be used for drawing the lines.

(a) Plain alidade

y It is 45 cm long wooden or metallic ruler with the graduations on one side
which is bevelled termed as fiducial edge.
y Vanes are used for sighting the object, which are hinged on either side of
the plain alidade.

Object vane
Sight vane
Bevelled edge

Figure 6.1 : Plain alidade

(b) Telescopic alidade

y In order to take the inlined sights, telescope alidade is utilized. By using
telescope alidade, the range & accuracy of sights can be increased.

Bubble tube

Vertical circle

Telescope

Focussing
screw
Straight edge
ruler
Plane Table Surveying

Figure 6.2 : Telescope alidade

170.
 Chapter 6
(iv) Compass
y Magnetic meridian can be established by using trough compass.
y If needle provided in compass align itself along the magnetic meridian,
reading in compass corresponds to zero.

Figure 6.3 : Trough compass

(v) Level tube

y Two level tubes at right angles to each other are placed over the plane
table board, to set the table in the horizontal plane.

Figure 6.4 : Level tube

Plane Table Surveying

(vi) Plumbing fork

y It is used for the centering of plane table over the station.
y It is a U-shaped metallic frame used for transferring the point from ground
over the table and vice-versa.

171.
Chapter 6

Upper arm

Point

Lower arm

Plumbing
fork
Plumb
bob

Figure 6.5 : Plumbing fork

6.3 TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS OF PLANE TABLE

(i) The working edge (fiducial edge) of alidade should be straight line.
(ii) The two vanes should be perpendicular to the base of alidade.
(iii) Centering : It is the process in which the plotted point is brought on
the plane table, exactly over the ground station. Centering of plane
table is done by plumbing fork.
(iv) Levelling : In levelling, the plane table is brought in the horizontal
plane. It is carried out with the help of levelling screws, tripod legs
and it is checked with the help of level tube.
(v) Orientation : In orientation, the plane table is kept parallel to position
it occupied at the first station.
The methods used to carry out the orientation are as follows-

(A) By Trough compass

 Trough compass is not used at the places, that are affected by the
local attraction.
 Process:
(a)  Firstly, the trough compass is placed over the top right-side
corner of the plane table in a way that the magnetic needle point
towards exactly magnetic N-S.
Plane Table Surveying

(b) A line is drawn along the edge of the trough compass.

(c) Now the table is shifted to the next station, and then the compass
is placed along the N-S line.
(d) Rotate the plane table till the magnetic needle coincides the N-S
line or the reading indicated by the trough compass is zero.

172.
 Chapter 6
c

N
N

S
a
b

c c

N
N

S
S

a b a b

A B
S
Figure 6.6: Orientation using trough compass

(b) By backsighting
y Backsighting is the most suitable method of orientation.
y In backsighting, the plane table is placed on the new station & the alidade
is kept against the line joining the new station & the previous station. The
plane table is turned until the bisection of line of sight takes place with the
previous station.

d
b
c
a
D
d
b
b c
c a
a
C
B
b
Plane Table Surveying

A
Figure 6.7: Orientation by backsighting

173.
Chapter 6

(C) Resection
y Through the method of resection, the orientation and fixing of plane table
can be achieved simultaneously.

Example 6.1: Consider the following statements

A. Centering–Levelling–Orientation is the correct order of setting the
plane table.
B. The working edge of alidade is known as fiducial edge.
C. Plane table survey is classified as a graphical method of survey.

Which of the above statement(s) is/are true ?

(a) Only A
(b) Only B & C
(c) A, B & C
(d) Only A & C

Solution:
y Levelling–Centering–Orientation is the correct order of setting the plane
table.
y The working edge of alidade is known as fiducial edge, it is used as a
sighting device.
y Plane table survey is a graphical method of survey. In this method field
observations and plotting is carried out simultaneously.
So, the correct answer is (b).

Example 6.2: The centering of plane table is done by

(a) Alidade
(b) Spirit level
(c) Compass
(d) Plumbing fork

Solution:
y Compass is used for the orientation of plane table.
y For the levelling of plane table, spirit level is used.
Plane Table Surveying

y Alidade is the sighting device used in plane table surveying.

y The centering of plane table over the required station is done by plumbing
fork.
So, the correct answer is (d).

174.
 Chapter 6
6.4 METHODS OF PLANE TABLE SURVEYING

Plane table surveying

Radiation Intersection Traversing Resection

Orientation Orientation Orientation Orientation

by by by two by three
compass backsighting point prob. point prob.

Mechanical Graphical Lehmann’s

method method method (Trial
(Tracing paper (Bessel method) & error method)
method)

(A) Radiation
y The plane table is setup at a station & through that station the rays are
drawn to various stations/points which are to be plotted. After the actual
measurement, the distances are cut to a suitable scale.
y The applicability of radiation method is only when small area is to be
surveyed & the required points are visible and accessible through the
instrument station. If the measurement of distances is carried out with the
help of tachometer, then the scope of radiation method can be increased.

b
c
A o
a
d
O
Plane Table Surveying

D
Figure 6.8

175.
Chapter 6

(B) Traversing
Gray Matter Alert!!!
y It works on the same principle as that of radiation
method with the only difference that in case of y If there are ‘n’ stations in a
closed traverse, setting of
radiation the observations are taken to those plane table is to be done for
points which are to be detailed or mapped. While atleast ‘n–1’ stations.
y To determine the error of
in traversing observations are made of those points
closure, setting of plane table
which will subsequently be used as station. is to be done for atleast ‘n–2’
y Plane table traverse has same principle as that of stations.

transit traverse.
y Plane table is set at each successive station and foresight is taken of the
following station and its location is plotted by measuring the distance with
the help of chain/tape or tacheometer between the two stations.
Plane Table Surveying

Figure 6.9

176.
 Chapter 6
(C) Intersection/Graphical triangulation
C E

D
F

d e
c
f
g
A a a b B
b

Figure 6.10

y Intersection method is applicable when the distance between the point

and instrument station is very large and it cannot be measured accurately.
y In the method of intersection, the object location is obtained by sighting at
the object from the two previously plotted plane table stations.
y In the method of intersection, linear measurement is not required except
that of base line (Base line is the line joining the two-instrument station).

(D) Resection
y It is the process of locating the instrument station occupied by the plane
table by drawing the rays from the station whose positions are already
plotted on drawing sheet.

Definitions

Resection: The rays/lines drawn from the unplotted location of the

station to the points of known locations is termed as resectors.
Plane Table Surveying

y Due to the improper orientation of the plane table at the station to be

plotted, incorrect location of the instrument station will be obtained from

the intersection of the rays /lines (resectors) from plotted points.

177.
Chapter 6

y This problem of orientation is solved as follows –

(i) Resection after orientation by three point problem
(ii) Resection after orientation by compass
(iii) Resection after orientation by two point problem
(iv) Resection after orientation by backsighting

(i) Resection after orientation by compass

y This method is applicable for rough mapping & for small scale work, for
which large errors due to improper orientation by trough compass, would
not have major impact over the usefulness of map.

y Resection can be done as follows:

(a) The two visible stations A & B are already plotted on plan as a & b, now
the instrument station C will be plotted over the plan with the help of
these two stations.
(b) Set the table at stations C and carry out the orientation with the help
of compass.
(c) After clamping the plane table, pivot the alidade at point “a” & draw the
resector towards A, similarly pivot the alidade at point “b” and draw the
resector towards B. Intersection point of these two resectors indicate
the concerned station “C”.

A B

a b
Plane Table Surveying

C
c

Figure 6.11

178.
 Chapter 6
(ii) Resection after orientation by backsighting

a A
b B

c’

a b
C
c
c’

Figure 6.12

y Set the plane table at station A, and carry out the orientation by back
sighting B along ab.
y After setting of plane table, pivot the alidade at point a and sight station C,
then draw a ray ac’, where c’ is roughly estimated.
y Plane table is set at station C and carry out the orientation by back sighting
A along c’a & then clamp the table.
y Now pivot the alidade at b and draw the resector towards “B”, where the
point of intersection of this resector “c” with ac’ gives the location of
instrument station C.

(iii) Resection after orientation by two point problem

y The position of plane table is located on the plan by the observation of two
well defined points, whose position have already been plotted on plan.
A B

a b1
a P
Plane Table Surveying

b D C b

d1 c1 d1 c1 c2

Figure 6.13

179.
Chapter 6

(iv) Resection after orientation by three point problem

y In this method, the position of a point is located on the plan with the
help of observation of three well defined points whose position have been
already plotted on the plan.
y It can be solved by the following methods

(i) Mechanical method

A

a a’ b
b’
c
P
c’
p
p’

Figure 6.14 : Mechanical method

(ii) Lehmann’s method (Trial & error method)

y In this method the following procedure is carried out-
(a) Plane table is set at ‘P’ and carry out the orientation approximately such
that ab is parallel to AB.
(b) Keep the alidade pivoted about a, b, c and sight the station A, B, C
respectively and draw the corresponding resectors.
(c) If these three resectors meet at a point, table is properly oriented, but
if they meet at three different points forming a ‘triangle of error’, it
signifies table is out of orientation.
(d) This triangle of error gives the idea of further orientation that is required &
Plane Table Surveying

table would be properly oriented when this triangle of error is converted

into a single point.
(e) As per Lehmann’s rule, consider a point ‘p’. Alidade is kept along p’a and
the table is turned to sight station A.

180.
 Chapter 6
(f) Pivot the alidade at b & c and sight B & C respectively and draw the
resectors. Keep on repeating this process upto an extent, triangle of
error is transformed into a point.

Figure 6.15

Lehmann’s Rule
(i) If station ‘P’ is outside the great triangle, the triangle of error also lies
outside the great triangle, hence point ‘p’ must also be considered
outside the triangle of error.
Similarly, if station ‘P’ lies inside the great triangle (on the same line),
the triangle of error also lies inside the great triangle, hence point ‘p’
must also be considered inside the triangle of error.

Plane Table Surveying

Figure 6.16

181.
Chapter 6

(ii) The point ‘p’ should be so chosen that its distance from resectors
(Aa, Bb, Cc) p’a’, p’b’, p’c’ respectively must be in proportion to the
distance of point ‘P’ from A, B & C.

p' a' p' b' p' c'

= =
PA PB PC
(iii) Choose the point ‘p’ such that it is on same side (left or right) of all
the resectors Aa, Bb, Cc.

Figure 6.17

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: If the plane table occupies a position not yet located on the
map then the method of orientation used will be
(a) Radiation (b) Traversing
(c) Levelling (d) Resection
Answer: (d) [GATE 2017 SET-II]
Plane Table Surveying

Example 6.3 : Consider the following statements:

A. Three point problem is solved by mechanical method.
B. Lehmann’s method is used to solve two point problem.
C. Auxiliary station is required in two point problem.

182.
 Chapter 6
Which of the above statements are correct ?
(a) Only A and B (b) Only A and C
(c) Only B and C (d) All the above

Solution:
y The methods used to solve the three point problem are as follows-

y In two point problem, position of plane table station is plotted by observation

of two well defined points, whose location is already plotted on the plan.
So, the auxiliary station is required in two point problem.
So, the correct answer is (b).

Example 6.4:
Assertion (A) : Lehmann’s rule is used to solve the three point problem in
plane table surveying.
Reason (R) : The application of Lehmann’s rules reduces the triangle of
error and is controlled by trial and error technique.
(a) Both A are R are true and R is correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

Solution: Three point problem can be solved by the three methods, one of
which is Lehmann’s method. Through the application of Lehmann’s rules,
by successive trial and error, the triangle of error can be reduced to a point.
Thus, it is also known as trial and error method.
So, the correct answer is (a).

Example 6.5 : For plotting of inaccessible points on a plane table, the

suitable method is
Plane Table Surveying

(a) Traversing
(b) Radiation
(c) Intersection
(d) Resection

183.
Chapter 6

Solution:
y When distance between the stations is too large or the points are
inaccessible then intersection method is used.
y When the area to be surveyed is small and all the stations are accessible
and visible from the instrument station, then the radiation method is used.
y Traversing method is used to lay down the survey lines between the
instrument stations of a closed or open traverse.
So, the correct answer is (c).

Example 6.6 : Consider the following statements:

(a) Radiation method is suitable when the points are accessible or area to
be surveyed is small.
(b) Resection method is suitable for establishing the instrument station.
(c) The resection by two point problem as compared to three point problem
is less laborious and simpler.

Which of the above statements are true ?

(a) Only A and B
(b) Only A and C
(c) Only B and C
(d) All the above

Solution:
y Method of radiation is suitable when the area to be surveyed is small and
the points are accessible.
y Method of resection is suitable for establishing the instrument station. In
this method the plotted position of instrument station is determined by
means of sights taken towards the known points, location of which have
been plotted.
y The three point problem is more useful than the two point problem because
of the simplicity and accuracy. It is less laborious than two point problem.
So, the correct answer is (a).

6.5 ERROR IN PLANE TABLE SURVEYING

y Error will occur if table board is not perfectly plane.
y If fiducial edge is not straight, line drawn would also not be straight.
Plane Table Surveying

y If sight vanes are not perpendicular, error will be observed in sighting.

y If magnetic compass is not proper, error will be found in orientation
of table.
y If level tube is not proper, the plane table would be not horizontal, when
bubble is at the center.

184.
 Chapter 6
y If plumbing fork and bob is defective, centering of the table is not proper
then the error will occur, magnitude of which can be computed as
follow :

A B

a b

Ray in
incorrect P
centering a b
e e
c d
b’
a’
a b
Ray in correct
centering p
Figure 6.18

y Since the table is not centered properly the point ‘p’ will not be over the
station P.
Hence, linear error in centering = Pp
Angular error in centering g = ∠APB – ∠ApB

g = a+b

In DPcA and D PdB

Pc Pd  If θ is small 
=
sin a =
, sin b  
PA PB  θ ≈ sin θ ≈ tan θ 
e e

=a =
,b
PA PB

Hence, g= e + e
PA PB
Plane Table Surveying

Now error is plotting of point A & B on plane table would be aa’ and bb’.
aa’ = pa sin a, bb’ = pb sin b
pa = r.PA, pb = r.PB [Here r is Representative fraction]

185.
Chapter 6

e e
= aa ' r= PA , bb' r PB Gray Matter Alert!!!
PA PB
aa’ = re, bb’ = re
Hence displacement of the point A & B on plane In plane table surveying, the errors
table from their correct position is “re”. are classified as follows:
y Instrumental error
Example 6.7: During setting up of the plane table y Errors of plotting
at a station “P” the corresponding plotted point y Errors of sighting and
“p” was not accurately centered over “P”. What manipulation
will be the displacement of point from its true
position on the plan if the displacement of P was
16 cm in a direction at right angle to the ray
1 1
(i) r= (ii) r=
400 40
Solution: Given, displacement of P(e) = 16 cm
aa’ or bb’ = re

(i) r = 1
400

1
= × 16 =
0.04 cm
400

1
(ii) r=
40
1
= × 16 =
0.4 cm
40

Keywords

Š Instruments used for plane Š Resection method

table surveying Š Intersection method
Š Temporary adjustments of Š Radiation method
plane table Š Error in plane table surveying
Š Traversing method
Plane Table Surveying

186.
 7 Traversing and Triangulation

Chapter 7
Part- A : Traversing

7.1 INTRODUCTION
y It is the process of measuring length and direction of survey line (traverse
line) in the field.
y Traverse is a series of connected lines whose length and directions are
being measured in the field.
y The field work in theodolite traverse includes:
(a) Reconnaissance
(b) Selection and marking of survey station
(c) Running and measuring traverse line
(d) Angular measurements and marking the offsets

Figure 7.1: Traversing

7.2 CLASSIFICATION OF TRAVERSING

Traversing and Triangulation

187.
Chapter 7

7.3 METHODS OF TRAVERSING

7.3.1 Linear measurements
In traversing linear measurements are taken by
(a) Chaining or taping
(b) Tachometric method
(c) Electronic distance measurement instrument (EDMI)
y The method of linear measurement adopted depends upon the accuracy
required in field work.
y The degree of accuracy obtained in both linear and angular measurement
must be same.
y If a compass has least count of 30’, so the linear measurement must be
done with a permissible error of not more than 1 in 115.

⇒ dl = (tan(30'))l
dl 1
=
l 115

Note: If q is small, q ≈ tanq, then for consistent precision in angular and

linear measurement.
dl
dq =
l

7.3.2 Angular Measurements

Traversing and Triangulation

y In theodolite traversing angular measurement is done with the help of

theodolite in any of the following ways :

(a) Loose / Free needle method of bearing

y In this method direction of magnetic meridian is established at each
traverse station and the direction of the line is measured with reference to
magnetic meridian.

188.
 Chapter 7
y A theodolite fitted with magnetic compass is used in this case to measure
the magnetic bearings.

(b) Fast needle method

y In this method magnetic meridian is established only at starting station
and magnetic bearing of the first line is measured.
y The magnetic bearing of remaining traverse line is measured with the help
of magnetic bearing of the first line.
y The magnetic bearing of the first line has the accuracy of compass,
and the magnetic bearing of remaining lines has the accuracy of
theodolite.
y This method is more accurate than loose needle method.

Figure 7.2: Angular Measurement

(c) Method of included angle

y It is most commonly used method of traversing.
y In this, magnetic bearing of initial line is measured in the field along with
Traversing and Triangulation

all included angles.

y Bearing of all the remaining lines is determined from the bearing of the
initial line and the included angles.

Note: In theodolite the graduations increases in clockwise direction.

Therefore, all the angles should be measured clockwise.

189.
Chapter 7

Gray Matter Alert!!!

The included angles measured clockwise are the interior angles if the traverse is
running counterclockwise.
And the included angles measured clockwise are the exterior angles if the traverse is
running clockwise.

(d) Method of direct angles

y Direct angles method is similar to the method of included angles.

Figures 7.3: Open Traverse

Traversing and Triangulation

y This is suitable to be used for open traverse.

(e) Method of deflection angles

y Deflection angles method is also used for open traverse for the survey
of roads, canals, railway lines etc. Where the traverse lines make small
deflection angles.

190.
 Chapter 7
Figure 7.4: Method of deflection angle

y Deflection angles is defined as an angle which a line makes with the

prolongation of previous line.
Note:
(a) Once the traversing is completed, check must be applied over the
measured interior angles.
(b) If sum of measured interior angle is not equal to the theoretical sum
= {(2N–4) × 90o}, where N is the number of sides, the angle misclosure
is attained.
(c) If this angle misclosure is within permissible range, then the measured
angles are adjusted and if it is large and not in permissible range, whole
field work is to be repeated.
(d) The permissible angle misclosure will depends upon accuracy required
and is given by
E = K N
Here, K = It is a constant which depends upon the least count of
theodolite.
N = Number of sides/angles of closed traverse.
(e) The angle misclosure is generally distributed equally amongst all the
angle (i.e., average correction method), but some other methods are
also available.

7.4 DISTRIBUTING THE ANGLE MISCLOSURE OF THE TRAVERSE

Traversing and Triangulation

(a) Arbitrary corrections method

y In this method linear misclosure is distributed arbitrarily according to the
discretion of the surveyor based on the difficulty observed in traversing of
a particular line.
(b) Rounding off average correction method
y Let us consider a closed traverse PQRST having 5 sides with measured
included angles as shown.

191.
Chapter 7

Station Measured included angles

P 101o 14’ 15”

Q 230o 54’ 15”

R 16o 42’ 00”

S 89o 35’ 15”

T 101o 35’ 15”

Sum = 540o 01’ 00”

The theoretical sum of all the included angles is

= (2N-4) ×90o = (2×5–4) ×90o = 540o
Here, the angular misclosure = + 0.1’= + 60”
y If we apply correction per angle of –60”/5 = –12” to each angle, it will
give wrong impression that the angles were measured with least count
of 12”.
y The correction applied should not be less than the least count of the
theodolite (i.e., 15’’). So, in this method we have taken this in account and
then applied the correction by rounding off the average correction.

Station Measured Corrections Adjusted angle

included angles
C1 C2 C3

P 101o 14’ 15’’ –12” 0 0 101o 14’ 15’’

Q 230o 54’ 15’’ –24” –30” –30” 230o 53’ 45’’

R 16o 42’ 00’’ –36” –30” 0 16o 42’ 00’’

S 89o 35’ 15’’ –48” –45” –15” 89o 35’ 00’’

T 101o 35’ 15’’ –60” –60” –15’’ 101o 35’ 00’’

Traversing and Triangulation

y In column C1, write corrections in the multiple of the average corrections.

y In column C2, rounding off these multiples to nearest 15”.
y In column C3, the successive differences of the consider value and the
preceding value in column C2 is written.
y Apply the correction that we got in C3 to the measured angles and obtain
the adjusted angle.

192.
 Chapter 7
7.5 TRAVERSE SURVEY
y A traverse survey is one in which the framework consists of series
of connected lines whose length are measured with chain or tape and
directions are determined with angular measurement i.e. compass or
theodolite.

7.5.1 Latitudes and Departures

Figure 7.5: Latitudes and Departures

y Latitude : The orthographic projection of a line on the N-S axis representing

the meridian will be termed as latitude.
y Departure : The orthographic projection of a line on the perpendicular axis
to the meridian (i.e. E-W axis) will be termed as departure.
Hence, Latitude (L) = l cos q
Departure (D) = l sin q
Here, q is quadrantal bearing i.e. angle measured from N-S axis.
Traversing and Triangulation

Gray Matter Alert!!!

The positive latitude is also called Northing and negative latitude is

called Southing.
The positive departure is called Easting and negative departure is called
Westing.

193.
Chapter 7

Gray Matter Alert!!! Previous Year’s Questions

If latitude and departure are Question : The reduced bearing of a 10 m

computed with the help of long line is N30o E . The departure of the
quadrantal bearing, respective signs lines is-
are to be applied over it. (a) 10. 00 m (b) 8.66 m
But if it is computed with the whole (c) 7.52 m (d) 5.00 m
circle bearing, the result obtained Answer : (d)  [GATE 2016, SET- II]
would include the nature on its own.

7.5.2 Consecutive and Independent Co-ordinate

Figure 7.6: Consecutive and Independent Co-ordinates

y Consecutive co-ordinates of the end point of a line are the co-ordinate

with respect to initial point.
y It is also termed as dependent co-ordinates.
Traversing and Triangulation

For example, Consecutive co-ordinate of end point ‘2’ of line 1-2:- (–L1, D1)
Consecutive co-ordinate of end point ‘3’ of line 2-3:- (L2, D2)
y Independent co-ordinates :- These are the co-ordinates of any point
measured with respect to common origin.

194.
 Chapter 7
For example, Independent co-ordinate of point 1:- (y1, x1)
Independent co-ordinate of point 2:- (y2, x2)
Independent co-ordinate of point 3:- (y3, x3)
NOTE : x2 = x1 + D1 y2 = y1 –L1

x3 = x1 + D1 + D2 y3 = y1 –L1 +L2
Hence,
Latitude of Latitude of Sum of all Latitudes
= +
any po int start po int upto that po int
Departure of Departure of Sum of all Departure
= +
any po int start po int upto that po int

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: The latitude and departure of a line AB are +78 m and

–45.1 m respectively. The whole circle bearing of the line AB is -
(a) 30o (b) 150o
(c) 210o (d) 330
Answer : (d)  [GATE 2013]

7.5.3 Check to be applied in closed traverse

(i) Loop Traverse – In closed loop traverse
(a) The algebraic sum of all the latitudes should be equal to zero.
SL = L1 + L2 + L3 + ………… + Ln = 0
It signifies that the arithmetic sum of Northings is equal to
arithmetic sum of Southing.
(b) The algebraic sum of all the departure must be equal to zero.
SD = D1 + D2 + D3 + ………… + Dn = 0
It signifies that the arithmetic sum of Easting is equal to
arithmetic sum of Westing.
(ii) Link Traverse
(a) The algebraic sum of all latitudes must be equal to the difference
Traversing and Triangulation

of latitude of final and initial point.

SL = L1 + L2 + L3 + ………… + Ln = Ln–L1
(b) The algebraic sum of all the departure must be equal to difference
of departure of final and initial point.
SD = D1 + D2 + D3 + ………… + Dn = Dn–D1
If the above conditions are not being full filled in a closed
traverse, it signifies the traverse has ‘‘Error of Closure”.

195.
Chapter 7

Example 7.1: In any closed traverse, if the survey work is error free, then
(i) The algebraic sum of all the latitudes should be equal to zero.
(ii) The algebraic sum of all the departures should be equal to zero.
(iii) The sum of the northing should be equal to the sum of the southing.
Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) (i) and (ii) only (b) (i) and (iii) only
(b) (ii) and (iii) only (d) (i), (ii) and (iii)

Solution:
For any closed traverse,
SL = Sum of all the latitudes = 0
SD = Sum of all the departures = 0
So, the correct answer is (a).

Example 7.2: The length and bearings of a closed traverse ABCDA are given

Line Length (m) Bearing (WCB)

AB 300 30o

BC 700 120o

CD 500 210o

DA ? ?

The missing length and bearing respectively of the line DA are

(a) 728.015m, 44.055o (b) 728.015m, 315.945o
(c) 827.015m, 315.945o (d) 827.015m, 44.055o

Solution: For closed traverse sum of latitudes and departures should be

zero respectively.
i.e. SL = 0
300 cos 30 + 700 cos 120o + 500 cos 210o + L cos q = 0
o

L cosq = 523.205 …(i)

And, SD = 0
Traversing and Triangulation

300 sin 30o + 700 sin 120o + 500 sin 210o + L sinq = 0
L sinq = – 506.217 …(ii)
Dividing (ii) by (i), we get
tanq = –0.9675
q = 315.945o

196.
 Chapter 7
From equation (i)
523.205
L=
(
cos 315.945o )
L = 728.015 m
So, the correct answer is (b).

7.6 ERROR OF CLOSURE

7.6.1 In loop traverse

Figure 7.7: Error of closure in loop traverse

y If x and y components of closing errors are to be computed, it is given

as
ex = SD
ey = SL

Hence, total closing error , e = e2x + e2y

ex
Direction of closing error AA’, tanq =
Traversing and Triangulation

ey
y The signs of ex and ey will define the quadrant of closing error.
y The correction to be applied would be just opposite of the error.
i.e. Cx = –ex
Cy = –ey
y Hence, closing error and correction will be in diagonally opposite quadrant.

197.
Chapter 7

7.6.2 In Link Traverse

y The x and y components of closing errors are given by,
ex = x’ –x
ey = y’ –y
Here, x’ and y’ are computed co-ordinates of final point and x and y are
corresponding known coordinate.

Figure 7.8: Error of closure in link traverse

Definitions

Relative error of closure: It is defined as the ratio of error of

closure to the perimeter of traverse. It is also termed as relative
accuracy or degree of accuracy.
e 1
e=
r
=
p (p / e)

Previous Year’s Questions

Traversing and Triangulation

Question: In a closed loop traverse of 1km total length, the closing

error in departure and latitude are 0.3 m and 0.4 m, respectively. The
relative precision of this traverse will be-
(a) 1 : 5000 (b) 1 : 4000
(c) 1 : 3000 (d) 1 : 2000
Answer: (d)  [GATE 2015, SET-I]

198.
 Chapter 7
Example 7.3: A close traverse has the following lengths and bearings :

Line Length Bearing

AB 200 m Roughly east

BC 98 m 178o

CD Not obtained 270o

DA 86.4 m 1o

The length CD could not be measured due to some obstruction of chaining.

The bearing of AB could not be taken as station A is badly affected by
local attraction. Find the exact bearing of the side AB and calculate the
length CD.

Solution:

mention
Here, we have whole circle bearings of all the lines.

Line Length Bearing Latitude Departure

AB 200 q 200 cosq 200 sinq

BC 98 178o 98 cos178o=–97.94 98 sin 178o = 3.42

Traversing and Triangulation

CD × 270o x cos 270o = 0 x sin 270o = –x

DA 86.4 1o 86.4 cos 1o = 86.39 86.4 sin 1o = 1.51

For closed traverse, SL = 0 and SD = 0

SL = 200 cosq –97.94 + 86.39 = 0
cosq = 0.05775

199.
Chapter 7

q= 86o 41’ 21.58”

Now, SD = 200 sinq + 3.42 – x + 1.51 = 0
x= 200 sinq + 3.42 + 1.51
x= 204.596m
Hence, the exact bearing of the side AB is 86o 41’ 21.58” and the length of
line CD is 204.596 m.

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: The latitude and departure of a line AB are +78 m and –45.1
m respectively. The whole circle bearing of the line AB is
(a) 30o (b) 150o
(c) 210o (d) 330o
Answer: (d)  [GATE-2013]

Example 7.4: The bearings of two inaccessible stations ‘A’ and ‘B’ taken
from station ‘C’ were 220o 30’ and 150o 00’ respectively. The coordinates of
‘A’ and ‘B’ were as under.

Station Easting Northing

A 200 200

B 400 150

Compute the independent co-ordinates of ‘C’.

Solution :
Traversing and Triangulation

200.
 Chapter 7
400 − 200
tana = =4
200 − 150
a = 75o 57’ 49.52’’
Now, ∠A = 180o – 40o 30’ –75o 57’ 49.52”
∠ A = 63o32’ 10.48”
LAB = (400 – 200)2 + (150 − 200)2 = 206.15m
AB BC
Using sine rule, =
sinC sin A
sin(63o 31' 10.48 ")
BC = AB ×
sin(220o 30 '− 150o0 ')
⇒ BC = 195.77
Northing of point C = 150 + 195.77 cos (30o0’) = 319.54 m
Easting of point C = 400 –195.77 sin (30o 0’) = 302.115 m

7.7 ADJUSTMENT OF TRAVERSE

y If the error of closure is within the permissible limit, then the traverse
should be adjusted.
y The purpose of adjustment of traverse is to reduce error of closure up to
zero.
y It can be done by any of the following methods.

7.7.1 Bowditch’s Rule/ Method

y This method is used when linear and angular measurements are observed
with same precision.
y This method is also termed as “compass rule”.
y This rule is based on assumption that the error introduced in the traverse
are accidental in nature.
y Here, error in linear measurement ∝ L
1
Error in angular measurements ∝ .
L
y In this method, error is distributed on the basis of the length of traverse
Traversing and Triangulation

line.
Error in latitude Total error  Length of the line
=   ×
of any line in latitude(e )
y  Perimeters of traverse

Correction in latitude Total correction Length of the line

=  ×
( )
of any line CLi 
in latitude(–ey )  Perimeters of traverse

201.
Chapter 7

li
∵ CLi =−ey ×
Sli

y Similarly, correction in departure of any line (CDi) is

li
∵ CDi =−ex ×
Sl i

Do You Know?

When we apply Bowditch method of adjustment of traverse, both

length and bearing of the link gets changed.

Gray Matter Alert!!!

Graphical method is one of the methods for adjusting the traverse.

This method is also based on Bowditch’s rule, with the only difference
that in this case correction is applied graphically.

Example 7.5: If L is the perimeter of a closed traverse, DD is the closing

error in departure, the correction for the departure of a traverse side of
length l, according to Bowditch rule is -

L l2 Ll l
(a) DD (b) DD (c) (d) DD
l L DD L

Solution:

From Bowditch rule, the correction for departure of length ‘l’ is

Length of the line

Traversing and Triangulation

= (Total correction in departure) ×

Perimeter of traverse

l
= DD
L

Hence, the correct answer is (d).

202.
 Chapter 7
Example 7.6: Calculate latitudes, departures and closing error for the given
traverse. Use Bowditch’s rule for the adjustment.

Line Length (m) Whole circle bearing

PQ 90 45 o

QR 220 71 o

RS 150 161 o

ST 160 228 o

TP 231 300o

Solution : First we need to calculate the internal angles.

∠ P = 180o –45o –60o = 75o

∠ Q = 45o + 180o –71o = 154o
Traversing and Triangulation

∠ R = 71o + 180o –161o = 90o

∠ S = 161o +180o –228o = 113o
∠ T = 228o –180o +60o = 108o
Summation of all the interior angle = ∠ P + ∠Q + ∠R + ∠S + ∠T = 540o
Theoretical sum of interior angles = (2n–4) ×90o = 540o

203.
Chapter 7

Hence, there is no angle misclosure.

Line Latitude Departure

PQ 63.64 63.64

QR 71.62 208.01

RS –141.82 48.83

ST –107.06 –118.90

TP 115.5 –200.05

SL = 1.88 SD=1.53

Here, Latitude, Li = li cosq

And Departure, Di = li sinq
q→ whole circle bearing
So, ex = SD = 1.53 and ey = SL = 1.88
e= e2x + e2y = 1.532 + 1.882 = 2.424

So, closing error is 2.424

ex
Angle of error of closer, tanq =
ey

 1.53 
q = tan–1  
 1.88 

q = 39.14 = 39o 8’ 23’’

Now, using Bowditch’s Rule.
Summation of length of all the line is Sli
Sli = (90+220+150+160+231) m
Sli = 851 m
Latitude corrections (CLi)
90
PQ = –1.88 × = –0.198
851
Traversing and Triangulation

220
QR = –1.88 × = –0.486
851
150
RS = –1.88 × = –0.331
851
160
ST = –1.88 × = –0.353
851

204.
 Chapter 7
231
TP = –1.88 × = –0.510
851
Departure corrections (CDi)
90
PQ = –1.53 × = –0.162
851
220
QR = –1.53 × = –0.395
851
150
RS = –1.53 × = –0.269
851
160
ST = –1.53 × = –0.287
851
231
TP = –1.53 × = –0.415
851
Finally,

Line Latitude Departure

Calculated Correction Corrected Calculated Correction Corrected

PQ 63.64 –0.198 63.442 63.64 –0.162 63.478

QR 71.62 –0.486 71.134 208.01 –0.395 207.615

RS –141.82 –0.331 –142.151 48.83 –0.269 48.561

ST –107.06 –0.353 –107.413 –118.90 –0.287 –119.187

TP 115.5 –0.510 114.990 –200.05 –0.415 –200.465

7.7.2 Transit Rule

y This method is used to balance traverse in which angular measurements
are more precise than the linear measurements.
y In this method error is distributed on the basis of latitude or departure of
the traverse line.
y In this transit rule, the angles are changed less but length are changed
Traversing and Triangulation

comparatively more.

Rack your Brain

Q : Compare the change in length and angle between transit rule and bowditch’s rule.
A : In bowditch rule in comparison to transit rule, change in length is less, but change
in angle is more.

205.
Chapter 7

Error in latitude Total error  Numerical value of latitude

=   ×
of any line Arithmetic sum of latitude
in latitude (ey )

Correction in latitude Total correction Numerical value of latitude (| Li |)

=  ×
of any line (CLi ) inlatitude ( −ey )  Arithmetic sum of latitude (S | Li |)
 

Gray Matter Alert!!!

If a line has zero latitude or departure, there will be no correction to

the latitude and departure of that line.

| Li |
CLi =−ey ×
S |Li |

Similarly, correction in departure of any line (CDi)

| Di |
∵ CDi =−ex ×
S | Di |

7.7.3 Axis Method

y In this method, the corrections are applied only to the length.
y This method is used when the measurement of angles is done with vey
high precision.

Example 7.7: Following table gives data of consecutive coordinates in

respect of a closed theodolite traverse PQRSP.

Station N S E W

P 300.50 200.25

Q 200.00 299.00

R 298.75 199.50
Traversing and Triangulation

S 199.75 300.25

(a) Calculate the magnitude and direction of closing error.

(b) Calculate corrected consecutive coordinates of station Q, using transit
rule.
(c) Calculate independent coordinate of station ‘Q’, if those of P are
(150, 175)

206.
 Chapter 7
Solution : (a)

We can write :

Line Latitude Departure

PQ 200.00 299.00

QR –298.75 199.50

RS –199.75 –300.25

SP 300.50 –200.25

SL=2 SD = –2

So, we have
ex = SD = –2
ey = SL = 2
The error of closure, e = e2x + e2y = ( −2)2 + (2)2 = 2.828

ex −2
Now, tanq = = ⇒ q = 315o
ey 2
Traversing and Triangulation

That means, the WCB of closing error is 315o

(b) Correction in the latitude of line PQ i.e.
200.00
CLPQ = –2 ×
(200 + 298.75 +199.75 +300.5)

207.
Chapter 7

CLPQ = –0.400
Similarly, correction in the departure of line PQ i.e.
299
CDPQ = – (–2) ×
(299 + 199.5 + 300.25 +200.25)
CDPQ = 0.598
Now, corrected latitude of PQ = 200 + (–0.400) = 199.600
And corrected departure of PQ = 299 + (0.598) = 299.598
So, the consecutive coordinate of Q is (199.600 N, 299.598 E)
(c) Independent co-ordinate of Q is
= [(150 + 199.600) N, (175 + 299.598) E]
= [349.600 N, 474.598 E]

7.8 GALE’S TRAVERSE TABLE

y Traverse computations are reported in tabular form termed as Gale’s
Traverse table.
y It provides systematic method of recording and computation of the traverse
measurement.

Figure 7.9: Traverse for Gale’s Table

The following steps are involved in traversing:

(i) In case of theodolite traverse, the included angles are computed and
adjusted to satisfy the geometrical condition.
i.e. Sum of Interior angle = (2N –4) 90o
Traversing and Triangulation

Sum of exterior angles = (2N + 4) 90o
In case of compass traverse, the observed bearings are adjusted for
local attraction.
(ii) With the help of observed bearing of the traverse line, compute the
bearing of other lines if missing and reduce it to quadrantal system.

208.
 Chapter 7
(iii) With the help of the length and computed reduced bearing of the line,
the consecutive coordinate i.e. latitude and departure is computed.
(iv) A check is performed to find out, whether the error of closure exist
in traverse or not i.e., algebraic sum of latitude and departure must
come out to be zero.
If error of closure is found, correction is to be applied over it, by a
particular method depending upon the accuracy in measurement of
direction and length.
(v) The independent co-ordinates are then worked out from the
consecutive co-ordinates.

Gray Matter Alert!!!

In Gales’ traverse table, the traverse is drawn by selecting the origin in

such a way that the entire traverse lines in NE quadrant, it is done for
the ease of plotting of traverse.

Example 7.8: Consider the following steps:

1. Calculation of SL and SD.
2. Correction of latitudes and departures.
3. Calculation of bearings.
4. Calculation of interior angles.
5. Calculation of independent angles.
The correction sequence of steps in Gale’s traverse table calculation is:
(a) 3, 4, 5, 2, 1 (b) 4, 3, 1, 2, 5
(c) 2, 1, 3, 4, 5 (d) 4, 3, 5, 2, 1

Solution: The correct sequence of steps in Gale’s traverse table are as

follows.
1. Calculation of interior angles.
2. Calculation of correct interior angles and then bearing of all the lines
with the help of bearing of initial line and corrected angles.
Traversing and Triangulation

3. Calculation of sum of latitudes (SL) and sum of departure (SD) of the

lines.
4. Calculate closing error and apply correction in latitude, departure and
in closing error accordingly.
5. Finally, calculate the independent angles.
So, the correct answer is (b).

209.
Chapter 7

Part- B : Triangulation
7.9 INTRODUCTION
y Triangulation is a method where one base line was measured, and all the
angles are measured to find out lengths of other line by using sine or cosine
rule of triangle. This method was used earlier when sophisticated distance
measurement instruments (like EDMI i.e., electronic distance measurement
instrument) were not available.

Figure 7.10: Triangulation

7.10 CLASSIFICATION OF TRIANGULATION

y The classification of triangulation is mainly based on the accuracy required
for horizontal control.
Traversing and Triangulation

210.
 Chapter 7
7.11 ARRANGEMENT OF TRIANGLES
7.11.1 Single chain of triangles
y In this arrangement, we have only one direction of computation and it is
mainly suitable for the project like rivers boundary determination.

Figure 7.11

7.11.2 Double chain of triangles

y This arrangement is used when the width of the belt is large. Here also, we
have only one direction of computation.

Figure 7.12

7.11.3 Braced Quadrilateral

y This arrangement provides different routes for computing the length of the
sides. It consists of overlapping triangles with strongest arrangement of
triangles. There is no station at the intersection of the diagonals.

Traversing and Triangulation

Figure 7.13

211.
Chapter 7

7.11.4 Centered Triangles and Polygons

y In this arrangement, there is an interior station which is bounded by number
of sides of the triangles such that the interior station will be the common
vertex of all the triangles.

Figure 7.14

Here ‘a’ and ‘b’ are interior stations.

Gray Matter Alert!!!

For well-conditioned triangulation survey, two angles should not get

almost equal, and the angles should be greater than 30o and less 120o
for a well -condition triangle in triangulation survey.

Example 7.9: The system of triangulation as shown in the figure below is –

Traversing and Triangulation

(a) Single chain triangulation system

(b) Double chain triangulation system
(c) Braced quadrilateral type triangulation system
(d) Centered triangles and polygons type triangulation system

212.
 Chapter 7
Solution: Centered triangles and polygons type triangulation system is
used to cover area and give relatively better result than the other types. The
interior station which is bounded by number of sides of triangles and form
different types of polygons like quadrilaterals, pentagons, or hexagons etc.
So, the correct answer is (d).

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: The interior angles of four triangles are given below.

Triangle Interior angles

P 85o, 50o, 45o

Q 100o, 55o, 25o

R 100o, 45o, 35o

S 130o, 30o, 20o

Which of the triangles are ill-conditioned and should be avoided in triangulation survey?
(a) Both P and R (b) Both Q anr R
(c) Both P and S (d) Both Q and S
Answer: (d)  [GATE 2019, SET-I]

Rack your Brain Keywords

Q. : Why is it necessary to use well- Š Types of traversing

conditioned triangle in triangulation survey? Š Angle misclosure
A : Well-conditioned triangle removes the Š Latitude and departure
ambiguity of locating the vertex of triangle Š Error of closure
while plotting the area. Š Consecutive and Independent
Traversing and Triangulation

The point to locate the corner made by two coordinates

lines becomes much clear by accepting Š Well- conditioned triangle.
well-conditioned triangles.

213.
Traversing and Triangulation Chapter 7

214.
 8
Trigonometric and Tacheometric
Levelling

Chapter 8
Part- I : Trigonometric levelling
8.1 INTRODUCTION
y It is an indirect method of levelling in which the relative elevations of
various points are determined from vertical angle (a) & horizontal distance
(D), measured with a theodolite and tape/chain/tacheometer respectively.
y It can be used for the topographic work or at the places where direct
levelling is not possible.

8.2 MEASUREMENT OF HEIGHT & DISTANCE

Case I : Determination of level of the top of an object when its base is
accessible.

h = D tan a
Staff

B a
D Object
S h'
E
A D
BM
Figure 8.1: Base accessible

Where,
A = Instrument station
C = Point to be observed

Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

B = Centre of instrument
D = Horizontal distance between A & E
h’ = Height of the instrument at A
S = Reading of staff kept at BM, with line of sight horizontal
a = Angle of elevation from B to C

In D BCD, h = D tan a
RL of point C at top of object = RL of line of collimation + h
If the reading on the staff kept at the B.M. is S with line of sight horizontal.

RL of point C at top of object = RL of BM + S + D tan a

215.
Chapter 8

Case II : Determination of level of top of an object when its base is

inaccessible.
Case (a) : When line of collimation at both the station is at same level.

h
E

F a2 G a1
D
S h'

BM A d B
D
Figure 8.2: Instrument axis at the same level

Where,
α1 = Angle of elevation from G to C
α2 = Angle of elevation from F to C
S = Staff reading on BM
d = Horizontal distance between the instrument stations
D = Horizontal distance between B & D

In D CGD, h = D tan a1 ….(i)

Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

In D CFD, h = (D+d) tan a2 ….(ii)

From (i) & (ii)
D tan a1 = (D + d) tan a2
D (tan a1 – tan a2) = d tan a2
d tan a2
D =
tan a 1 − tan a2

h = D tan a1
d tan a2 tan a 1
h =
tan a 1 − tan a2

216.
 Chapter 8
RL of top point C of object = RL of line of collimation + h

d tan a2 tan a 1
RL of top point C of object = RL of BM +S +
tan a 1 − tan a2

NOTE: This method is tedious as it is difficult to make the height of line of

collimation at both the instrument station.

Case (b) : Instrument at station A is higher than at station B.

h2 h1

E
F a2
S2 D2
S a G a1
S1 H 2 D1
b

BM A B D
d
d'
Figure 8.3

b = S cot a2
d’ = d + b = d + S cot a2

Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

In DCGD1, h1 = D tan a1
In DCFD2, h2 = (D + d) tan a2
h1 – h2 = difference in level of instrument axis = S2 – S1 = S
S = D tan a1 – (D + d) tan a2
S + d tan a2
D =
tan a 1 − tan a2

(d + S cot a2 ) tan a2 d' tan a2

Or
= D =
tan a 1 − tan a2 tan a 1 – tan a2

h1 = D tan a1

217.
Chapter 8

(S + d tan a2 ) tan a 1
h1 =
tan a 1 − tan a2

d' tan a2 tan a 1

Or h1 =
tan a 1 − tan a2

RL of top point C of object = RL of line collimation + h1 or h2 at station

B or A

RL of top point C of object = RL of BM + S1 + h1

Or, RL of top point C of object = RL of BM + S2 + h2

Case (c) : Instrument station at A is lower than station B.

h1 h2
E

S1 G a1
F a2 D1
S2 S
H D2

B
BM A
d' b D
d
Figure 8.4
Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

d’ = d - b

D=
(d − S cot a2 ) tan a2
tan a 1 − tan a2

h1 = D tan a1

h1 =
(d − S cot a2 ) tan a2 tan a1
tan a 1 − tan a2

RL of top point C of object = RL of BM + S1 + h1

218.
 Chapter 8
Case III : When instrument axes have large difference of levels.

C Object

h1 h
2

E
a1
Staff D1
S
a2 B
D2
S2
A d D
BM
(a)
C
Object

Staff
E
r h h = d tan a

a B

A d
(b)
Figure 8.5

h1 = D tan a1 ….(i)
h2 = (D + d) tan a2 ….(ii)

Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

S = h2 – h1 = (D + d) tan a2 – D tan a1
S = D (tan a2 – tan a1) + d tan a2
S – d tan a2 d tan a2 − S
D= =
tan a2 – tan a 1 tan a 1 − tan a2

(d − S cot a2 ) tan a2
D =
tan a 1 – tan a2

h1 = D tan a1
(d − S cot a2 ) tan a 1 tan a2
h1 =
tan a 1 – tan a2

219.
Chapter 8

Height of station B above line of collimation of instrument at station

A = h – r = d tan a – r
Height of collimation of instrument at station B above the height of
collimation at station A (S) = d tan a – r + h’
h’ = height of instrument at station B
RL of top point C of object = RL of BM + S2 + d tan a – r + h’ + h1

Case IV : Determination of the height of object when the instrument

stations are not in same vertical plane.

h2 h1
Q 2
D2
D2 D1
E
2 2
B  1–
–
1 0°
S2 18
d O
S1 D1
1

BM A

B1 D2
C1
2 2
 1–
B 18 0°– E
d D1

1
Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

Figure 8.6

h1 = D1 tan a1 ….(i)
h2 = D2 tan a2 ….(ii)
d D1 D2
= =
(
sin  180° − q1 + q2 
  ) sin q2 sin q1

d sin q2 d sin q1
D1 = , D2 =
sin(q1 + q2 ) sin(q1 + q2 )

220.
 Chapter 8
d sin q2 tan a 1 d sin q1 tan a2
h1 = , h2 =
sin(q1 + q2 ) sin(q1 + q2 )
RL of top point C of object = RL of BM + S1 + h1
OR = RL of BM + S2 + h2

NOTE: If the RL of point C form both the stations A & B doesn’t comes out
to be same, then take the average of both readings.

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: The vertical angles subtended by the top of a tower T at two

instrument stations set up at P and Q, are shown in the figure. The
two stations are in line with the tower and spaced at a distance of 60
m. Readings taken from these two stations on a levelling staff placed
at the benchmark (BM = 450.000 m) are also shown in the figure. The
reduced level of the top of the tower T (expressed in m) is__________.

10.5°
16.5°
2.555
0.555
Q
P 60 m
BM 450.000

Answer: (476.500 to 477.500) [GATE 2016, SET-I]

Previous Year’s Questions Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

Question: A theodolite was set up at a station P. The angle of depression

to a vane 2 m above the foot of a staff held at another station Q was
45°. The horizontal distance between stations P & Q is 20 m. The staff
reading at a benchmark of RL 433.050 m is 2.905 m. Neglecting the
errors due to curvature & refraction, the RL of the station Q (in m) is
(a) 413.050 (b) 413.955
(c) 431.050 (d) 435.955
Answer: (b) [GATE 2020, SET - II]

221.
Chapter 8

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: A theodolite is set up at station A. The RL of instrument axis

is 212.250 m. The angle of elevation to the top of a 4 m long staff, held
vertical at station B is 7°. The horizontal distance between stations A &
B is 400 m. Neglecting the errors dur to curvature of earth & retraction,
the RL (in m, round off to three decimal places) of station B is _____.
Answer: (257.200 to 257.600) [GATE 2020, SET - II]

Example 8.1 : Find the reduced level of a church spire ‘C’ from the following
observations taken from two station A & B 70 m apart.
Angle BAC = 60°30’
Angle ABC = 68°18’
Angle of elevation from A to the top of spire = 10°12’
Angle of elevation from B to the top of spire = 10°48’
Staff reading from A on BM (300.00) = 0.965 m
Staff reading from B on BM (300.00) = 1.055 m

Solution: Given, a1 = 10°12', a2 = 10°48', q1 = 60°30', q2 = 68°18', d = 70 m

C
B
51°12'
68°18'

60°30'
Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

d sin q2 tan a 1
h1 =
sin(q1 + q2 )

70 sin68°18' tan 10°12'

=
sin(60°30' + 68°18' )
= 15.01 m
d sin q1 tan a2
h2 =
sin(q1 + q2 )

222.
 Chapter 8
70 sin60°30' tan 10°48'
=
sin(60°30' + 68°18' )

= 14.91 m
RL of C from A = RL of BM + S1 + h1
= 300 + 0.965 + 15.01
= 315.975 m
RL of C from B = RL of BM + S2 + h2
= 300 + 1.055 + 14.91
= 315.965 m
315.975 + 315.965
RL of C =
2
= 315.97 m

Example 8.2 : In order to ascertain the elevation of the top (Q) of the signal
on a hill, observations were made from two instrument stations P & R at
a horizontal distance of 120 meters apart, the stations P and R being in
line with Q. The angles of elevation of Q at P and R were 28°42’ and 18°6’
respectively. The staff readings upon the benchmark of elevation 300.28 m
were respectively 3.870 m and 4.750 m when the instrument was at P and
at R, the telescope being horizontal. Determine the elevation of the foot of
the signal if the height of the signal above its base is 4 meters (Assume P
is near to the signal).

Solution: Given, a1 = 28°42', a2 = 18°6', d = 120 m

Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

18°6'
4.750
S 28°42'
3.870

300.28 R P
120 m D

S = 4.750 – 3.870 = 0.88 m

223.
Chapter 8

(d + S cot a2 ) tan a2
D=
tan a 1 – tan a2
(120 + 0.88 cot 18°6' ) tan 18°6'
D=
tan 28°42' – tan 18°6'
D = 181.76 m
h1 = D tan a1
h1 = 181.76 tan 28°42’
h1 = 9.51 m
RL of foot of signal = RL of instrument axis at P + h1 – height of signal
= (RL of BM + staff reading) + h1 – height of signal
= (300.28 + 3.870) + 99.51 – 4
= 399.66 m

Example 8.3 : A person setup a theodolite with the height of instrument of

1.5 m at a particular location (RL = 420 m) and sight the top of a hill with an
angle of elevation of 6°30’. Now he moves 1800 m forward and set up the
theodolite at that location in such a way that the level of instrument axis of
this location will be same as the previous one. Again, he sight the top of the
hill and get the angle of elevation of 10°. Determine the elevation of the top
of the hill and its horizontal distance from the earlier theodolite’s location.

Solution:

Hill
h
6°30' 10°
Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

RL = 420 m D
1800 m

Here, the instrumental axis at both the location is same.

Let a1 = 10° and a2 = 6°30’
d tan a2
D=
tan a 1 − tan a2

(1800)(tan6°30')
D=
(tan 10°) – (tan6°30' )
D = 3287.058 m

224.
 Chapter 8
h = D tan a1 = 3287.058 × tan 10°
h = 79.597 m
The RL of the top of the hill = RL of line of collimation + h
= (420 + 1.5 + 579.597) m
= 1001.097 m
And the required horizontal distance = D + 1800
= (3287.058 + 1800) m
= 5087.058 m

Example 8.4 : In order to determine the elevation of the top of a signal,

observation were from two instrument stations ‘P’ and ‘Q’ which are in line
with signal. The angle of elevations of the top of the signal as observed
from station ‘P’ & ‘Q’ are 10°30' and 25°10' respectively. The staff reading on
the BM of RL 180 m was 2.500 m when the instrument was at 'P' and 3.250
m when the instrument was at Q. Determine the elevation of the top of the
signal. Given that the horizontal distance between 'P' and 'Q' is 100 m and
‘Q’ is closer to the signal.

Solution: From the given data & conditions in the question, we have,
d = 100 m, a1 = 25°10' and a2 = 10°30'

h1

a1
3.250 m = S1
S a2
2.500 m = S2

Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

Q
P d D
RL = 180 m

S = S1 – S2 = (3.250 – 2.500) m = 0.750 m

(d – Scota2 ) tan a2
D=
tan a 1 – tan a2

(100 – 0.75 × cot 10°30')(tan 10°30' )

D=
(tan 25°10') – (tan 10°30')

D = 62.506 m

225.
Chapter 8

h1 = D tan a1
= (62.506) × (tan 25°10’) = 29.368 m
So, RL of top of the signal = RL of BM + S1 + h1
= (180 + 3.250 + 29.368) m = 212.618 m

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: A theodolite is placed at A and a 3 m long vertical staff is

held at B. The depression angle made at reading of 2.5 m making on
staff is 6°10’. The horizontal distance between A & B is 2200 m. The
height of instrument at A is 1.2 m and reduced level at a point A is
880.88 m, using curvature correction, determine the RL of point B in
(m)________.

Answer: (641.9 to 642.3) [GATE 2013]

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: A staff is placed on a benchmark (BM) of reduced level (RL)

100.000 m and a theodolite is placed at a horizontal distance of 50
m from the BM to measure the vertical angles. The measured vertical
angles from the horizontal at the staff readings of 0.400 m and 2.400
m are found to be the same. Taking the height of the instrument as
1.400 m, The RL (in m) of theodolite station is ________.

Answer: (100 to 100) [GATE 2019, SET - I]

Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

Part -II : Tacheometric levelling

8.3 INTRODUCTION OF TACHEOMETRIC LEVELLING
y It is defined as the optical distance measurement method.
y In comparison to chaining/taping on the flat ground its accuracy is less, but
on rough and steep surface, its accuracy is more.
y It is done with the device termed as “Tacheometer”.
y Tacheometer is a transit theodolite fitted with “Stadia Diaphragm”.
y Stadia diaphragm consist of two stadia hairs at equal distance, one above
and one below the horizontal.

226.
 Chapter 8
Upper stadia hair

Middle cross hair

Lower stadia hair

Figure 8.7 : Different types of stadia hairs

NOTE: Upto the distance of 100 m, normal levelling staff can be used in

Gray Matter Alert!!!

Tacheometer possess the following special characteristics:

(a) It has multiplication constant K = 100.
(b) It has additive constant C = 0.
(c) Telescope of tacheometer has anallactic lens fitted in it.
(d) Magnification power of eye piece is kept high.

tacheometry, but beyond this distance marking on the staff becomes

indistinct, hence in such case “Stadia rod” is used.

2
1 3
2 4
3 5
4 6
7

Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

5
8
6
9
7 1 0
8 1
9 1 2
3
1 4
5

Figure 8.8 : Stadia rods

227.
Chapter 8

8.4 METHODS OF TACHEOMETRY

y Tacheometry can be done by any of the following methods:

Tacheometry

Stadia method Tangential method

Methods
Fixed hair Movable hair
method method
(subtense method)

Staff Staff Both angle in

Staff Staff
vertical normal elevation
vertical normal
Both angle in
Elevation Elevation depression Different cases

Depression Depression One in elevation

one in depression

8.4.1 Stadia Method

i A

s1 s2
a2
s1
a1
Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

B
D
O1 O2
Figure 8.9 : Stadia hair method

y Additional hairs being provided other than cross hair in diaphragm is termed
as “Stadia hair”.
y Vertical distance between the two stadia hairs is termed as “Stadia interval”
and the angle made by them is termed as “Stadia/Tacheometer/Parallactic
angle”.
y When the stadia angle is kept constant (a1) and the staff intercept is varied
(from s1 to s2), this type of stadia method is termed “Fixed hair method”.

228.
 Chapter 8
y However, if the stadia angle is varied (from a1 to a2) and staff intercept is
kept constant (s1), this type of stadia method is termed as “Movable hair/
Subtense method”.

Principle Of Stadia Method

y Computation of distance for horizontal sights.

C D–C
d f
f2 f1
A
A' C' O
i C s
B' F
B

Figure 8.10

Where,
f1 = Distance between optical center O and staff
f2 = Distance between optical center O & image of staff
D = Horizontal distance between staff and vertical axis of tacheometer
d = Horizontal distance between optical center O and vertical axis]
of tacheometer
f = Focal length of objective lens
s = Staff intercept

Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

i = Stadia interval
From lens formula
1 1 1
= + …(i)
f f1 f2
Multiplying both sides by f1

f1 f1
= 1+
f f2

f1 f1
= –1 ….(ii)
f2 f
Since DAOB ~ DA’OB’

229.
Chapter 8

A' B' AB i s
= ⇒ =
OC' OC f2 f1
f1 s
= ….(iii)
f2 i
From equation (ii) & (iii)
f1 s
–1=
f i
s
f1 = f+f
i
Now D = f1 + d ⇒ f1 = D – d
s
D= f+f+d
i
f
D =   s + (f + d)
i
=
D Ks + C
The equation is termed as “Tacheometric distance equation”.
f
Here, K = = Multiplying constant/Stadia interval factor
i
K = function (f, i)
For the ease of calculation of “D” ,stadia interval “i” is so adjusted that K =
f
becomes equal to 100.
i
C = f + d = Additive constant
Since the value of “d” almost remains constant for tacheometer “C” is also
constant.
Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

In general C = 0.25 – 0.35

\ If analytical lens is used into the telescope, the value of C = 0
D = Ks

Gray Matter Alert!!!

Anallactic Lens:
y It is a special type of convex lens, fitted only in external focusing
type telescope in between the object glass and eyepiece, at a fixed
distance from the object glass.
y The function of this lens is to reduce the stadia constant to zero,
by reducing all the observation to the center of the instrument.

230.
 Chapter 8
Example 8.5 : The focal length of the object glass of a tacheometer is
200 mm, the distance between the vertical axis of tacheometer and the
optical center of the object glass is 100 mm and the spacing between
the upper & lower stadia is 4 mm. With the line of collimation perfectly
horizontal, the staff intercepts are 1 m (top), 2 m (middle) & 3 m (bottom).
The horizontal distance (m) between the staff and instrument station
is
(a) 103.0 (b) 100.3 (c) 150.0 (d) 153.0
[GATE 2008]
Solution: Given, f = 200 mm, d = 100 mm, i = 4 mm

[Inverted image [Magnified view of

s3
is formed] s2 diaphagrm] s1
s1

s2

s3

C = f + d = 200 + 100 = 300 mm

Staff interval s = 3 – 1 = 2 m
D = Ks + C
f
=   s + C
i
 200 

Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

=   2 + 0.3
 4 

= 100.3 m
So, the correct answer is (b).

Example 8.6 : In an external focusing tacheometer, the fixed interval

between the stadia hairs is 10 mm, the focal length of the objective is 30
cm and the distance of the vertical axis of the instrument from the optical
center of the objective is 20 cm, then the constants of tacheometer K and
C are respectively
(a) 50 & 0.5 m (b) 30 & 0.5 m
(c) 30 & 0.7 m (d) 40 & 0.4 m

231.
Chapter 8

Solution: Given, i = 10 mm, f = 30 cm, d = 20 cm

Additive constant C = f + d
= 30 + 20
= 50 cm = 0.5 m
f
Multiplying constant K =
i
30 × 10
= = 30
10
So, the correct answer is (b).

Example 8.7 : Anallactic lens provided in a tacheometer is a

(a) Concave lens (b) Convex lens
(c) Plano-convex lens (d) Plane lens
[GATE 1992]

Solution: Anallactic lens is a special type of convex lens, fitted only in

external focusing type telescope in between the object glass and eyepiece,
at a fixed distance from the object glass. The function of this lens is to
reduce the stadia constant to zero.
So, the correct answer is (b).

8.4.1.1 Fixed hair method

(A) Distance & elevation formula for staff vertical inclined sights.
Case (I) : Angle of elevation

A1 A

C s
Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

B
 1h
A L B

s/2 E V
90+/2  90 
 O 
A1 s/2 cos  C F
D
Figure 8.11 : Elevated sight

s s
A1B1 = A1C + CB1 = cos q + cos q
2 2
A1B1 = s cos q
L = KA1B1 + C

232.
 Chapter 8
L = Ks cos q + C
D = L cos q
L = (Ks cosq + C) cos q
=D Ks cos2 q + C cos q
V = FC = L sin q
V = (Ks cosq + C) sinq
V = Ks cosq sinq + C sinq
Ks
=V sin2q + C sin q
2
Elevation of staff station(E) = HI + V – h

Case II – Angle of depression

O D F
q Line of Axis
a
V
L B B'
C
s
A' A h

E
Figure 8.12 : Depressed sight

Elevation of staff station (P)= HI – V – h

(B) Distance & elevation formula for staff normal

Case I : Angle of elevation

Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

A
s
C
h
L 
V
B
E
O 
 F
F'

Figure 8.13 : Elevated sight

233.
Chapter 8

L = Ks + C
D = OF’ + F’F
OF’ = L cos q = (Ks + C) cos q
F’F = h sinq
=
D (Ks + C) cos q + h sin q

V = L sinq
V =(Ks + C) sin q

Elevation of staff station (E) = HI + V – h cosq

Case II – Angle of Depression

O F F'
q Line of Axis
a
V
L A
C
s
B h
D E E'
L cos q
h
sin q
Figure 8.14 : Depressed sight

D = L cosq – h sinq
D =
(Ks + C) cos q – h sin q

V = L sinq
Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

V =(Ks + C) sin q

Elevation of staff station P = HI – (V + h cos q)

= HI – V – h cosq

Example 8.8 : The following observations were taken with a tacheometer at

a station P to a staff at Q held normal to the line of sight.
Staff reading = 2.45, 2.916, 3.38 m
Angle of depression = 15°30’
RL of P = 205.45 m
Height of trunnion axis above the peg at P = 2.315 m
Determine the horizontal distance between P & Q and RL of Q. Assume
K = 100 & C = 0.

234.
 Chapter 8
Solution: Given, RL of P = 205.45 m, h = 2.916 m
Angle of depression = 15°30’
K = 100, C = 0
(i) s = 3.38 – 2.45 = 0.93 m
Since, staff is held normal and angle of depression
D = L cosq – h sinq
= (Ks + C) cosq – h sinq
= (100 × 0.93 + 0) cos 15°30’ – 2.916 sin 15° 30’
D = 88.84 m
V = L sinq = (Ks + C) sinq
= (100 × 0.93 + 0) sin 15°30’
= 24.85 m
(ii) RL of Q = HI – (V + h cos q)
= (RL of P + ht of trunnion axis) – (V + h cosq)
= (205.45 + 2.315) – (24.85 + 2.916 cos 15°30’)
= 207.765 – 27.659
= 180.106 m

Example 8.9 : The following readings were taken with a vernier theodolite
on a vertical staff

Horizontal distance Stadia Readings (m)

46.20 m 1.780, 2.010, 2.240

Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

61.20 m 2.860, 3.165, 3.470

Calculate the tacheometric constant K & C ?

Solution: Given, the horizontal distance and the staff readings.

D = Ks + C
s1 = 2.240 – 1.780 = 0.46 m
s2 = 3.470 – 2.860 = 0.61 m
46.20 = K (0.46) + C ….(i)
61.20 = K (0.61) + C ….(ii)
Solving equation (i) & (ii)
K = 100, C = 0.20 m

235.
Chapter 8

8.4.1.2 Movable hair method (Subtense method)

O a1 a2 a3 s s s

P1 P2 P3
Figure 8.15 : Movable hair method

y In this case the staff intercept is kept constant (s) & stadia angle (a) changes
with the staff position (P).
y The diaphragm has an arrangement for the measurement of stadia interval
which in this case is variable.
y Each hair of the stadia diaphragm can be moved independently by a separate
sliding bar/frame.

Micrometer screw

Graduated head

Upper stadia hair

Horizontal hair of
cross hair
Lower stadia hair
Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

Graduated
head Micrometer screw
Figure 8.16

y Sliding frame consist of a micrometer screw which rotates over large

horizontal graduated scale/head.
D = Ks + C
f
D =  s + C
i

236.
 Chapter 8
y In this case stadia interval (i) is variable, which is measured with the help
of micrometer screw.
y If “P” is the pitch of the screw and “m” be the number of revolutions made
by screw then
i=mP

fs
D= +C
mP

f
Let =K
P

Ks
=
D +C
m
Case I – If staff is held vertical and line of sight is inclined.
Ks

= D cos2 q + C cos q
m

1 Ks

= V sin 2q + C sin q
2 m

Case II – If staff is held normal and line of sight is inclined.

 Ks 
=
D  + C  cos q + h sin q
m 

 Ks 
V = + C  sin q
m 

Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

Gray Matter Alert!!!

If there is index error ‘e’ in the micrometer screw then

Ks
=D +C
m–e

Rack your Brain

Q: What are the merits & demerits of movable hair method ?

A: Movable hair method gives more accurate results for long distance
measurements, but it is very slow, noting of stadia reading is difficult
in this case & the computations are complicated.

237.
Chapter 8

Example 8.10 : A subtense theodolite was used to determine the horizontal

distance of a point from the instrument station. The micrometer readings
of the drum of the diaphragm were 4.425 & 4.93 when the staff intercept
was 4m. The micrometer screw has 100 threads to 1 cm. The focal length of
the object glass was 325 mm. The distance of the instrument axis from the
center of the object glass was 300 mm.

1
Solution: Given, focal length = 325 mm, Pitch = cm
100
Distance of the instrument axis from the center of object glass = 300 mm
Ks
D= +C
m
C = f + d = (325 + 300) × 10–3 = 0.625 m
f 325 × 10–1
K= = = 3250
P 1
100
s=4m
m = 4.425 + 4.93 = 9.355
3250 × 4
D= + 0.625
9.355
D = 1390.256 m

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: A tacheometer was placed at point P to estimate the horizontal

distances PQ and PR. The corresponding stadia intercepts with the
telescope kept horizontal, are 0.320 m and 0.210 m respectively. The
Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

∠QPR is measured to be 61°30’30”. If the stadia multiplication constant

=100 and stadia addition constant = 0.10 m, the horizontal distance (in
m) between the points Q and R is __________.
Q

Answer: (28.0 to 29.0) [GATE 2014, SET-II]

238.
 Chapter 8
8.4.2 Tangential method of tacheometry
y This method is used when diaphragm is not provided with the stadia hair
or when distance between staff and instrument is more which makes the
reading of the staff difficult.
y In this method a levelling staff is fitted with two big targets (vanes) at fixed
distance of 2 or 3 m.
y Vertical angle of these vanes is observed through the theodolite to find
horizontal distance as follows:

Case I : Both angles in elevation

s
B
r
V
E
2 1
F
h
D
Figure 8.17 : Both angles in elevation

V+s
tan q1 = ….(i)
D

V
tan q2 = .…(ii)
D

Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

From equation (i) & (ii)

s
tan q1 – tan q2 =
D

s
D =
tan q1 – tan q2

V = D tan q2

s tan q2
V =
tan q1 – tan q2

239.
Chapter 8

Case II Both angles in depression

D
F
q1 q2

A V
s
B
r
E

Figure 8.18 : Both angles in depression

V–s
tan q1 = ….(i)
D
V
tan q2 = .…(ii)
D
From (i) & (ii)
s
tan q2 – tan q1 =
D

s
D =
tan q2 – tan q1

V = D tan q2

s tan q2
V =
tan q2 – tan q1
Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

Case III One of the angle is of elevation & other is of depression.

q1 s
q2
V
B
h
r

E
D
Figure 8.19 : One in elevation and one in depression

240.
 Chapter 8
s–V
tan q1 = ….(i)
D
V
tan q2 = ….(ii)
D
s
tanq1 + tanq2 =
D
s
D =
tan q1 + tan q2

V = D tan q2
s tan q2
V =
tan q1 + tan q2

y This method is inferior to stadia method as:

(a) Time required is more due to two angles being noted.
(b) Error may induce if the instrument is disturbed in between the two
readings.
(c) While taking the readings, atmospheric conditions may get changed
inducing error due to refraction.

Example 8.11 : In tacheometry, the tangential method is

(a) Slower than stadia hair method
(b) Preferred as chances of operational error are less compared to stadia
hair method
(c) Preferred as it involves less computations to get reduced distance
(d) Faster than stadia hair method [GATE 1992]

Solution: Tangential method of tacheometry consumes more time as

Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

compared to the stadia hair method due to the two angles measurement.
And if the instrument is disturbed between the two readings, the error
may induce. So, the chances of operational error are more in tangential
method.
So, the correct answer is (a).

Example 8.12 : Staff readings were observed with a percentage theodolite

corresponding to angles of elevation of 5% and 6% are 2.525 & 3.925
respectively. If the vertical angle on sighting the staff reading equal to the
height of trunnion axis above ground was 5.5%. Calculate
(i) The horizontal distance between instrument & the staff.
(ii) The elevation of staff station if that of the instrument was
600.00 m.

241.
Chapter 8

Solution:

A (3.925)

s
s'
B (2.525)

h r V
6%
5% 5.5%
E

P (600) D

(i) s = 3.925 – 2.525 = 1.4

s 1.4
D= = = 140 m
tan q1 – tan q2 0.06 − 0.05

V = D tanq2 = 140 × 0.05 = 7 m

s'
(ii) D=
tan q3 − tan q2

s’ = D (tanq3 – tanq2) = 140 (0.055 – 0.05) = 0.7 m

h = r + s’ = 2.525 + 0.7 = 3.225 m
RL of staff station = RL of instrument station + h + V – r
RL of staff station = 600 + 3.225 + 7 – 2.525
= 607.7 m
Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

Example 8.13 : To determine the gradient between two point P & Q, a

tacheometer was setup at another station R, and the following observations
were taken, keeping the staff vertical.

Staff At Vertical angle Stadia readings

P 5°20’ 2.3, 2.6, 2.92

Q 10’40” 2.1, 2.41, 2.720

If the horizontal angle PRQ is 36°40’, determine the average gradient

between P & Q. Assume K = 100, C = 0.

242.
 Chapter 8
Solution: P
D1 = Ks cos2q + C cosq
= 100 (2.92 – 2.3) cos2 5°20’ + 0
= 61.46 m
D1 D
Ks
V1 = sin2q + C sinq
2
1 36°40'
= × 100 × (2.92 – 2.3) sin (2 × 5°20’) + 0 R Q
2 D2
V1 = 5.74 m
RL of point P = HI + V1 – r1 = HI + 5.74 – 2.6
= HI + 3.14 m
D2 = Ks cos2q + C cosq
= 100(2.720 – 2.1) cos2 (10’40”) + 0 = 61.999 m
1
V2 = Ks sin2q + C sinq
2
1
= × 100 (2.720 – 2.1) sin (2 × 10’40”) + 0
2
= 0.192 m
RL of point Q = HI + V2 – r2 = HI + 0.192 – 2.41
= HI – 2.218 m
Difference of RL between A & B = (HI + 3.14) – (HI – 2.218)
= 5.358 m
D21 + D22 – D2
cos36°40’ =
2D1 D2

61.462 + 61.9992 – D2
cos36°40’ =
2 × 61.46 × 61.999
D = 38.84 m

Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling

5.358 1
Gradient of PQ = =
38.84 7.25

Keywords

Š Measurement of height & distance

Š Base of object accessible & inaccessible
Š Stadia method of tacheometry
Š Movable hair method
Š Tangential method

243.
Trigonometric and Tacheometric Levelling Chapter 8

244.
 9 Theory of Errors

Chapter 9
9.1 INTRODUCTION
y In surveying measurement of both linear distances and angles is to be
carried out, true value of which is not possible to be measured as some or
the other errors creeps in.

Following types of errors are observed in measurements:

(a) Mistakes/Gross error

y These errors occurs due to inexperience or carelessness of the surveyor.
y These mistakes are random in nature and can be eliminated by adopting
the standard operations procedures.

(b) Systematic/Cumulative error

y These errors follow the same pattern (i.e. magnitude and nature remains
same for same condition).
y They can be computed very easily, and suitable corrections can be applied.
y Surveying instruments are designed such that these errors are eliminated
automatically.

(c) Random/Accidental/Compensating error

y These errors occur due to lack of perfection.
y These errors tends to compensate each other, when large in number.
y The error follow the law of probability, hence can be easily computed.
y The law of probability says, that an error of small magnitude has higher
probability of occurrence then the error of large magnitude.
y It follows normal probability distribution curve.

9.2 LAWS OF ACCIDENTAL ERROR

Theory of Errors

Figure 9.1: Normal probability distribution curve

245.
Chapter 9

Error = Measured value – True value

Since, true value of the observation cannot be found instead of most
probable value is used.

Hence, Error = Measured value – Most probable value

Definitions

Most Probable Value: It is the value which has more chances of being
true than any other value.

p p

(-)e (+)e (-)e (+)e

(i) (ii)
It represents large scatter It represents small scatter
of error hence signifying of error, hence signifying
low precision high precision
Figure 9.2

Definitions

Residual Error: It is the difference between the most probable value

of quantity & its observed value.

NOTE: The normal frequency distribution curve is also termed as ‘Gaussian

distribution curve’, which is given by
2
1 v 
1 −  
y= e 2 s 
2πs
Theory of Errors

y = frequency of occurrence of residual

v = residual = measured value – most probable value

246.
 Chapter 9
s = standard deviation

s=
∑v 2

n−1

y Here standard deviation may also be termed as ‘Root mean square’ error of
the measured value.

Figure 9.3

y If the height of normal frequency distribution curve is so adjusted that the

area under this curve is unity, it is termed as ‘Normal probability distribution
curve’.

Theory of Errors

Figure 9.4

247.
Chapter 9

y Here probability distribution curve can be used to the probability of

occurrence of an error in between two limits.
y Degree of precision in measured value is analysed with the help of following
indices of precision (here weightage of all observations is considered as
equal).

(a) Standard deviation

s=
∑v 2

n−1
n = number of observations made
v = residual error

(b) Variance
y It is the square of standard deviation.

∑ v2
V =s2 =
n−1

(c) Standard error of mean

y Standard deviation of mean is termed as the standard error of mean.

∑ v2 s
sm =± =±
n ( n − 1) n

(d) Standard error of single observation

y Standard error of single observation is equal to standard deviation.

s1 = ±
∑v 2
= ±s
n−1

(e) Most probable error

y It is defined as the error for which there are 50% chances that the true
error will be less than the probable error & 50% chances that the true error
Theory of Errors

will be more than probable error.

248.
 Chapter 9
Most probable error = ±0.6745 s

Most probable error = ± 0.6745

∑V 2

n−1

Figure 9.5

(f) Most probable error of mean

em = ±0.6745 sm

em = ±0.6745
∑v 2

n(n − 1)

(g) Maximum error

y Maximum error i.e. 100% error corresponds to the probability distribution
curve extending to the infinity which is practically not possible to calculate.
y Hence 99.9% error is taken as maximum error.
y It corresponds to ± 3.29 s.
y The maximum error helps to separate mistakes from the random error.
y If any measurement deviates from the mean by more than ±3.29 s, then the
measurement is considered as mistake and is rejected.

Example 9.1: In a particular survey, the measurements of the distances are

made by a group (in m) using the same instrument. The readings are: 77, 78,
80, 76.5, 78.5, 77.5, 79, 79.5, 76.6, 77.4
Determine:
(i) Standard deviation of each group
(ii) Standard error of mean
(iii) Most probable error
Theory of Errors

(iv) Most probable error of mean

(v) Variance
(vi) Maximum error

249.
Chapter 9

Solution:

Group x (m) vi (m) vi2

77 -1 1.00

78 0 0

80 2 4.00

76.5 -1.5 2.25

78.5 0.5 0.25

77.5 -0.5 0.25

79 1 1.00

79.5 1.5 2.25

76.6 -1.4 1.96

77.4 -0.6 0.36

∑ =780 = 13.32

Most probable value (arithmetic average) =

∑d
n

780
MPV = = 78
10
Error/residual/variation(v) = Measured value – Most probable value
(i) Standard deviation

s=
∑v
=
2
13.32
= 1.2165
n−1 10 − 1
(ii) Standard error of mean
∑ v2 13.32
sm = =
± =
±0.3847
n(n − 1) 10 ( 10 − 1)
(iii) Most probable error
Theory of Errors

e = ± 0.6745 s
= ± 0.6745(1.2165) = ± 0.8205

250.
 Chapter 9
(iv) Most probable error of mean
em = ±0.6745 sm
= ±0.6745 (0.3847)
= ± 0.2595
(v) Variance
V = s2
= (1.2165)2 = 1.4799
(vi) Maximum error = ± 3.29 s
= ± 3.29 × 1 .2165 = ± 4.0

9.3 WEIGHT
y Until now the weightage of every observation was same but if it is changed,
analysis is done as follows:
y Here weightage of a quantity signifies its relative truth worthiness or
indicates its relative precision.
y Weightage is always expressed as a number, higher is the weightage, higher
is precision and lower is the weightage, lower is precision.
y Weightage are allocated to the observation according to the following rule:
(i) Weightages are assigned as per degree of precision, hence weightages
are taken inversely proportional to variance.

w1 v
= 2
w2 v1
(ii) Weightages of the quantity is measured in similar conditions is directly
proportional to the number of times the quantity is being measured
(n).
w1 n
= 1
w2 n2
(iii) Weightages are also being provided to the observation by the
surveyor on the basis of experience as per prevailing field condition/
environmental condition.
(iv) Weightage of the level line is inversely proportional to the length of
the line.
w1 L
= 2
w2 L1
9.3.1 Laws of Weight
(i) The weight of arithmetic mean of a number of observation of unit
Theory of Errors

weight is equal to number of observations.

251.
Chapter 9

Example:

∠A Weight ∠A Weight

40°30′8″ 1 40°30′10″ 1

40°30′10″ 1 40°30′9″ 1

40°30′7″ 1 40°30′10″ 1

1
Arithmetic mean = 40°30′ + (8′′ + 10′′ + 7′′ + 10′′ + 9′′ + 10′′)
6
= 40°30′9″
Weight of arithmetic mean = number of observations = 6

(ii) The weight of weighted arithmetic mean is equal to the sum of individual
weights.

Example:

∠A Weight ∠A Weight

40°20′8″ 2 40°20′9″ 4

40°20′10″ 3 40°20′10″ 3

40°20′6″ 2 40°20′10″ 2

Sum of individual weights = 2 + 3 + 2 + 4 + 3 + 2 = 16

Weight of arithmetic mean

1
= 40°20′ + [(8′′ × 2) + (10′′ × 3) + (6′′ × 2) + (9′′ × 4) + (10′′ × 3) + (10′′ × 2)]
16
= 40°20′9″
Or

Weight of arithmetic mean

 40°20′8′′ × 2 + 40°20′10′′ × 3 + 40°20′6′′ × 2 
 
+ 40°20′9′′ × 4 + 40°20′10′′ × 3 + 40°20′10′′ × 2  645°22′24′′
Theory of Errors

= = = 40°20′9′′
(2 + 3 + 2 + 4 + 3 + 2) 16
Weight of the weighted arithmetic mean = 16

252.
 Chapter 9
(iii) The weight of algebraic summation or subtraction of two or more
quantities is equal to reciprocal of summation of reciprocals of the
individual weights.

Example:
∠A = 50°40′20″, weight 3
∠B = 40°30′10″, weight 2
1 1 5
Sum of reciprocal of individual weight = + =
3 2 6
1 1 6
\ Weight of ∠A + ∠B ( = 91°10′30″) = = =
1 1 5 5
+
3 2 6
1 1 6
\ Weight of ∠A - ∠B ( = 10°10′10″) = = =
1 1 5 5
+
3 2 6
(iv) If the quantity of a given weight is multiplied by a factor, the weight of
the resultant is obtained by dividing its given weight by the square of
that factor.

Example:
∠A = 40°40′30″, weight 6
6 3
Then, weight of 2A(= 81°21′0″) = 2
=
(2) 2
(v) If the quantity of a given weight is divided by a factor, the weight of
resultant is obtained by multiplying its given weight by square of that
factor.

Example:
∠A = 44°20′30″, weight 6
A
Then, weight of =( 22°10′15′′) = 6(2)2 = 24
2
(vi) If an equation is multiplied by its own weight, the weight of resulting
equation is equal to the reciprocal of weight of equation.

Example:
A + B = 85°30′30″ , weight 2
1
Weight of 2(A + B) =
2
Theory of Errors

1
Weight of 171°1′0″ =
2

253.
Chapter 9

(vii) The weight of equation remains unchanged if all the signs of the
equation are changed.

Example:
A + B = 79°30′20″, weight 3
Then, weight of A – B = 3

(Viii) Weight of equation is unchanged if the equation is added to or

subtracted from a constant.

Example:
A + B = 79°30′20″, weight = 3
Then, 180° - (A + B) = 100°29′40″, weight = 3
180° + (A + B) = 259°30′20″, weight = 3

9.4 INDICES OF PRECISION OF OBSERVATION HAVING DIFFERENT

WEIGHTS
(i) Standard deviation of weighted observation.

∑(wv 2 )
sw =
n−1
(ii) Standard deviation (or error) of mean of weighted observation.

 ∑(wv 2 ) 
(sm )w =
±  
 (n − 1) ∑ w 
(iii) Standard error of single observation of weightage wi.

 ∑(wv 2 ) 
(s1 )w =
±  
 (n − 1)wi 
(iv) Most probable error of single observation of weight wi.
ew = ± 0.6745 (s1)w

 ∑(wv 2 ) 
ew = ±0.6745  
 (n − 1)wi 
Theory of Errors

(v) Most probable error of mean of weighted observation.

emw = ±0.6745(sm)w

254.
 Chapter 9
Example 9.2: The following are the measured values of angle P, with the
corresponding weightage.

∠P wi

1. 91°40′20″ 3

2. 91°40′25″ 4

3. 91°40′28″ 3

Determine:
(i) Standard deviation
(ii) Standard error of weighted mean
(iii) Standard error of single observation of w = 3
(iv) Probable error of weighted mean
Solution:

∠P wi vi vi 2 wivi2

91°40′20″ 3 -4.4″ 19.36 58.08

91°40′25″ 4 0.6″ 0.36 1.44

91°40′28″ 3 3.6″ 12.96 38.88

∑ = 10

91°40′20′′ × 3 + 91°40′25′′ × 4 + 91°40′28′′ × 3

MPV =
3+4+3

916°44′4′′
= = 91°40′24.4″
10

(20′′ × 3 + 25′′ × 4 + 28′′ × 3)

Or MPV = 91°40′ +
3+4+3

= 91°40′24.4″

(i) Standard deviation

Theory of Errors

∑(wv)2 (58.08 + 1.44 + 38.88)

sw = =
n−1 3−1
sw = 7.01″

255.
Chapter 9

(ii) Standard deviation of weighted mean

∑(wv 2 )
(sm)w = ±
(n − 1) ∑ wi

7.01′′
= ± = ±2.22′′
10

(iii) Standard error of single observation of weightage 4

∑(wv 2 ) 7.01′′
(s1)w = ± = ± = ±3.51′′
(n − 1)wi 4

(iv) Probable error of weighted mean

emw = ± 0.6745 (sm)w
= ± 0.6745 × 2.22″
= ± 1.5″

Example 9.3: The following are the observed values of an angle:

Angle Weight

50°10′22″ 2

50°10′20″ 2

50°10′21″ 3

Calculate:
(a) Probable error of single observation of unit weight.
(b) Probable error of weighted arithmetic mean.
(c) Probable error of single observation of weight 3.

Solution:

Angle Weight vi vi2 wivi2

50°10′22″ 2 +1 1 2

50°10′20″ 2 -1 1 2
Theory of Errors

50°10′21″ 3 0 0 0

∑w = 7 ∑wivi2 = 4

256.
 Chapter 9
(22′′ × 2 + 20′′ × 2 + 21′′ × 3)
Weighted arithmetic mean = 50°10′ +
(2 + 2 + 3)

= 50°10′21″
Error/residual/variation(vi) = Measured value – Most probable value
(a) Probable error of single observation of unit weight
∑(wv 2 )
= ±0.6745
(n − 1)

4
= ±0.6745 = ±0.95′′
3−1
(b) Probable error of weighted arithmetic mean
∑(wv 2 )

= ±0.6745
(n − 1) ∑ w

4
= ±0.6745 = ±0.36′′
2(7)
(c) Probable error of single observation of weight 3
∑(wv 2 )

= ±0.6745
(n − 1)3
0.95
= = ±0.55′′
3

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: In a survey work, three independent angles x, y, z were

observed with weights wx, wy, wz respectively. The weight of the sum
of angles x, y, z is given by
1
(a)
 1 1 1 
w + w + w 
 x y z 

 1 1 1 
(b)  + + 
 wx wy wz 
(c) wx + wy + wz
Theory of Errors

(d) w2x + w2y + wz2

Answer: (a) (GATE-2015, SET-I)

257.
Chapter 9

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: A horizontal angle θ is measured by four different surveyors

multiple times and the values reported are given below:

Surveyor Angle (θ) Number of observations

1 36°30′ 4

2 36°00′ 3

3 35°30′ 8

4 36°30′ 4

The most probable value of the angle θ (in degree, round off to two
decimal places) is_____.
Answer: (36 to 36)  (GATE-2021, SET-II)

Example 9.4: An angle A was observed by the method of repetition by three

different observers and the value were taken as below:

Observer no ∠A Number of measurement

1. 50°30′ 2

2. 50°40′ 3

3. 50°45′ 4

Then the most probable value of the angle is

(a) 49°1′30″ (b) 51°40′0″
Theory of Errors

(c) 50°40′0″ (d) 50°37′02″

258.
 Chapter 9
Solution:
The most probable value of the angle is equal to its weighted arithmetic
mean.
50°30′ × 2 + 50°40′ × 3 + 50°45′ × 4
Most probable value =
(2 + 3 + 4)
= 50°40′0″

So, the correct answer is (c).

9.5 PROPOGATION OF STANDARD ERROR

y Let a quantity A is dependent upon several other quantities x, y, z. . . .
A = f(x, y, z)
Here, total error in A is given by

df df df
dA= dx + dy + dz
dx dy dz
dA, dy, dz are individual error in x, y, z and standard error in A is given by
2 2 2
 df   df   df 
e =
2
A ex  +  ey  +  ez 
 dx   dy   dz 
ex, ey, ez are standard error in x, y, z

Example:
(a) A(f) = x + y
2 2
 df   df 
e2A =  ex  +  ey 
 dx   dy 
2 2
 d(x + y)   d(x + y) 
=  ex  +  ey 
 dx   dy 

( )
1/2
eA = ex2 + ey2

(b) A(f) = xyz

2 2 2
 df   df   df 
e2A =  ex  +  ey  +  ez 
 dx   dy   dz 
2 2 2
 d(xyz)   d(xyz)   d(xyz) 
=  ex  +  ey  +  ez 
Theory of Errors

 dx   dy   dz 

( )
2
= ( yz.ex ) + xz.ey
2
+ (xy.ez )2

259.
Chapter 9

 e 2  e 2  e 2 
y
= (xyz)2  x  +   +  z  
 x  y
   z  

1/2
 e 2  e 2  e 2 
y
eA = (xyz)  x  +   +  z  
 x  y
   z  

x
(c) A(f) =
y
2 2
 df   df 
e2A =  ex  +  ey 
 dx   dy 
2 2
 x   x 
 d    d  
y y
=    ex  +    ey 
 dx   dy 
2 2
e   x 
=  x  +  − 2 ey 
 y   y 

x2  e 2  e 2 
= 2  x  +  y  
y  x   y  

1/2
x  e 2  e 2 
eA =  x  +  y  
y  x   y  

(d) A(f) = xn
2
 df 
e2A =  ex 
 dx 
2
 d(xn ) 
=  ex 
 dx 

eA = (nxn−1ex )

Examples: 9.5: If the volume of the box is V = l × b × h, whose sides are:

l = 3 ± 0.04 m

b = 5 ± 0.02 m
Theory of Errors

h = 4 ± 0.03 m
Determine the standard error of V?

260.
 Chapter 9
Solution:
Given:
l = 3 ± 0.04 m
b = 5 ± 0.02 m
h = 4 ± 0.03 m
2 2 2
 df   df   df 
e2v =  el  +  eb  +  eh 
 dl   db   dh 
2 2 2
 d(lbh)   d(lbh)   d(lbh) 
=  el  +  eb  +  eh 
 dl   db   dh 

= (bh. el)2 + (lh. eb)2 + (lb. eh)2

= (5 × 4 × 0.04)2 + (3 × 4 × 0.02)2 + (3 × 5 × 0.03)2
ev = 0.64 + 0.0576 + 0.2025

ev = ± 0.9487
So, the standard error of V is ± 0.9487.

Example 9.6: If angle A is related to angle B and C as follows:

A = 4B × C

The observed values of B and C and their corresponding standard error are
as follows:
B = 40″ ± 0.03″

C = 50″ ± 0.05″
Determine the standard error of A.

Solution:
Given, A = 4B × C
Standard error at A,
2 2
 df   df 
e2A =  ex  +  ey 
 dx   dy 
2 2
 d(4B.C)   d(4B.C) 
Theory of Errors

=  eB  +  ec 
 dB   dC 
= (4C . eB)2 + (4B . eC)2

261.
Chapter 9

1/2
eA = ( 4C.eB ) + ( 4B.ec ) 
2 2
 
1/2
= (4 × 50 × 0.03)2 + (4 × 40 × 0.05)2  = ±10″

Example 9.7: In measuring round angles of station O, the third angle C,

closing the horizon is found from the relation
C = 360° - (A + B)
If the angles A & B have standard error of ±5″ & ±6″ respectively. Determine
the standard error of C.
Solution:
2 2
 df   df 
ec = 
2
ex  +  ey 
 dx   dy 
2 2
 d[360° − (A + B)   d[360° − (A + B)] 
=  eA  +  eB 
 dA   dB 
= (-eA)2 + (-eB)2
ec = e2A + eB2

= 52 + 62 = ± 7.81″

9.6 RULES FOR APPLYING CORRECTION

y If all the observations are of same weightage, then the error is distributed
equally in all the observations, hence correction is also equal.
y Corrections are applied to the observations, inversely proportion to its
weightage.
y Corrections applied to the observation is directly proportional to the square
of standard deviation or variance.
y In case of level line, the correction applied is proportional to length of level
line.

Rack your Brain

Q: In case of level line, how the correction increases with the
increases in length of level line?
A: Weightage is inversely proportional to the length of level line, so
with the increase in length of level line the accuracy decreases
and with the decreases in accuracy the error increase thus the
Theory of Errors

correction also increases.

 1 
 w ∝ ⇒ l ↑ w ↓ accuracy ↓ error ↑ correction ↑ 
 l 

262.
 Chapter 9
Example 9.8: Adjust the angel A, B, C and D which close the horizon.

Angles Weight

∠A = 100°20′25″ 2

∠B = 80°30′08″ 1

∠C = 90°40′22″ 4

∠D = 88°29′10″ 3

Solution:
∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D = 306°0′5″
Sum of angles = (2n – 4)90°
= (2 × 4 – 4)90° = 360°
Error of closure = Measured value – true value
= 360°0′5″ - 360° = 5″
Correction, C = -5″
\ Correction is inversely proportional to the weightage
1 1 1 1
C1 : C2 : C3 : C4 = + + + = 6 : 12 : 3 : 4
2 1 4 3
Corrections,
6
C1 = × (−5′′) = −1.2′′
12 + 6 + 4 + 3
12
C2 = × (−5′′) = −2.4′′
12 + 6 + 4 + 3
3
C3 = × (−5′′) = −0.6′′
12 + 6 + 4 + 3
4
C4 = × (−5′′) = −0.8′′
12 + 6 + 4 + 3
Corrected angles,
∠A = 100°20′25″ - 1.2″ = 100°20′23.8″
∠B = 80°30′08″ - 2.4″ = 80°30′5.6″
Theory of Errors

∠C = 90°40′22″ - 0.6″ = 90°40′21.4″

∠D = 88°29′10″ - 0.8″ = 88°29′9.2″

263.
Chapter 9

Check
∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D = 100°20′23.8″+ 80°30′5.6″ + 90°40′21.4″
+ 88°29′9.2″ = 360°
Hence, the values are corrected.

Example 9.9: Following angles P, Q, R are observed at station O, in a closed

traverse with their standard error.
∠P = 84°31′18″ ± 4″

∠Q = 125°13′12″ ± 5″

∠R = 150°15′15″ ± 3″
Find the corrected angles?

Solution:Sum of angles ∠P + ∠Q + ∠R = 359°59′45″

Closing error = 359°59′45″ - 360° = -15″
Correction = ± 15″
Let C1, C2 and C3 are the corrections applied to the angle P, Q & R respectively.
C1 : C2 : C3 = (4)2 : (5)2 : (3)2
C1 : C2 : C3 = 16 : 25 : 9
Correction,
16
C1 = × 15=
′′ 4.8′′
9 + 16 + 25

25
C2 = × 15=
′′ 7.5′′
9 + 16 + 25

9
C3 = × 15=
′′ 2.7′′
9 + 16 + 25

Corrected angles, ∠P = 84°31′18″ + 4.8″ = 84°31′22.8″

∠Q = 125°13′12″ + 7.5″ = 125°13′19.5″
∠R = 150°15′15″ + 2.7″ = 150°15′17.7″
Check ∠P + ∠Q + ∠R : 84°31′22.8″ + 125°13′19.5″ + 150°15′17.7″

= 360°

9.7 THEORY OF LEAST SQUARE

Theory of Errors

y According to this theory, most probable value of the observation of equal

weightage is that value which makes the sum of square of residual (v) to
minimum value.

264.
 Chapter 9
∑v2 = minimum

(x1 – MPV)2 + (x2 – MPV)2 . . . (xn – MPV)2 = ∑v2

dv 2
For ∑v2 to be minimum ⇒ =0
dMPV
After differentiating
-2(x1 – MPV) – 2(x2 – MPV) . . . -2(xn – MPV) = 0

-2[x1 + x2 . . . . xn – n MPV] = 0
x1 + x2 . . . xn
MPV =
n
y If the observations are of unequal weight, the MPV is the value which makes
the sum of the product of weight and the square of residual to be minimum.
∑wv2 = minimum
Hence,
w x + w2 x2 . . . wnxn
MPV = 1 1
w1 + w2 . . . wn
y The least square adjustment is done by “Normal Equation Method/
Observation Equation Method” which is formed as follows:

Case I: For observation of equal weight

y To form the normal equation in this case for each of the unknown quantity,
multiply each observation equation with the algebraic coefficient of that
unknown quantity and add the result.

Example 9.10: Find the normal equation of x, y, z from the following equation
of equal weight and determine the MPV of x, y, z.
4x + 4y + 2z – 5 = 0
2x + 3y + 3z – 7 = 0
6x + 2y + 5z – 22 = 0

Solution:
Let

4x + 4y + 2z – 5 = 0 . . . (i)

2x + 3y + 3z – 7 = 0 . . . (ii)
Theory of Errors

6x + 2y + 5z – 22 = 0 . . . (iii)
\ Normal equation of x

265.
Chapter 9

In equation (i), (ii) and (iii) the coefficients of x are 4, 2 and 6 respectively.
Hence,
4(4x + 4y + 2z -5) + 2(2x + 3y + 3z – 7) + 6(6x + 2y + 5z – 22) = 0

56x + 34y + 44z – 166 = 0

\ Normal equation of y
In equation (i), (ii) and (iii) the coefficients of y are 4, 3 and 2 respectively.
Hence,
4(4x + 4y + 2z -5) + 3(2x + 3y + 3z – 7) + 2(6x + 2y + 5z – 22) = 0

34x + 29y + 27z – 85 = 0

\ Normal equation of z
In equation (i), (ii) and (iii) the coefficient of z are 2, 3 and 5 respectively.
Hence,
2(4x + 4y + 2z – 5) + 3(2x + 3y + 3z – 7) + 5(6x + 2y + 5z – 22) = 0

44x + 27y + 38z – 141 = 0

So, the normal equation for x, y, z are

56x + 34y + 44z – 166 = 0

34x + 29y + 27z – 85 = 0

44x + 27y + 38z – 141 = 0

After solving the normal equation for x, y, and z
MPV of x = 1.625, y =-2, z = 3.25

Case 2: For observations of unequal weight

y To form the normal equation for each of the unknown quantity, multiply
each observation equation with the algebraic coefficient and weight of that
observation and add the result.

Example 9.11: Find the normal equation for x, y, z in the following equation,
whose weights are also given below:
4x + 4y + 2z – 5 = 0, weight 2

2x + 3y + 3z – 7 = 0, weight 3
Theory of Errors

6x + 2y + 5z – 22 = 0, weight 1

266.
 Chapter 9
Solution:
Let, 4x + 4y + 2z – 5 = 0 . . . (i)
2x + 3y + 3z – 7 = 0 . . . (ii)
6x + 2y + 5z – 22 = 0 . . . (ii)
\ Normal equation for x
In equations (i), (ii) and (iii) the product of coefficients of x and weight of
respective equations are (4 × 2), (2 × 3), (6 × 1) respectively.
Hence,
(4 × 2) (4x + 4y + 2z -5) + (2 × 3) (2x + 3y + 3z – 7) +
(6 × 1) (6x + 2y + 5z – 22) = 0

80x + 62y + 64z – 214 = 0

\ Normal equations for y
In equation (i), (ii) and (iii), the product of coefficients of y and weight of
respective equations are (4 × 2), (3 × 3), (2 × 1) respectively.
Hence,
(4 × 2) (4x + 4y + 2z – 5) + (3 × 3) (2x + 3y +
3z – 7) + (2 × 1) (6x + 2y + 5z – 22) = 0

62x + 63y + 53z- 147 = 0

\ Normal equation for z
In equation (i), (ii) and (iii), the product of coefficients of z and weight of
respective equations are (2 × 2), (3 × 3), (5 × 1) respectively.
Hence,
(2 × 2) (4x + 4y + 2z – 5) + (3 × 3) (2x + 3y + 3z – 7) +
(5 × 1) (6x + 2y + 5z – 22) = 0

64x + 53y + 60z – 193 = 0

So, the normal equation for x, y, z are
80x + 62y + 64z – 214 = 0

62x + 63y + 53z – 147 = 0

64x + 53y + 60z-193 = 0

After solving the normal equations,
MPV of x = 1.625, y =-2, z = 3.25
Theory of Errors

y In the previous cases unknown quantities were dependent over each

other (x, y, z), but if they are independent then the normal equations are

267.
Chapter 9

formed by considering given independent equations as the observation

equations.

Example 9.12: Find the MPV of the angle q + f from the following observation
equations:
q = 40°15′21″

f = 45°12′18″

q + f = 85°27′45″
Solution:
Let
q = 40°15′21″ . . . (i)

f = 45°12′18″ . . . (ii)

q + f = 85°27′45″ . . . (iii)
\ Normal equation for q
In equation (i), (ii) and (iii) the product of coefficients of q and weight of
respective equations are (1 × 1), (0 × 1), (1 × 1).
(1 × 1)q = 40°15′21″
(1 × 1) (q × f) = 85°27′45″
2q + f = 125°43′6″ . . . (A)
\ Normal equation for f
In equation (i), (ii) and (iii) the product of coefficients of f and weight of
respective equations are (0 × 1), (1 × 1), (1 × 1).
(1 × 1)f = 45°12′18″
(1 × 1)(q + f) = 85°27′45″
q + 2f = 130°40′3″ . . . (B)
After solving equation (A) and (B)

2q + f = 125°43′6″ × 2

q + 2f = 130°40′3″

4q + 2f = 251°26′12″

q + 2f = 130°40′3″

q = 40°15′23″
Theory of Errors

f = 45°12′20″

268.
 Chapter 9
Example 9.13: Find the MPV of the angle q from the following observation
equations:
q = 40°20′20″, weight = 2
2q = 80°40′40″, weight = 3
4q = 162°21′50″, weight = 1

Solution: There is only one unknown. The observations are of unequal

weight. The normal equation can be formed by multiplying each of the
two-observation equation by the corresponding weight and coefficient of q.

In equation (i) coefficient of q is 1 and weight is 2, thus multiply it by (1 ×

2), similarly multiply equation (ii) and (iii) by (2 × 3) and (4 × 1) respectively.

1 × 2 × q = 80°40′40″

2 × 3 × 2q = 484°4′0″

4 × 1 × 4q = 649°27′20″

30q = 1214°12′0″

q = 40°28′24″
NOTE:
(a) The probable error (or standard error) of the levels is directly proportional
to the square root of length of level line i.e.

e∝ L . . . (i)
(b) The weightage of levels in any level line is inversely proportional to the
length of the line.
1
w∝ . . . (ii)
L
From (i) & (ii),
1
w∝
e2
(c) Degree of accuracy in angular measurement
Angular error of closure
C=
number of angles measured

Example 9.14: If the angular error of closure is 180″ in the measurement of

9 angles, then the degree of accuracy in angular measured is
Theory of Errors

(a) 60″ (b) 30″

(c) 18″ (d) 45″

269.
Chapter 9

Solution:
Given, Angular error of closure = 180″
Number of angles measured = 9
Angular error of closure
Degree of accuracy in measurement =
number of angles measured

180′′
= = 60′′
9
So, the correct answer is (a).

Keywords

Š Laws of accidental error

Š Laws of weight
Š Propagation of standard error
Š Rules for applying correction
Š Theory of least square
Theory of Errors

270.
 10 Curves

Chapter 10
10.1 INTRODUCTION
y The curves are the transitions which are provided at the intersection of
two straight lines.
y A horizontal curve is provided at the point where the two straight lines
intersect in horizontal plane. Generally horizontal curves provided are
circular in nature.
y A vertical curve is provided at a point where two straight lines at different
gradient intersect in vertical plane. Vertical curves provided are generally
parabolic in nature.

curve
Horizontal Curve

Simple circular curve Reverse curve Compound curve

• It consists of an arc of • These are provided in • It consists of two arc

the circle. between the two of the circle of
• This curve is straight line of route di erent radius and
tangential to two which are parallel to center.
straight line of the each other or having • Both these arc of
path/route. small angle between circle are tangential to
them. common line.
• It consist of two • Center of curvature of
V circular arc of same or these two arc lies on
T1 T2 di erent radius and same side of common
center on opposite tangent.
R R side of common
tangent.
C C2 R2
R2 R1 C2
R2
R1
R1 C1
C1
Curves

271.
Chapter 10

10.2 COMPONENTS OF HORIZONTAL CIRCULAR CURVE

V
V


T E T

M l
90° D 90°
PC (T1) PT (T2)

Fo
r
L

w
ar
t

d
en

ta
ng

ng
R R
ta

en
ck

t
Ba

A B
O
Figure 10.1: Components of curve

1. Back tangent: Tangent line before the beginning of the curve is called
back tangent (AT1).
2. Forward tangent: Tangent line after the end of the curve is called
forward tangent (BT2).
3. Point of intersection (PI): When the back tangent and the forward
tangent is extended, they intersect at a point, which is known as vertex
(V) or point of intersection (PI).
4. Deflection angle: Angle V′VB is the deflection angle, it may also be
denoted by D.
5. Point of curve (PC): It is the point at the beginning of the curve where
the alignment changes from a tangent to a curve.
6. Point of tangency (PT): It is point on the end of the curve where the
alignment changes from a curve to a tangent.
7. External distance (E): It is the distance between the point of intersection
(V) and mid-point of the curve.
8. Length of curve (L): It is the length of curve between point of curve (PC)
and point of tangency (PT). (T1CT2)
9. Tangent distance (T): It is the distance between PC and PI or the
distance between PT and PI.
Curves

272.
 Chapter 10
10. Mid ordinate (M): It is the distance between the mid-point of the curve
(C) and mid-point of long chord (D).
11. Long chord: It is the chord of circular curve between PC and PT.
12. Right hand curve: If the curve deflects to the right of the direction of
the progress of survey, it is called the right hand curve.
13. Left-hand curve: If the curve deflects to the left of the direction of the
progress of survey, it is called the left hand curve.

10.3 DESIGNATION OF CURVE

y A curve can be designated/described by its radius (R) or degree of curve (D).
y Degree of curve signifies the angle subtended by curve at its centre.
y Here, curve signifies either its arc or chord.
y According to arc definition, degree of curve is the angle subtended at the
centre by an arc of 1 chain length (20m/ 30m). It is generally used in highway
practice.
y According to chord definition, degree of curve is the angle subtended at the
centre by the chord of size of one chain length (20m/30m). It is generally
used for railways practice.

ain length
1 Ch

1 Chain length

R R R R
D D

O O
Figure 10.2: Degree of curve

As per arc definition:

RD = length of arc = 1 chain length

\ If 1 chain length = 30m

π
RD × = 30
180
Curves

273.
Chapter 10

ain length
1 Ch

R R
D

O
180 × 30
R=
πD
1718.87 1720
R= or
D D
\ If 1 chain length = 20m
π
RD × = 20
180
20 × 180
R=
πD
1145.9 1146
R= or
D D

Gray Matter Alert!!!

Degree of curve is inversely proportional to the radius of curve. Hence,

for sharp curve (for which radius is less) degree of curve is large and
for flat curve (for which radius is more), degree of curve is less.

As per chord definition:

D L
sin =
2 2R

L 1 chain length
R= =
D D
2 sin 2 sin
2 2
Curves

274.
 Chapter 10
1 Chain length

R R
D

\ If 1 chain length = 30 m

30
R=
D
2 sin
2
30
=
2D π
×
2 180

1718.87 1720
R=
or
D D
\ If 1 chain length = 20 m
20
R=
D
2 sin
2
20
=
D π
2× ×
2 180

1145.9 1146
R=
or
D D

Gray Matter Alert!!!

If the degree of curve is small, the results obtained by arc or chord

definition is same. Hence, for flat curve results obtained by both the
definitions is same but for the sharp curve, the results obtained are
different.
Curves

275.
Chapter 10

10.4 ELEMENTS OF SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE

V′
V
D

T E T

M l
PC (T1) D
PT (T2)
90° 90°

Fo
L

rw
ar
t

d
en

ta
ng

R R

ng
ta

en
ck

t
Ba

A O B

Figure 10.3

(i) Length of the curve (l)

Length of curve (T1CT2)
πR
=l D
180°
(ii) Tangent length (T)

D T
In DVT1O, tan =
2 R
Tangent length T1V or T2V
D
T = R tan
2
(iii) Length of long chord (L)

sin D L/2
In DT1DO, =
2 R
D
L = 2R sin
2
Curves

276.
 Chapter 10
(v) External distance (E)

D R
In DVT1O, cos =
2 VO
R D
VO = = R sec
D 2
cos
2
External distance VC,E = VO – OC

D
E = R sec −R
2

 D 
=E R sec − 1
 2 

D
E = R exsec
2
(vi) Mid ordinate (M)

D OD
In DDT1O, cos =
2 R
D
OD = R cos
2
Mid ordinate CD,M = OC – OD

D
M = R − R cos
2

 D
=
M R  1 − cos 
 2

D
M = R versin
2
(vii) Chainage of tangent point
y In general chainage of point of intersection (V) is known.
y Chainage of tangent point T1 = chainage of V – Tangent length
Chainage of tangent point T2 = chainage of T1 + l

NOTE: Chainage of tangent point T2 ≠ chainage of V + T as the progression

of curve is from T1 to T2 via “C” not “V”.
Curves

277.
Chapter 10

Previous Year’s Questions

Question : A circular curve of radius R connects two straights with a

deflection angle of 60°. The tangent length is
(a) 0.577 R (b) 1.155 R
(c) 1.732 R (d) 3.464 R
Answer: (a)  [GATE 2016, SET-II]

Previous Year’s Questions

Question : The chainage of the intersection point of two straights is

1585.60 m and the angle of intersection is 140°. If the radius of a circular
curve is 600.00 m, the tangent distance (in m) and length of curve (in
m), respectively are:
(a) 418.88 and 1466.08
(b) 218.38 and 1648.49
(c) 218.38 and 418.88
(d) 418.88 and 218.38
Answer: (c) [GATE 2014, SET-II]

Example 10.1: Two straight lines intersect at an angle of 60°. The radius of a
curve joining the two straight lines is 600 m. The length of long chord and
mid-ordinate in meters of the curve are respectively
(a) 80.4, 600.0
(b) 600.0, 80.4
(c) 600.0, 39.89
(d) 49.89, 300.0 [GATE 2007]

Solution: Given, R = 600 m

D = 60°

D
Length of long chord = 2R sin
2
 60 
= 2 × 600 × sin   = 600 m
 2 
Curves

278.
 Chapter 10
 D
Length of mid ordinate = R  1 − cos 
 2
 60 
= 600  1 − cos 
 2 
= 80.38 m ; 80.4 m

So, the correct answer is (b)

Example 10.2: Two straight lines intersect at a chainage 1005.5 and angle of
deflection is 60°. If the radius of curve is 550m. Compute all the elements
of this curve.

Solution:
(a) Length of curve

πR
l= ·D
180°
π × 550
= × 60 = 575.96 m
180
(b) Tangent distance

D
T = R tan
2
60
= 550 tan = 317.54 m
2
(c) External distance

 D 
E = R  sec − 1 
 2 
 60 
= 550  sec − 1
 2 
E = 85.08 m

(d) Mid ordinate

 D
M = R  1 − cos 
 2

 60 
= 550  1 − cos  = 73.69 m
 2 
Curves

279.
Chapter 10

(e) Length of long chord

D
L = 2R sin
2
60
= 2 × 550 sin
2

L = 550m

(f) Chainage of tangent point T1 = chainage of V – T

= 1005.5 – 317.54

= 687.96 m

Chainage of tangent point T2 = chainage of T1 + l

= 687.96 + 575.96

= 1263.92 m

Example 10.3: For a chord of 60 m, the mid-ordinate for a circular curve of

50 m radius will be
(a) 12.5 m (b) 10 m
(c) 15 m (d) 18.75 m

Solution: Given, R = 50 m, l = 60 m

Long chord,
D
l = 2R sin
2
D
60 = 2 × 50 sin
2
D
= 36.87°
2
 D
Mid ordinate, M = R  1 − cos 
 2
= 50 [1 – cos 36.87°]

M = 10.00 m

So, the correct answer is (b).

Curves

280.
 Chapter 10
Example 10.4: A 4° curve is made between two tangents at a chainage
of [120 + 30] chains at a deflection angle of 70°. Calculate all the basic
parameters using 30 m chain with 150 links.

1718.87
Solution: D=
R
1718.87
R=
4
R = 429.717 ; 429.72 m
D
(i) Length of tangent (T) = R tan
2

 70 
= 429.72 tan   = 300.89 m
 2 
πR
(ii) Length of curve (l) = D
180
π × 429.72
= × 70 = 525.00 m
180

 D
(iii) Mid ordinate = R  1 − cos 
 2

 70 
= 429.72  1 − cos 
 2 
= 77.714 m

 D 
(iv) External distance (E) = R  sec − 1 
 2 

 70 
E = 429.72  sec − 1
 2 

E = 94.87 m

D
(v) Length of long chord (L) = 2R sin
2
 70 
= 2 × 429.72 sin  
 2 

= 492.95 m
Curves

281.
Chapter 10

(vi) Chainage at point of intersection (V)

30
V = 120 × 30 + × 30
150

= 3606 m

Chainage at T1 = Chainage of V – Tangent length

= 3606 – 300.89

= 3305.11 m

Chainage at T2 = Chainage of T1 + l

= 3305.11 + 525

= 3830.11 m

10.5 SETTING OF CURVE

y It is the process of locating the point along the length of the curve either
at equal or convenient distance.
y Setting of curve can be broadly done by two methods:
(a) Linear method: There are the methods in which setting is done by
measuring the distances.
(b) Angular method: There are the methods in which setting is done by
measuring angle also.

y Methods of setting of curve is also classified on the basic of instrument

used:
(a) Tape method
(b) Tape and theodolite method
(c) Two theodolite method
(d) Tacheometer method
(e) Total station method
Curves

282.
 Chapter 10
10.5.1 Linear method
(i) Offsets from long chord

P C
E
y
L/2 D
T1 T2
x
R

O
Figure 10.4

CD = OC – OD

OC = R

2
L 
OD = 2
R − 
2

2
L 
CD = R − R2 −  
2

In DPEO R2 = x2 + (OD + y)2

(OD + y)2 = R2 – x2

y= R2 − x2 − OD

2
L 
y= R2 − x2 − R2 −  
2
Curves

283.
Chapter 10

(ii) Offset from the tangent

V

x P
G T2
R
y
T1
F O

Figure 10.5

x = T1F = T1O – FO
T1 O = R

FO = R2 − y2

x = R − R2 − y2

 1 y2 
x = R − R  1 − 2
+ ....  (Neglecting higher terms of y)
 2R 
y2
x = (approx)
2R
(iii) Offset from chord produced
b
C2 O2
O2
a O1 1 b
a
2 O2
C1 b
1 C2
C1 2
T1 R 3
R
R
21 22

A O

Figure 10.6
Curves

284.
 Chapter 10
O1 = C1d1

O1
d1 = ...(i)
C1

C1 = R.2d1

C1
d1 = ...(ii)
2R

From (i) and (ii)

O1 C
= 1
C1 2R

C12
O1 =
2R

O2 = b′b′′ + b′′b = O2′ + O2′′

C2C1
O2′ = C2d1 =
2R

O2 ″
O2′′ = C2d2 ⇒ d2 = ...(iii)
C2

C2
C2 = R·2d2 ⇒ d2 = ...(iv)
2R

O2 ″ C
From (iii) and (iv) = 2
C2 2R

C22
O2′′ =
2R

C2C1 C22
O2 = +
2R 2R

C2 (C1 + C2 )
O2 =
2R

C3 (C2 + C3 )
Similarly, O3 =
2R
Curves

285.
Chapter 10

Cn (Cn−1 + Cn )
Similarly, On =
2R

Practically C2 = C3 = C4 ..... Cn – 1 = 1 chain length = C

C12
O1 =
2R

C1C + C2
O2 =
2R
C2
O3 = O4 = O5 = .....On – 1 =
R
CCn + Cn2
On =
2R
Example 10.5: Two tangents intersect at a chainage 70.85 (70 chains, 85
links). The deflection angle being 70°. Calculate the necessary data to set
out a circular highway curve of 20 chain radius to connect two tangent by
the method of offset from chords. Take 20 m chain length (100 links).

85
Solution: Chainage of point of intersection (V) = 70 × 20 + × 20
100
= 1417 m

Given, 20 chain radius

So, Radius (R) = 20 × 20 = 400 m

D
Tangent length (T) = R tan
2

70
= 400 tan = 280.083 m
2

πR
Length of curve (l) = ×D
180

π × 400
= × 70 = 488.692 m
180
Curves

286.
 Chapter 10
V  = 70°

T
l

T1 T2

 = 70°

Chainage of T1 = Chainage of V – T

= 1417 – 280.083

= 1136.917 m

Chainage of T2 = Chainage of T1 + l

= 1136.917 + 488.692

= 1625.609 m

[Chainage of T1 is 1136.917 m so, the chainage of 1st sub chord will be the
multiple of 20 and more than the chainage of T1].

So, chainage of 1st sub chord = 1140 m

C1 = 1140 – 1136.917

= 3.083 m

C2 = C3 = C4 .... Cn – 1 = C = 20 m

[Chainage of T2 is 1625.609 m so, the chainage of last sub chord will be the
multiple of 20 and less than the chainage of T2].
Curves

287.
Chapter 10

Chainage of last sub chord = 1620 m

Cn = 1625.609 – 1620 m

= 5.609 m

 C1 Cn 
 l − C1 − Cn   
Number of chords = + 1+ 1
 20 
 

488.692 − 3.083 − 5.609

= +2
20

n = 26

C12
O1 =
2R

(3.083)2
= = 0.0119 m
2 × 400
C1C + C2
O2 =
2R
3.083 × 20 + 202
= = 0.577 m
2 × 400
C2
O3 = O4 ..... O25 =
R
202
= =1m
400
C25C26 + C262 C Cn + Cn2
O6 = =
2R 2R
20 × 5.609 + (5.609)2
= = 0.179 m
2 × 400
NOTE:
(a) This method is the best method for longer curves of larger radius
by linear methods & is usually used when the theodolite is not
available.
(b) It has the advantage that not all the land between tangents and curve
need to be accessible.
Curves

288.
 Chapter 10
(iv) Radial offset from tangent
x
A T1 a′

a
Ox

R
R

O
Figure 10.7

In DOT1a′ R2 + x2 = (R + Ox)2

R + Ox = R2 + x2

Ox = R2 + x2 − R

1
 x2  2
= R  1 + 2  − R
 R 

x5
x4
x3
x2
x1
Ox Ox 2 Ox 3 Ox
1 4 Ox 5

Figure 10.8
Curves

289.
Chapter 10

Using binomial expansion

 1 x2 
Ox = R  1 + 2
+ ...  − R (Higher terms are neglected)
 2R 

x2
Ox = R + −R
2R

x2
Ox =
2R

(vi) Successive bisection of chord or arc

C
C4 C5
C1 C2
D4 D5
C3
C6
D3 D2
D1 D6

T1 T2
D

O
Figure 10.9

y Let T1 and T2 be the tangent points, chainage of which is known.

y Point C is established by bisecting the chord T1T2 at point D and marking
  D 
perpendicular offset CD at point D equal to mid-ordinate R  1 − cos   .
  2 
y Join T1C and T2C.
y Now T1C and T2C are bisected at point D1 and D2 and marking the perpendicular
 D
offset D1C1 and D2C2 equal to R  1 − cos  .
 4
y Hence point C1 and C2 are obtained on the curve.
y Now joint T1C1, C1C, CC2, C2T2 and carry out the successive bisection of these
chord to locate the point on curve.
Curves

290.
 Chapter 10
10.5.2 Angular method
(i) Tape and theodolite /Rankine’s/Tangential/Deflection angle method
y In this method tape is used for making linear measurement and theodolite
is used for making angular measurement.
y For this method it is recommended that chord length does not exceed
R
as this ensures that the length of chord may be approximated to the
20
corresponding length of arc.

3
1
2 a
2 b
C2
 1 C1 3
 1  2 C3
T1 3
c

R R
R R

A 22 2
21 3

O
Figure 10.10

D1 = d1

D2 = d1 + d2 = D1 + d2

D3 = d1 + d2 + d3 = D2 + d3

Dn = Dn – 1 + dn
Curves

291.
Chapter 10

Here, d1, d2 ..... dn are the tangential angle made by the successive chords
T1a, ab, bc, .... with their respective tangents.

D1, D2, .... Dn are the deflection angles made by successive chord T1a, T1b, T1c
with back tangent at T1.

NOTE: V
D

a b
c
Dn
T1 T2

A B

O
Figure 10.11

1
Here Dn = deflection angle between back tangent and forward tangent.
2
D
Dn =
2
2πR
Now, C1 = . 2d1
360
90C1
d1 = degree
πR
90C2
d2 = degree
πR


90Cn
dn = degree
πR
Curves

292.
 Chapter 10
Example 10.6: Two tangent intersect at a chainage of 1200 m, the deflection
angle being 40°. Compute the data required to set out a simple circular
curve of radius 400 m, using deflection angle method. Take 30 m chord
length = 1 chain length.

Solution: Given, Chainage of point of intersection V = 1200 m

D
Tangent length (T) = R tan
2
40
= 400 tan = 145.588 m
2
πR
Length of curve (l) = ×D
180°
π × 400
= × 40° = 279.25 m
180°
Chainage of T1 = Chainage of V – T

= 1200 – 145.588 = 1054.41 m

Chainage of T2 = Chainage of T1 + l

= 1054.41 + 279.25 = 1333.66 m

Chainage of 1st sub chord will be the multiple of 30.

Chainage of 1st sub chord = 1080 m

C1 = 1080 – 1054.41 = 25.59 m

C2 = C3 ...... Cn – 1 = 30 m

Chainage of last sub chord = 1320 m

Cn = 1333.66 – 1320 = 13.66 m

 l − C1 − Cn 
Number of sub chords =  + 2
 30 
 279.25 − 25.59 − 13.65 
=  + 2
 30 

= 10
Curves

293.
Chapter 10

Sub chord length (l) Tangential angle (d) Deflection angle (D)
(m) (Dn = Dn – 1 + dn)

C1 = 25.59 1.83 1.83

C2 = 30 2.15 3.98

C3 = 30 2.15 6.13

C4 = 30 2.15 8.28

C5 = 30 2.15 10.43

C6 = 30 2.15 12.58

C7 = 30 2.15 14.73

C8 = 30 2.15 16.88

C9 = 30 2.15 19.03

C10 = 13.66 0.98 20.01

NOTE:
(a) The above procedure of tape and theodolite method as discussed is for
right hand curve, but if the curve is left hand curve, the theodolite is
set up at point of tangency (T2) and vernier is set to be zero and line of
right is directed towards V.
(b) For the first peg, the vernier A is set at an angle of D1′ = 360° – D1
Similarly, for second peg, D2′ = 360° – D2
Similarly, for nth peg, Dn′ = 360° – Dn

(ii) Two theodolite method

D1 = d 1

D2 = d1 + d2 = D1 + d2

Dn = Dn – 1 + dn
Curves

294.
 Chapter 10
b

2
D
a

2 –
D2

1
D
D1

2 –
D
D2
T1 D1 T2

2d2
A
2d1 B

O
Figure 10.12

y In this method two theodolites are used for the angular measurements and
no linear measurement is being carried out.
y One of the theodolites is placed at T1 and other at T2.
y This method is quite accurate than other method.
y It is suitable to be used when taping/chaining is difficult i.e., where ground
is rough.
y In this method the error in setting out is not carried forward as each point
is fixed independently.
y This method is based upon the property of the circle that chord makes an
angle at the centre of circle which is twice the angle made by the chord at
any other point on the circle.
y Hence, it can be concluded that the angle made by the chord with the
tangent at a point is equal to the angle which chord subtends at any other
point on the circle.

(iii) Tacheometer method

y In this case both linear and angular measurement is done by tacheometer.
y Here process is similar to take and theodolite method.
Curves

295.
Chapter 10

10.6 VERTICAL CURVE

y The curve used to connect lines of different slopes/grade of railways and
highways is termed as vertical curve.
y This curve may either be circular or parabolic.
y However parabolic vertical curves are preferred as:
(a) It has simplicity in laying and computation work.
(b) Rate of change of grade is uniform throughout the curve hence offers
better ride quality.
(c) It has a flatter top hence offers longer sight distance hence chances of
accident reduces.

Circular curve Parabolic curve

Figure 10.13

100
–g2% 100
g1%

–
g2 g2
%
g1
g1 %

C
x
Figure 10.14

The general equation of parabolic curve

y = ax2 + bx + c

At x = 0, y = c
Curves

296.
 Chapter 10
dy
= 2ax + b
dx

dy
At x = 0, = g1
dx

g1 = b

d2 y
= 2a
dx2
Rate of change of gradient is uniform, which offers best riding quality.

Horizontal
Vertical Curve
curve

Summit Valley/sag
curve curve

(a) Summit curve

y These are provided in the following cases:

g = g1 – g2 g = – g1 – (–g2) = –(g1 – g2)

g = g1 – (–g2 ) = g1 + g2

g2 % –g1%
g1% –g2%
g1% –g2%

(i) (ii) (iii)

When upgrade is When steeper When mild downgrade is
followed by downgrade upgrade is followed followed by steeper
by mild upgrade downgrade
Figure 10.15
Curves

297.
Chapter 10

(b) Sag curve

g = – g1 – g2 = –(g1 + g2) g = – g1 – (–g2) = –(g1 – g2) g = g1 – g2

–g1% g2%
g2%
–g1%
–g2%
g1%

(i) (ii) (iii)

When downgrade is When steeper When mild upgrade is
followed by upgrade downgrade is followed followed by steeper
by mild downgrade upgrade
Figure 10.16

NOTE: Here the length of the curve can be computed as:

total change in gradient

l=
rate of change in gradient

y Assumptions in the analysis of vertical curve:

V

y
x y
C

T1  T2
x D

Figure 10.17

(i) T1D = T2D

(ii) VC = CD
(iii) T1V = T1C = T1D
(iv) y ∝ x2 ⇒ y = cx2
Curves

298.
 Chapter 10
y For parabolic curve, normal offset from the tangent (y′) is proportional to
square of the distance from tangent point (T1) along the tangent (x′).
y Since parabolic curve is flat at top normal offset (y′) is equal to vertical
offset (y).

y′ = y
x
cos q =
x′
x′ = x sec q

y′ ∝ x′2

y′ = Kx′2

y = Kx′2

y = K (x sec q)2

y = K sec2 q x2

Let K sec2 q = c

y = cx2

10.7 SETTING OF VERTICAL CURVE

c′
b′ –g2(%)
a′ y3
y2
g1(%) y1 C

a b c
T1 T2
x1 D
x2
x3
l l

Figure 10.18
Curves

299.
Chapter 10

y Length of curve, chainage and RL of point of intersection (V) is

known.

RL of T1 = RL of V – g1l

RL of T2 = RL of V – g2l

1
RL of D = (RL of T1 + RL of T2 )
2
VD = RL of V – RL of D

1
VC = VD
2
As y = cx2

y1 = cx12 . . . (i)

VC = cl2 . . . (ii)

y1 x2
from (i) and (ii) = 21
VC l

2
x 
y1 =  1  VC
 l 

2
x 
Similarly, y2 =  2  VC
 l 

2
x 
Similarly, yn =  n  VC
 l 
y RL of a′ = RL of T1 + g1x1
Similarly, RL of b′ = RL of T1 + g1x2
Similarly, RL of different points on tangent T1V can be computed.
y Now, RL of a = RL of a′ – y1
RL of b = RL of b′– y2
Similarly, RL of different points on curve can be computed.

NOTE: In case of sag curve, the offsets are to be added to the RL of point
of tangent to get the RL of points of curve.
Curves

300.
 Chapter 10
10.7.1 Alternate methods for setting of vertical curve
y Since vertical curve provided is parabolic, eg. of which is given by:

V
y –g2%
g1%
P

T2
h

R
T1 x
x
(0, 0)
Figure 10.19

y = ax2 + bx + c

At x = 0, y = 0

0 = a(0)2 + b(0) + c

c=0

y = ax2 + bx

dy
= 2ax + b
dx
dy
At x = 0, = g1
dx
g1 = 2a(0) + b

b = g1

y = ax2 + g1x...(a)
Curves

301.
Chapter 10

PQ = PR – QR

PQ = g1x – y

from (a) g1x – y = –ax2

PQ = – ax2

h = – ax2

Let –a=c c = constant

h = cx2
Let h is the difference between elevation of tangent and vertical curve, is
termed as ‘Tangent Correction’. Which is found as follows:

V 1
B
g1 (%) –g2 (%)
C

T1 1
T2
D

n chords n chords
Figure 10.20

T1V = VA

AT2 = AB + BT2

AB = g1 · n chords

BT2 = – g2 · n chords

AT2 = g1 · n chords – g2 · n chords

= (g1 – g2) n chords

Curves

302.
 Chapter 10
Now tangent correctionAT2 = cx2

AT2 = c (2n · chords)2

AT2 = 4 (n chords)2 c

(g1 – g2) n chords = 4 (n chords)2 c

g 1 − g2
c=
4 n chords
(a) Elevation by tangent correction method
RL of T1 = RL of V – g1 · n chords
RL of T2 = RL of V – g2 · n chords

y Calculate the tangent correction from h = cx2 for various stations (Q) on
curve.
h1 = c(1)2 = c
h2 = c(2)2 = 4c
h3 = c(3)2 = 9c

hn = c(2n chords)2 = 4 (n chords)2 c

y RL of corresponding point (P) on tangents is given by RL of P = RL of T1 + xg1

y RL of the corresponding point (Q) on curve RL of Q = RL of P ± h

(b) Elevation by chord correction method

Q1 V

P1 Q C –g2 (%)
g1 (%)
Q3
P
T1
Q2
P2
D T2

Figure 10.21

y In this method the difference in elevation of successive points on the curve

is determined for setting of the curve.
Curves

303.
Chapter 10

y This difference is termed as ‘Chord correction/Chord gradient’.

y The elevation of each successive point is determined by adding the chord
gradient to the elevation of the preceeding point.
y The difference of elevation of point P and T1 on the curve i.e, chord
correction/chord gradient.

PP2 = P1P2 – P1P

= 1 · g1 – c(1)2

= g1 – c
g 1 − g2
Here, c=
4 n chords
Similarly, second chord gradient

QQ3 = Q1Q2 – Q1Q – Q2Q3

Q1Q2 = 2 · g1

Q1Q = c(2)2 = 4c (Tangent correction cx2)

Q2Q3 = PP2 = g1 – c

QQ3 = 2g1 – 4c – (g1 – c)

QQ3 = g1 – 3c
Similarly, third chord gradient = g1 – 5c
Similarly, nth chord gradient = g1 – (2n – 1)c
Now, Elevation of first station = Elevation of T1 + PP2
Elevation of second station = Elevation of P + QQ3
Similarly, Elevation of any station = Elevation of previous station + chord
gradient

Example 10.7: (a) A 3% rising gradient meets a 2% down gradient. A vertical

curve 200 m long is to be used. The pegs are to be fixed at 20 m interval.
Calculate the elevation of the curve points, by tangent correction and chord
gradient method.

(b) Also computed the staff readings required, given that the height of
collimation is 340.0 m, RL of apex is also 340 m and its chainage is
1200.0 m.
Curves

304.
 Chapter 10
Solution: Given, chainage of vertex = 1200 m
200
Total number of stations on the curve = = 10
20
Number of stations on each side of apex = 5
340 m V 340 m

d′

c′
3% –2%
b′ C
a′ d
b c
a
T1 T2
337 D 338

Chainage of T1 = Chainage of V – 5 × 20

= 1200 – 100 = 1100 m

Chainage of T2 = Chainage of T1 + l

= 1100 + 200 = 1300 m

Elevation of T1 = Elevation of V – (5 × 20)g1

3
= 340 − 100 × = 337 m
100
Elevation of T2 = Elevation of V – (5 × 20)g2

2
= 340 − 100 × = 338 m
100
g 1 − g2
Tangent correction c =
4n chords

3% − (−2%)

= = 1.25 × 10–4
4 × 5 × 20
y1 = cx2 = 1.25 × 10–4 (20)2 = 0.05

y2 = 1.25 × 10–4 (40)2 = 0.20

Curves

305.
Chapter 10

y3 = 1.25 × 10–4 (60)2 = 0.45

y4 = 1.25 × 10–4 (80)2 = 0.80

y5 = 1.25 × 10–4 (100)2 = 1.25

y6 = 1.25 × 10–4 (120)2 = 1.80

y7 = 1.25 × 10–4 (140)2 = 2.45

y8 = 1.25 × 10–4 (160)2 = 3.20

y9 = 1.25 × 10–4 (180)2 = 4.05

y10 = 1.25 × 10–4 (200)2 = 5

Elevation of 1st station on tangent = Elevation T1 + 1 × 20 × g1%

3
= 337 + 20 ×
100
= 337.6 m

3
Elevation of 2nd station on tangent = 337 + 2 × 20 ×
100
= 338.2 m

3
Elevation of 3rd station on tangent = 337 + 3 × 20 ×
100
= 338.8 m

3
Elevation of 4th station on tangent = 337 + 4 × 20 ×
100
= 339.4 m

3
Elevation of 5th station on tangent = 337 + 5 × 20 ×
100
= 340.0 m

3
Similarly, Elevation of 10th station on tangent = 337 + 10 × 20 ×
100
= 343.0 m
Curves

306.
 Chapter 10
(a) Elevation by tangent correction method

Chainage Elevation h (Tangent Elevation

Station Staff reading (m)
on tangent on tangent correction) of curve

T1 1100 337.0 0.00 337 3.00

1 1120 337.6 0.05 337.55 3 – (337.55 – 337) = 2.45

2.45 – (338.0 – 337.55) =

2 1140 338.2 0.20 338.0
2.00

3 1160 338.8 0.45 338.35 2 – (338.35 – 338.0) = 1.65

4 1180 339.4 0.80 338.6 1.65 – 0.25 = 1.40

5 1200 340.0 1.25 338.75 1.4 – 0.15 = 1.25

6 1220 340.6 1.80 338.8 1.25 – 0.05 = 1.20

7 1240 341.2 2.45 338.75 1.20 – (– 0.05) = 1.25

8 1260 341.8 3.20 338.60 1.25 + 0.15 = 1.40

9 1280 342.4 4.05 338.35 1.4 + 0.25 = 1.65

10 1300 343.0 5.00 338.0 1.65 + 0.35 = 2.00

(b) Chord gradient method

1st chord gradient (C.G) = (g1 – c)20 = (0.03 – 1.25 × 10–4 × 20)20 = 0.55m

Elevation of 1st point on curve = Elevation of T1 + 1st C.G.

= 337 + 0.55 = 337.55m

2nd chord gradient (C.G) = (g1 – 3c)20

= (0.03 – 3 × 1.25 × 10–4 × 20)20 = 0.45m

Elevation of 2nd point on curve = 337.55 + 0.45 = 338m

3rd chord gradient (C.G) = (g1 – 5c)20

= (0.03 – 5 × 1.25 × 10–4 × 20)20 = 0.35m

Curves

307.
Chapter 10

Elevation of 3rd point on curve = 338 + 0.35 = 338.35 m

4th chord gradient (C.G) = (g1 – 7c)20

= (0.03 – 7 × 1.25 × 10–4 × 20)20 = 0.25m

Elevation of 4th point on curve = 338.35 + 0.25 = 338.60 m

5th chord gradient (C.G) = (g1 – 9c)20

= (0.03 – 9 × 1.25 × 10–4 × 20)20 = 0.15m

Elevation of 5th point on curve = 338.60 + 0.15 = 338.75 m

6th chord gradient (C.G) = (g1 – 11c)20

= (0.03 – 11 × 1.25 × 10–4 × 20)20 = 0.05m

Elevation of 6th point on curve = 338.75 + 0.05 = 338.80 m

7th chord gradient (C.G) = (g1 – 13c)20

= (0.03 – 13 × 1.25 × 10–4 × 20)20 = – 0.05m

Elevation of 7th point on curve = 338.80 + (– 0.05) = 338.75 m

8th chord gradient (C.G) = (g1 – 15c)20

= (0.03 – 15 × 1.25 × 10–4 × 20)20 = – 0.15m

Elevation of 8th point on curve = 338.75 + (– 0.15) = 338.60 m

9th chord gradient (C.G) = (g1 – 17c)20

= (0.03 – 17 × 1.25 × 10–4 × 20)20 = – 0.25m

Elevation of 9th point on curve = 338.60 + (– 0.25) = 338.35 m

10th chord gradient (C.G) = (g1 – 19c)20

= (0.03 – 19 × 1.25 × 10–4 × 20)20 = – 0.35m

Elevation of 10th point on curve = 338.35 – (– 0.35) = 338.0 m
Staff reading of T1 = 3
Staff reading of 1st station = 3 – (337.55 – 337) = 2.45 m
Staff reading of 2nd station = 2.45 – (338 – 337.55) = 2.00 m
Similarly, the staff reading of other stations can be calculated (same
process will be carried out as we have done in tangent correction method).
Curves

308.
 Chapter 10
Previous Year’s Questions

Question : A parabolic vertical curve is being designed to join a road

of grade +5% with a road of grade –3%. The length of the vertical
curve is 400 m measured along the horizontal. The vertical point of
curvature (VPC) is located on the road of grade +5%. The difference
in height between VPC and vertical point intersection (VPI) (in m,
round off to the nearest integer) is _______.

Answer: (10 to 10) OR (– 10 to – 10) [GATE 2019, SET-I]

Previous Year’s Questions

Question : The VPI (vertical point of intersection) is 100 m away (when

measured the horizontal) from the VPC (vertical point of curvature). If
the vertical curve is parabolic, the length of the curve (in meter and
measured along the horizontal) is_____

Answer: (199.99 to 200.01) [GATE 2017, SET-II]

10.8 TRANSITION CURVE

Advantages of providing transition curve are as follows:
y It allows the gradual transition of curvature from tangent to the circular
curve or vice versa.
y It is provided for the gradual change in super elevation in a convenient
manner.
y It prevents the danger of overturning or side-slipping of vehicles and
discomfort of passengers.
y The radius of curvature increases or decreases gradually.

10.8.1 Super-elevation /Cant

P v2
=
W gR

P v2
tan q = =
W gR
Curves

309.
Chapter 10

If e is the cant or super-elevation

For roads,
Bv 2
e = B tan θ =
gR
For railways,
Gv 2
e = G tan θ =
gR
Equilibrium cant: If v is taken in km/hr

G = 1.5 m, R in m
2
 v × 1000 
1.5  
Cant (e) =  60 × 60  × 100
9.81 × R

1.18v 2
e= cm
R
Where,
W = weight of vehicle
P = centrifugal force
v = speed of vehicle
g = acceleration due to gravity
B = width of road
R = radius of curve

10.8.2 Centrifugal ratio

P 1 v2
For roads, = =
W 4 gR

gR
v=
4

P 1 v2
For railways, = =
W 8 gR

gR
v=
8
Curves

310.
 Chapter 10
10.8.3 Condition of an ideal transition curve (clothoid)
(a) Centrifugal force ∝ length
P∝l
Wv 2
P=
gr
W, v, g are constants
1
l∝
r
lr = constant

(b)Super-elevation ∝ length

1.18v 2
e=
r
1.18v 2
e∝l∝
r
1
l∝
r
lr = constant

10.8.4 Length of transition curve

(i) By rate of super-elevation: If the rate of application of super elevation
is 1 in n of the length of curve and h is the super-elevation.

L = nh
Bv 2
L= n (for roads)
Rg

Gv 2
L= n (for railways)
Rg
(ii) By time rate: Let the time rate of application of super-elevation be x
cm /s.
L = length of transition curve (m)
h = super-elevation (cm)
v = speed of vehicle (m/s)
Distance = speed × time = vt
h
L = v×
x
Curves

311.
Chapter 10

v Gv 2 Gv 3
L= × =
x gR xgR
(iii) By rate of change of radial acceleration

v2
Radial acceleration =
R
v2
Rate of change of radial acceleration = R = a
t
v2
t=
aR
Length of transition curve L = vt

v3
L=
aR
Example 10.8: The relationship between the length (l) and radius (r) of an
ideal transition curve is given by [GATE -1999]
(a) l ∝ r (b) l ∝ r2
1 1
(c) l ∝ (d) l∝
r r2
Solution: For an ideal transition curve

P∝l

Wv 2
P=
gr
W, v, g are constant

1
l∝
r
So, the correct answer is (c).

Example 10.9: A road is provided with a horizontal circular curve having a

deflection angle of 55° and centre line radius of 250 m. A transition curve
is to be provided at each end of the circular curve of such a length that the
rate of gain of radial acceleration is 0.3 m/s3 at a speed of 50 km per hour.
Length of the transition curve required at each of the ends is:
(a) 22.57m (b) 33.33 m
(c) 35.73 m (d) 66.67 m
Curves

312.
 Chapter 10
Solution: Given: D = 55°, R = 250 m
Rate of gain of radial acceleration = 0.3 m/s3

Speed (v) = 50 Km/hr.

v2
Radial acceleration =
R
v2
Rate of change of radial acceleration (a) = R
t
v2
t=
aR
Length of transition curve (L) = vt
3
 50 × 1000 
3  
v 60 × 60 
L= = 
aR 0.3 × 250
L = 35.72 m
So, the correct answer is (c).

Keywords

Š Compounds of horizontal circular curve

Š Designation of curve
Š Elements of simple circular curve
Š Setting of horizontal curve
Š Vertical curves
Š Setting of vertical curve
Š Transition curve
Curves

313.
Curves Chapter 10

314.
 11 Photogrammetry and
Remote Sensing

Chapter 11
11.1 PHOTOGRAMMETRY
y Photogrammetry is the science of obtaining the information of physical
objects through the process of recording, measuring, and interpreting
photographs.
y Aerial photography is a branch of photogrammetry in which photographs
are taken from the camera mounted on aircraft flying over the area.
y If the camera is mounted on the ground or
above the ground, it is termed as ground Gray Matter Alert!!!
photogrammetry.
If vertical features of mountains,
11.2 TYPES OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS cliffs, valley etc is required
(a) Vertical photograph to be study then ground
(b) Oblique photograph photogrammetry is preferred,
but if alignment of railway,
11.2.1 Vertical photograph roadways, canals, pipelines
y In vertical photograph, camera axis is vertical etc. is to be studies then aerial
i.e., line of gravity of camera and axis of camera photogrammetry is preferred.
consides.
Camera

Camera axis

Vertical photograph
Figure 11.1

11.2.2 Oblique Photograph

y In oblique photography camera axis is inclined considerably to the vertical

Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

axis of camera.

Vertical axis
q

Camera axis

Oblique
photograph

Figure 11.2

315.
Chapter 11

Gray Matter Alert!!!

• Reference point located in the image plane of the camera used to provide the
reference line for measurement of image distance is termed fiducial marks.
Generally, they are 4 or 8 in number.
• Lines joining the opposite fiducial mark are termed as fiducial lines.

Figure 11.3

Rack your Brain

Q: What do you understand by tilted photograph?

A: A tilted photograph is an aerial photograph made with camera axis
unintentionally tilted from the vertical by a small amount usually less
than 3°.
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

11.3 PHOTO COORDINATE MEASUREMENTS

y Photo coordinate is generally a rectangular co-ordinate system which is
used for measuring distance on the photograph.
y A positive x-axis is usually taken along the fiducial lines which is nearly
parallel to direction of flight and positive y-axis is take at 90° to it in
anticlockwise direction.
y The coordinate of the image point a and b are then marked as (xa, ya) and
(xb, yb).

316.
 Chapter 11
+y

xa
a
ya
qa
–y +x
O qb yb

b
xb

–y
Figure 11.4

y Here distance between the two-image point a and b is given by:

ab = (xa − xb )2 + (ya − yb )2

angle aOb = qa + qb
y  
−1 y

= tan−1  a  + tan  b 
x
 a   xb 
NOTE: In the above analysis the photo coordinates are measured with
respect to fiducial lines, but it can also be measured with respect to fiducial
mark and this method is termed as TRIALTERATIVE METHOD.

xa xc

Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

A a da yc
q
f C yb
db

B
Figure 11.5

da 2 + AB2 − db2
cos q =
2da .AB

317.
Chapter 11

y 
f = tan−1  b 
x 
 a
a = f–q
yc = da sin a
xc = xA + da cos a

Example 11.1: In the figure calibrated coordinates of the fiducial mark A and
B are as follows:

X Y

Point A –120 mm 0

Point B 0 –120 mm

Determine the coordinates of point C, if the measured distance da and db

are 185 mm and 95 mm respectively.

A
C

( −120 − 0) + ( −120 − 0)
2 2
Solution: AB =

= 169.70 mm
da 2 + AB2 + db2
cos q =
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

2da . AB
1852 + 169.702 − 952

=
2 × 185 × 169.70
q = 30°41′′
 −120 
f = tan−1  = 45°
 −120 
a = f–q
= 45° – 30°41′ = 14°19′
yc = –da sina
= –185 sin 14°19′ = –45.74 mm

318.
 Chapter 11
xc = xA + da sina
= –120 + 185 cos 14°19′ = 59.25 mm
So, the coordinate of point ‘C’ is (59.25 – 45.74).

11.4 CORRECTIONS IN PHOTOGRAPH

Several corrections are also being applied over the image distance in photo
coordinate system as follows:

(a) Shrinkage correction

y The photograph may shrink or expand due to changes in temperature.
y The error due to shrinkage (or expansion) is found out by comparing the
distance measured between opposite fiducial mark from the photograph
with the corresponding value determined in camera calibration.
y Let xm and ym be the distance measure of the fiducial mark on the photograph
and xc and yc are distance obtained during calibration.
y Let xa′ and ya′ be the measured coordinate of concern point on image hence
its corrected coordinate xa, ya are given by
xa xc ya yc
⇒ = ⇒ =
xa ′ xm ya ′ ym

xc  yc 
⇒ xa = × xa ′ ⇒ y=
a   × ya ′
xm  ym 

(b) Correction due to earth curvature

y Position of point ‘A’ on the ground surface is represented by point ‘a’ on the
photograph.
a a′

Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

A′

Earth
A

Figure 11.6

319.
Chapter 11

y If the effect of curvature of earth is not considered, point A on the ground

surface corresponds to point A’ which is represented by point a’ on the
photograph.
y Hence correction of aa’ is required due to the curvature of the earth.
y Here correction due to curvature of the earth in levelling is AA’.

11.5 SCALE OF PHOTOGRAPH

y Scale of photograph is defined as ratio of photo distance and ground
distance.
Photo distance
Scale of photograph (S) =
Ground distance

Gray Matter Alert!!!

In map orthographic projections are being drawn and in photograph perspective

projection are being drawn.

f
b
a c
Projection on Photograph d
(Prospective projection) B

C
A
D
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

b′

c′
a′
Projection on map
(orthographic projection)
d′
Figure 11.7

320.
 Chapter 11
(i) Flat ground/terrain

Figure 11.8

y When we consider flat ground, slope is zero. Now photo of point AB is

captured by aircraft camera flying at height H from mean sea level. Camera
lens is at H’ height from ground level. Now from this we can get
ab
Scale of photograph (S) =
AB
∵ DLaO; LAP
aO
∵ = LO
AP LP
ab
2 f
⇒ =
AB H′
2
ab f
⇒ S = =
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
AB H′
f
S=
H−h
Where, S = scale of photograph
f = total length
H = flying height
h = height of ground above datum
(ii) Datum Scale
y If the flying height ‘H’ and focal length ‘f’ of camera is constant, scale of the
photograph varies with the elevation of terrain ‘h’ over the mean sea level.

321.
Chapter 11

y Hence when elevation is higher, scale is larger and when elevations lower,
scale is smaller.
y To eliminate this variation of scale of vertical photograph, datum scale
is used which is the scale of vertical photograph that would be effective
over the entire photograph if all the ground points are projected vertically
downwards on the datum line (MSL) before being photographed.
ab
Datum scale (Sd) =
AoBo
LO f
= LP = H

f
Sd =
H
L

f Positive

a b
O
H
B
GL

A hB
GL
hA
Datum
AO P BO

Figure 11.9

(iii) Average scale (Savg.)

Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

Figure 11.10

322.
 Chapter 11
y The average scale is the scale of vertical photograph, that would be effective
over the entire photograph if all the ground points were projected vertically
either downward or upward on the place of the average elevation of the
ground before being photographed.
f
Savg. =
H − havg.

Example 11.2: The elevation of three points x, y, z above the datum

respectively is 1000m, 2000m, 2500m. If the flying height above the datum
is 6000 m, determine the maximum and minimum scale and also compute
the average scale if the focal length of camera is 150 mm.

Solution: f = 150 mm
= 150 × 10–3m
H = 6000 m
hx = 1000 m
hy = 2000 m
hz = 2500 m
(a) Scale of photograph at point x = (Sx)
f
Sx =
H − hx

150 × 10−3
=
6000 − 1000
1
Sx =
33333.33
Scale of photograph at point y = (Sy)
f
Sy =
H − hy

150 × 10−3 Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

=
6000 − 2000
1
Sy =
26666.67
Scale of photograph at point z = (Sz)
f
Sz =
H − hz

150 × 10−3
=
6000 − 2500

323.
Chapter 11

1
Sz =
23333.33
1
So maximum scale =
23333.33
1
Minimum sale =
33333.34
1
(b) Average elevation of ground surface =  1000 + 2000 + 2500
3
= 1833.34
f
Savg. =
H − havg

150 × 10−3
=
6000 − 1833.34
1
Savg. =
27777.78

1
Example 11.3: A map of the area plotted at the scale of is available ,
15000
the length of a runway on the map is 200 mm. If the photo distance of the
runway is 250 mm, then determine the scale of photograph.

Photo distance
Solution: Scale of photograph = ...(i)
Ground distance
Map distance
Scale of map = ...(ii)
Ground distance
From equation (i) and (ii)
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

Scale of photograph Photo distance

=
Scale of map Map distance
250 1
Scale of photograph = ×
200 15000
1
Scale of photograph =
12, 000

11.6 GROUND COORDINATE

y The ground-coordinate are measured with respect to x-axis and y-axis.
y The photo-coordinate are measured with respect to fiducial line.

324.
 Chapter 11
y Let ground co-ordinates of point ‘A’ is XA and YA and corresponding photo
coordinates are xa and ya.
Then ground coordinates XA and YA are given as:

L
y
xa
f
a′′ a
O ya
x Y
a′

XA
A′′ A
hA
YA
A0
A′
Datum (MSL) hA
P
x
Figure 11.11

DLaa″ ; LAA″
XA H − hA
=
xa f
 H − hA 
XA = xa  
 f
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
 
f
Here = SA
H − hA

x

XA = a
SA

Similarly in DLaa’ ; DLAA’

YA H − hA
=
ya f

325.
Chapter 11

 H − hA  ya
YA = ya   or YA =
 f  SA

Example 11.4: The measured photo coordinates of image point ‘a’ and ‘b’
of two ground points A and B are xa = 50 mm, ya = 40 mm, xb = –35 mm,
yb = –48 mm. Determine the ground coordinates of point A and B and
horizontal length of line AB. The elevation of point A and B are 250 m and
200 m respectively, the flying height is 2000 m above the datum and focal
length is equal to 200 mm.

 H − hA 
Solution: XA = xa 
 f 
 
 2000 − 250 
= 50  −3 
× 10−3
 200 × 10 
= 437.5 m
 H − hA 
YA = ya 
 f 
 
 2000 − 250 
= 40  −3 
x 10-3
 200 × 10 
= 350 m
 H − hB 
XB = xb 
 f 
 
 2000 − 200 
= −35  −3 
× 10−3
 200 × 10 
= –315 m
 H − hB 
YB = yb 
 f 
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

 

=  2000 − 200 
−48  −3 
× 10−3 = – 432 m
 200 × 10 
B

(XB, YB)

(XA, YA)

326.
 Chapter 11
AB = (XA − XB )2 + (YA − YB )2
2
= (437.5 − ( −315)) + (350 − ( −432))2
= 1085.25 m

11.7 RELIEF DISPLACEMENT

Relief displacement is the lateral displacement or drift in the photographic
position of the image of the object due its relief.

Gray Matter Alert!!!

Relief is the elevation of the object above and below the datum.
If the object is above the datum relief displacement is outward and if
object is below the datum relief displacement is inwards.

L
f
O
a
a′

O
H
a′
r′
a
d
r A0

Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

P Datum MSL

hA

Figure 11.12

DLaO ~ DLAAo
r f
=
R H − hA

327.
Chapter 11

f. R = r (H – hA) ...(1)
DLa’O ~ DLA’P
r′ f
=
R H
f. R = r’. H ...(2)
From equation (1) and (2)
r’. H = r (H – hA)
r. hA = r. H – r’. H
H(r – r’) = r. hA
rhA
(r – r’) =
H
Here r – r’ = d = relief displacement
rhA
d=
H

Example 11.5: If the given situation on vertical photograph take at flying

height of 1500 m above the datum shows a triangular plot ABC of land.
The radial distance of the three points from the principal point are
respectively 100mm, 90mm, 80 mm. The elevation of the points above
the datum are 250 m, 200 m, 150 m respectively. Determine the relief
displacement of all the three point and compute the datum scale (Assume
f = 150 mm).
Solution:
A
a

dA a′
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

b′ c′
b dB dC
B C

rh
d =
H
rAhA
dA =
H
100 × 250
= = 16.67 m
1500

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 Chapter 11
rBhB
dB =
H
90 × 200
= = 12 mm
1500
rChC
dC =
H
80 × 150
= = 8 mm
1500
f
Sd =
H
150 × 10−3
=
1500
1
=
10, 000

Previous Year’s Questions

Question : Two towers, A and B, standing vertically on a horizontal ground, appear in a

vertical aerial photograph as shown in the figure.

B
A
p

Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

The lengths of the image of the tower A on the photograph is 1.5 cm and of the tower B
is 2.0 cm. The distance of the top of the tower A (as shown by the arrowhead) is 4.0cm
and the distance of the top of the tower B is 6.0 cm, as measured from the principal
point p of the photograph. If the height of the tower B is 80m, the height (in meters) of
the tower A is _______.

Answer: 90 (89 – 91) [GATE 2017, SET-II]

329.
Chapter 11

Previous Year’s Questions

Question : A tall tower was photographed from an elevation of 700 m above

the datum. The radial distances of the top and bottom of the tower from the
principal points are 112.50 mm and 82.40 mm, respectively. If the bottom of the
tower is at an elevation 250 m above the datum, then the height (expressed
in m) of the tower is _________.

Answer: 120.4 (120 – 121) [GATE 2016, SET-II]

Example 11.6: The ground length of a line AB is 100 m. The measured

coordinates on the vertical photograph xa = 28.35 mm, ya = – 60mm, xb
= 100 mm, yb = – 20 mm, if the elevations of point A and B are 460 and 425
m, then determine the flying height above the datum assume focal length
= 200 m.

( XA − XB ) + ( YA − YB )
2 2
Solution: AB =

 H − hA 
XA = xa  
 f
 
 H − hB 
XB = xb 
 f 
 
 H − hA 
YA = ya 
 f 
 
 H − hB 
YB = yb 
 f 
 
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

2 2
 H − h   H − hB    H − h   H − hB  
AB = xa  A
 − xb    +  ya  A
 − yb   
  f   f     f   f  
2 2
  H − 460   H − 425     H − 460   H − 425  
100 =  18.35   − 100    + –60   − (–20)  
  200   200     200   200  

1002 = H2 – 858 H + 184425.97

H = 527m

330.
 Chapter 11
NOTE:
(1) This is one of the method available to compute the flying height of
vertical photograph. How ever it can also be computed with the focal
length and scale of photograph.
f f
S = =
H−h H′
f
H′ =
S
(2) Flying height of the aircraft is decided by contour interval in the
topography map.
By this flying height is given by:
flying height = (C-factor) × Contour interval
C-factor = 500 – 1500, depending upon the coordinate of map
compilation.

Example 11.7: A section AB appears to be 12 cm on a photograph for which

the focal length is 20 cm. The corresponding line measures 2.5 cm on a
map which is to a scale 1/50000. The terrain has an average elevation of
200 m above mean sea level. Calculate the flying height of the aircraft
above mean sea level when the photograph was taken.

Solution: The relation between map scale and photo scale is given by:

Photo scale Photo distance

=
Map scale Map dis tance

1/n 12
=
1/50000 2.5

1 1
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
=
n 10416.67

f 1
∴ S = =
H−h n

1  20 × 10−2 
=  
10416.67  H − 200 
 

H = 2283.34m

331.
Chapter 11

Previous Year’s Questions

Question : A camera with a focal length of 20 cm fitted in an aircraft is used for taking
vertical aerial photographs of a terrain. The average elevation of the terrain is 1200 m
above mean sea level (MSL). What is the height above MSL at which an aircraft must fly
in order to get the aerial photographs at a scale of 1:8000?
(a) 2600 m (b) 2800 m (c) 3000 m (d) 3200 m
Answer: (b) [GATE 2019, SET-II]

Previous Year’s Questions

Question : A square area (on the surface of the earth) with side 100 m and uniform
height, appears as 1 cm2 on a vertical aerial photograph. The topographic map shows
that a contour of 650 m passes through the area. If focal length of the camera lens is
150 mm, the height from which the aerial photograph was taken is -
(a) 800 m (b) 1500 m (c) 2150 m (d) 3150 m
Answer: (c) [GATE 2018, SET-I]

Previous Year’s Questions

Question : An aerial photograph of a terrain having an average elevation of 1400 m is

taken at a scale of 1:7500. The focal length of the camera is 15 cm. The altitude of the
flight above mean sea level (in m, up to one decimal place) is ______.
Answer: 2525 (2520-2530) [GATE 2018, SET-II]

11.8 PHOTOGRAPHIC OVERLAP

Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

y In aerial survey of vertical photograph proper time interval is given between

two photographs to get the desired overlap of photograph.
y An overlap is the common area covered between the two photographs.
y It can be in both longitudinal and lateral direction the former is termed as
longitudinal overlap/ end lap/ forward lap and later is termed as side lap/
lateral lap.
y In general, longitudinal overlap is 60% and side lap is 25-35% ≈ 30%.
y Alternate photograph has an end overlap of 20%.
y Overlap is required as distortion of the photographs is caused by relief at
the end.

332.
 Chapter 11
y Side laps are required to cover the gaps which are left uncovered in single
flight path.

Flight
Strip width

Side overlap (� 30%)

Strip width
60% Flight

Longitudinal
overlap

Figure 11.13

(a) Flight line

Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

333.
Chapter 11

Figure 11.14: The overlap and side lap of photographs

Previous Year’s Questions

Question : Optimal flight planning for a photogrammetric survey

should be carried out considering
(a) only side-lap
(b) only end-lap
(c) either side-lap or end-lap
(d) both side-lap as well as end-lap

Answer: (d) [GATE 2016, SET-II]

11.9 REQUIRED NUMBER OF PHOTOGRAPH

To calculate the number of photographs required to cover the given area on
the ground can be determined as follows:

11.9.1 When ground area ‘A’ is known

Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

A
Number of photographs required =
a
Here, A = ground area to be covered= L x B
a = area covered by one photograph = l’ × b’
l’ = length covered by one photograph on ground
b’ = width covered by one photograph on ground
l = length of photograph
b = width of photograph

334.
 Chapter 11
Photograph b

l
Figure 11.15

l’ = ( 1 − Pl ) Sl
b’ = ( 1 − Ps ) bS
a = ( 1 − Pl ) Sl × ( 1 − Ps ) bS
Where, S = scale of photograph
Pl = longitudinal overlap
Ps = side lap
AS2
No. of photograph required (N) =
( 1 − Pl ) l ( 1 − Ps ) b
NOTE: Here, only lap area is considered to account for area covered.

11.9.2 When length and width on ground is known

Figure 11.16

L Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

N1 = +1
l
( 1 − Pl
S
)
B
N2 = +1
b
( 1 − Ps ) S
N1 = number of photographs along the length/direction of flight
N2 = number of photograph perpendicular to direction of flight

335.
Chapter 11

NOTE: One additional photograph is taken to cover the unlapped area at

the ends.
Total number of photographs required N = N1. N2
 L  B 
N=  + 1  + 1
 1 − P l
( )  1 − P b (  )
l s
 S  S 

Example 11.8: Determine the number of photograph required to cover an

area of 2000 km2. If the scale of photograph is 1 : 15000 and the photograph
format is 250 mm × 250 mm, take the longitudinal overlap as 60% and side
overlap as 30%.

Solution: A = 2000 km2

S = 1 in 15000
l = 250 × 10–3
b = 250 × 10–3
Pl = 60%
Ps = 30%

 l  b
(
a =  1 − Pl )
 ×  1 − Ps
S 

S
( )


 250 × 10−3   250 × 10−3 

(
a =  1 − 0.6 ×
1
) (
 ×  1 − 0.3 ) 1

   
   
 15000   15000 

a = (1500) (2625)
= 3937500 m2
= 3.9375 km2
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

A
Number of photographs = N =
a

2000
= = 507.932508= 508
3.9375
So the total photographs required is 508.

Example 11.9: Determine the number of photographs required to cover an

area 40 km × 35 km. If the scale of the photograph is 1 in 9000 and the
format is 250 mm × 250 mm, the longitudinal and side lap are 60% and
30% respectively.

336.
 Chapter 11
Solution: L =
40 km
B =
35 km
Pl =
60%
Ps =
30%
l =
250 mm
b =
250 mm
 L  B 
N = N 1 N2 =  + 1  + 1
l b

(
 1 − P
l)S 
(
  1 − P
s
S
) 

 40 × 103  35 × 103 
 + 1  + 1
      
N =   250 × 10−3    250 × 10−3  
( )
 1 − 0.6  1
 ( )
  1 − 0.3  1
 
       
   
  9000     9000  
N1 = [46][24] = 1104 photographs

11.10 CRAB AND DRIFT

(1) Crab
y Crab of the photograph is the angle formed by edges of photograph with
the flight line in the direction of flight.
y It occurs when the aircraft is not oriented with the flight line i.e., photographs
are not parallel to flight line.
y It usually occurs aircraft compensate for a cross wind and orients into the
wind to maintain the flight line.
y It must be eliminated as it reduces the effective coverage over the ground.
y To correct the crab camera is rotated about vertical axis.

Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

337.
Chapter 11

Figure 11.17: Crab and Drift

(2) Drift
y It is the lateral displacement of photograph. The photograph does not stay
on its predetermined path due to effect of wind.
y If the drifting from the predetermined flight line is excessive, refights will
have to be made because of serious gapping between adjacent flight lines.

Rack your Brain

Q: Which data are required for computation of the quantities for the
flight plan?
A: Data required for computation of the quantities for the flight plan
are
(i) Focal length of the camera lens
(ii) Altitude of the flight of the aircraft.
(iii) Size of the area to be photographed
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

(iv) Size of the photograph

(v) Longitudinal overlap
(vi) Lateral overlap
(vii) Scale of flight map
(viii) Ground speed of aircraft
(ix) Position of the outer flight lines with respect to the boundary of
the area.

338.
 Chapter 11
Gray Matter Alert!!!

Interval Between Exposures

y Time interval between exposures calculated if ground speed of aircraft and ground
distance along the direction of flight between exposures are known.
Time interval between exposures given by:

3600L
T =
V

T = time interval

L = ground speed of aircraft (km/hr)

V = ground distance covered by each photograph = (1 – PL) S.l in km.

11.11 PARALLAX/STEREOSCOPY PARALLAX/X-PARALLAX

y The change in position of an image from one photograph to another
photograph is termed as parallax.
y There is always parallax for image which appear over successive overlapping
photograph.

B
L1
L2

b a b′ a′
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
O
O
nd
1st Position 2 Position
(Left photograph) (Right photograph)

A
B

(a)

339.
Chapter 11

L1, L2

b′ a′ O b a

Pa
Pb
(b)
Figure 11.18

In figure 11.18(a) point A (higher) and B (lower) are photographed by two

position L1 and L2 by aerial camera. On a pair of overlapping photographs,
the parallax is equal to x-coordinate of point measured on left photograph
minus the x-coordinate of the right photograph thus,
Parallax of point A = xa – (–xa’) = xa + xa’ = Pa
Parallax of point B = xb – (–xb’) = xb + xb’ = Pb
y Point higher in elevation has larger parallax than the point on lower elevation.

Gray Matter Alert!!!

Parallax can be measured with help of an instrument termed as

parallax bar along with stereoscope.
Pa = C + ra
Pb = C + rb
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

C = parallax bar constant

ra, rb = parallax bar reading for point ‘a’ and ‘b’ respectively.

Example 11.10: The scale of an aerial photograph is 1/10000. the photograph

size 200 × 200 mm. Determine the number of photographs required to
cover an area of 150 km2. If the longitudinal lap is 60% and side lap is 30%.
(a) 682 (b) 688
(c) 139 (d) 134

340.
 Chapter 11
Solution: A = 150 km2
S = 1 in 10000
l = 200 × 10–3 m
b = 200 × 10–3 m
Pl = 60%
Ps = 30%
 l  b
a = (
 1 − Pl
S
) (
 ×  1 − Ps 
S
)
  
 200 × 10−3   200 × 10−3 
= (
 1 − 0.6 × )
1
(
 ×  1 − 0.3 ×) 1

   
 10000   10000 
a = 1120000 m2 = 1.12 km2
A
Number of photographs = N =
a
150
= = 133.9 ≈ 134
1.12
So, the correct answer is (d).

Example 11.11: A camera having focal length of 25cm is used to take a

vertical photograph to a terrain having an average elevation of 2000 m.
What is the height above sea level at which an aircraft must fly in order to
get the scale 1: 10000?
(a) 500 m (b) 4500 m
(c) 4000 m (d) 1000 m

f
Solution: Scale of photograph S =
H − h′

f = 25 × 10–2 m Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

h’ = 2000 m

S = 1 in 10000

1 25 × 10−2
=
10000 H − 2000

H = 4500m
So, the correct answer is (b).

341.
Chapter 11

Example 11.12: The distance from the principle point to an image on a

photograph is 8 cm and the elevation of the object above the datum is 300
m. What is the relief displacement in (cm) of the point if the datum scale is
1 in 10000 and focal length of the camera is 25 cm?
(a) 96× 10–3 cm (b) 960 cm
(c) 0.96 cm (d) 9.6 cm

1
Solution: S =
10000
f = 25 × 10–2 m
r = 8 cm
h = 300 m
f
Datum scale = Sd =
H

1 25 × 10−2
=
10000 H
H = 2500 m above MSL

rh
Relief displacement (d) =
H

8 × 300
=
2500

= 0.96 cm
So the correct answer is (c).

Example 11.13: A vertical photograph of a flat area having an average

Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

elevation of 300 m above datum was taken with a camera having focal
length of 30 cm. A section line AB, 300 m long in area measures 10 cm
on the photograph. A tower in the area also appears on the photograph.
The distance between the image of top and bottom of the tower measure
0.50cm on the photograph. If the distance of image of the top of tower is
8 cm, then the height of tower will be
(a) 76.50 m (b) 36.25 m
(c) 50 m (d) 56.25 m

342.
 Chapter 11
Map distance f
Solution: Scale = =
Ground distance H
10 30
=
300 H
H = 900 m
dH 0.50(900)
Height of tower h = =
r 8
= 56.25 m
So, the correction answer is (d).

11.12 REMOTE SENSING

y Remote sensing is the technique to get information on about an object area
without being in physical contact with them.
y It uses aerial sensors to detect the object on earth surface or in atmosphere
or in water body.
Example: Camera, Radar, Scanner etc.
y These sensors are classified into two:
(a) Active sensors
(b) Passive sensors
Active Sensors: It uses artificial (man-made) sources of energy for data
collection.
Passive Sensors: It uses an existing source of energy e.g., sunrays.

Gray Matter Alert!!!

y India has own IRS (Indian Remote sensing Satellite).

y Satellite for earth observation BHASKARA-I was first Indian
remote sensing satellite.
y IRS series of satellites launched by the IRS mission are-IRS IA,
IRS IB, IRC IC, IRC ID, IRS P4 they all are low orbit satellites. Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

11.13 RESOLUTION IN REMOTE SENSING

y In remote sensing the term resolution is used to represent resolving power
which helps in identifying the presence of two objects and about their
properties.
y Some of the resolutions in remote sensing are:
(a) Special resolution: It represents colour bend which are visible in the
image.

343.
Chapter 11

(b) Spatial resolution: It describes how much details in an image is visible.

(c) Temporal resolution: It describes the number of times an object is
sampled and how often data is obtained about it.
(d) Radio metric resolution: It signifies the sensitivity of the sensor.

11.14 IDEALIZED REMOTE SENSING SYSTEM

An idealized remote sensing system contains the following stages:
(a) Energy source
(b) Propagation of energy through atmosphere
(c) Energy interaction with earth’s surface features
(d) air borne/ space borne sensors receiving the reflection and emitted
energy.
(e) Transmission of data to earth station and generation data produce.
(f) Multiple data users.
Radiance

(1) Uniform energy source

Energy

Wave length
Sun
(4) Sensors
(5) Transmission of data to
Wave length earth station and generation
of valid products
gy
(2) into

er
Pro

en
ed
pa mosp

itt
gat

em
at
ion he re

&
ed
of

ct
fle
en

Re
erg
y
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

(3) Interaction of energy with

earth’s surface features (6) Multiple data users
Figure 11.19

11.15 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)

y GPS is an earth orbiting satellite-based system the provides signals
anywhere on the earth surface continuously 24 hrs a day around the year
irrespective of weather.
y The basic of GPS is trilateration from satellite.
y A GPS measures distance using the travel time of radio signal.

344.
 Chapter 11
y For precise measurement at least 3 satellites are required for 2-D
locations of a point and 4 satellites are required for 3-D location of a
point.
y Different GPS system available are:
(a) NAVSTAR – USA
(b) NAVIC – India
(c) BEIDOU – China
(d) GALILEO – European Union
(e) GLONASS - Russia

Gray Matter Alert!!!

Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS): NAVIC

y This is an independent Indian satellite-based on positioning
system for critical national application. The main objective is
to provide reliable position navigation and timing services over
India and its neighbourhood, to provide good accuracy to the
user.
y ISRO built 9 satellites in the IRNSS series of which 8 are currently
in orbit, out of 8, 3 are in geostationary orbit and remaining are
in geosynchronous orbit that maintain an inclination of 29° to
the equatorial plane.

11.16 SATELLITE
y It is the platform that carries the sensor and other payloads required in
remote sensing operation.
11.16.1 Polar orbit satellite
y These are satellites which revolves around earth in a sun synchronous
orbit and have altitude around 700-1500 km they are situated with fixed

Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

inclination angle from the earth’s north south axis.

11.16.2 Polar orbit satellite

y These are mostly communication/meterological satellites which are
stationary in reference to the earth these satellites always cover the fixed
area over the earth surface and their altitude is about 36000 km.

11.17 GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)

y It is an organised collection of computer hardware, software, geographic
data and user interface to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate,
analysed and display all forms of geographical information.

345.
Chapter 11

Hardware

DATA

Users Software

Figure 11.20

11.17.1 Objective of GIS

Some of the major objectives of GIS are:
y Maximising the efficiency of planning and decision making.
y Integrating information on from multiple sources.
y Facilitating complex querying and analysis.
y Eliminating redundant data and minimising duplication.

11.18 APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING AND GIS

(a) Agricultural
(b) Forestry
(c) Land use and soils
(d) Geology
(e) Urban land use
(f) Water resources
(g) Costal environment
(h) Ocean resources
(i) watershed
(j) Environment
(k) Facilities management
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

(l) Disaster management

(m) Digital elevation mode

Example 11.14: The principle involves in GPS is?

(a) triangulation (b) trilateration
(c) resection (d) graphical resection

Solution: GPS based upon trilateration principle.

So, the correct answer is (b).

346.
 Chapter 11
Example 11.15: Which one of the following is an Indian GPS?
(a) ARYABHATTA (b) NAVSTAR
(c) NAVIC (d) SARAL

Solution: NAVIC is India’s own GPS system.

So, the correct answer is (c).

Previous Year’s Questions

Question : The number of spectral bands in the Enhanced Thematic

Mapper sensor on the remote sensing satellite Landsat-7 is:
(a) 64 (b) 10
(c) 8 (d) 15

Answer: (c) [GATE 2017, SET-I]

Previous Year’s Questions

Question : The minimum number of satellites needed for a GPS to

determine its position precisely is:
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 24

Answer: (c) [GATE 2016, SET-I]

Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

Previous Year’s Questions

Question : The system that uses the Sun as a source of electromagnetic

energy and records the naturally radiated and reflected energy from
the object is called
(a) Geographical Information System
(b) Global Positioning System
(c) Passive Remote Sensing
(d) Active Remote Sensing
Answer: (c) [GATE 2016, SET-I]

347.
Chapter 11

Keywords

Š Aerial photogrammetry
Š Ground photogrammetry
Š Photo coordinates
Š Ground coordinates
Š Crab
Š Drift
Š Scale
Š Relief displacement
Š Flying height
Š Overlap
Š Remote sensing
Š GPS
Š GIS
Š Satellite
Š Parallax
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

348.