LESSON 1: Introduction to Aircraft Instruments

Introduction

6 Types of Aircraft Instruments:

1. Basic Flight Instruments

Pitot-Static Instruments (Air-Pressure Reliance)

 ASI (Airspeed Indicator) - Measures the airspeed using the pressure

differential in the pitot-static system.
 ALT (Altimeter) - Displays the aircraft’s altitude above mean sea
level (MSL).
 VSI (Vertical Speed Indicator) - Uses internal pressure differential
to indicate the aircraft’s climb or descent rate.

Gyroscopic Instruments (Direction Reliance)

 HI (Heading Indicator) - Uses a rotating gyro to maintain a stable

reference direction.
 TC (Turn Coordinator) - Shows the rate of turn with markings for a
standard rate turn.
 AI (Attitude Indicator) - Uses a rigid-mounted internal gyro to
display the aircraft’s attitude relative to the horizon.

2. Pressure Instruments

Impact Pressure Chamber and Lines

 Static Pressure - The ambient air pressure surrounding an aircraft.

 Dynamic Air Pressure - Created by the aircraft's movement through
the air, related to its speed.
 Total Air Pressure - The sum of static pressure and dynamic
pressure.

Static Pressure Chamber and Lines

3. Engine Instruments

6 Basic Parts of an Aircraft:

 Ailerons
 Flaps
 Landing Gear
 Fuselage
  Empennage
 Wings

Airspeed Limits:

 60 Knots - Maximum airspeed takeoff for single-engine aircraft.

 120+ Knots - Maximum airspeed takeoff for dual-engine aircraft.

Airspeed Instrument Markings:

 White Radial Line - Flap Actuation Range

 Green Radial Line - Normal Airspeed Takeoff (Single-Engine Aircraft)
 Blue Radial Line - Normal Airspeed Takeoff (Dual-Engine Aircraft)
 Yellow Radial Line - Precautionary Range Speed
 Red Radial Line - NE Speed Limit (Never-Exceed Speed)

Banking Turn of a Cessna 152:

 15-20 Degrees

PART 2: Altimeters

Types of Altimeters:

 Barometric Altimeter
 Radio Altimeter
 GNSS Altimeter

Types of Altitude:

 Indicated Altitude - The altitude shown on the altimeter.

 True Altitude - The aircraft’s vertical distance above sea level (ASL).
 Absolute Altitude - The aircraft’s vertical distance above ground
level (AGL).
 Pressure Altitude - Altitude when the altimeter setting window
(barometric scale) is adjusted to 29.92 inHg (QNH reference).
 Density Altitude - Pressure altitude corrected for variations in
standard temperature.

Vertical Distance Terms:

 Altitude - Vertical distance of an object above sea level (used in

aviation).
  Elevation - Height of a point on Earth's surface above sea level (used
in geography).
 Height - General term for vertical distance, measured relative to a
reference point.

How Does an Altimeter Work?

 Uses atmospheric pressure to determine altitude.

 Calibrated to mean sea level under standard conditions.
 Standard Atmospheric Pressure Condition: 29.92 inHg / 1013 hPa
 Note: As altitude increases, pressure decreases.

Kollsman Window

 Allows the barometric reference to be set for the altimeter.

Altimeter Reading Errors:

 High Pressure - Altimeter reads lower than actual altitude.

 Low Pressure - Altimeter reads higher than actual altitude.

Altitude Pressure Codes:

 QNH - Query Nautical Height

 QFE - Query Field Elevation
 QNE - Query Null Elevation

Parts of an Altimeter:

 Static Port
 Aneroid Wafers
 Crosshatch Flag
 Barometric Scale Adjustment Knob
 Altimeter Setting Window
 100 ft. Pointer
 1,000 ft. Pointer
 10,000 ft. Pointer

ATIS (Automatic Terminal Information Service):

 A system for continuous broadcast of recorded aeronautical

information.

Limiting Calibration Altitude:

  3-Pointer Altimeter
 Sensitive Altimeter
 Servo-Assisted Altimeter

Altitude Calibration Table:

 Provides correction values to adjust the altimeter reading for

instrument and position errors, ensuring a more accurate
calibrated altitude rather than just the indicated altitude.
Part 3: Airspeed Indicator (ASI)

Types of Airspeed:

• **Indicated Airspeed (IAS)**: The airspeed read directly from the ASI, uncorrected for
instrument or position errors.

• **Calibrated Airspeed (CAS)**: IAS corrected for instrument and position errors.

• **True Airspeed (TAS)**: CAS corrected for altitude and non-standard temperature. It is the
actual speed of the aircraft relative to the surrounding air.

• **Ground Speed**: The speed of the aircraft relative to the ground, which is influenced by
wind conditions.

Airspeed Limitations:

• **V_S1 (Stall Speed in a Clean Configuration)**: Minimum speed at which the aircraft can
maintain level flight.

• **V_FE (Maximum Flap Extension Speed)**: The maximum speed at which the aircraft can be
safely flown with flaps extended.

• **V_NO (Maximum Structural Cruising Speed)**: The maximum speed for normal operation,
where turbulence can be encountered safely.

• **V_NE (Never-Exceed Speed)**: The maximum speed that should never be exceeded under
any circumstances.

Pitot-Static System:

The ASI is part of the **Pitot-Static System**, which includes:

• **Pitot Tube**: Measures dynamic pressure (airspeed).

• **Static Port**: Measures ambient air pressure (altitude and airspeed calibration).

ASI Errors:

• **Position Error**: Caused by incorrect positioning of the pitot tube or static port, leading to
inaccuracies.
• **Instrument Error**: Due to mechanical imperfections in the ASI itself.

• **Compressibility Error**: At high speeds, air becomes compressible, affecting the dynamic
pressure and the ASI reading.
Part 4: Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)

Types of Vertical Speed Indicators:

• **Standard VSI**: Most common, indicating climb or descent rates in feet per minute (fpm).

• **Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator (IVSI)**: Offers a faster response time due to the
incorporation of an accelerometer, which helps to reduce the lag associated with traditional
VSIs.

Rate of Climb/Descent:

• **Climb**: A positive VSI reading, indicating an increase in altitude (usually in feet per
minute).

• **Descent**: A negative VSI reading, indicating a decrease in altitude.

VSI Error and Correction:

• **Lag Errors**: Delays in the VSI response (typically 1–4 seconds) to changes in altitude.

• **Correction**: Using the IVSI for quicker response times or using a continuous trend to
predict climb/descent.

• **Position Errors**: When the instrument's static pressure source is affected by airflow,
particularly during turbulent or fast-moving conditions, leading to an inaccurate reading.

• **Correction**: Ensuring proper instrument positioning and alignment with the aircraft.

How to Read VSI:

• **Zero Reading**: Indicates a stable flight path with no climb or descent.

• **Positive Reading**: Indicates climb (usually measured in fpm, such as +500 fpm).

• **Negative Reading**: Indicates descent (such as -500 fpm).

Common VSI Use Cases:

• **Climbing**: Pilots monitor VSI to ensure a smooth, controlled ascent.

• **Descending**: Pilots use VSI to help manage a safe descent rate, avoiding excessive or
rapid descent.