GIAÙO TRÌNH

CUÙ PHAÙP – HÌNH THAÙI HOÏC

THE ENGLISH MORPHOLOGY &

SYNTAX

COMPILED BY NGUYEÃN QUOÁC BAÛO

HCM CITY 2007

CONTENTS

PART 1. MORPHOLOGY
Unit 1. Morpheme 3
I. Definition 3
II. Phonemes, Morphemes, Syllables, and Words 3
III. Classification 4
IV. Characteristics 6
V. Suffixal Homophones 10
VI. Immediate Constituent – IC cut 15
VII. Allomorphs 17

Unit 2. Words 19
1. Definition 19
2. Classification 19

Unit 3. Processes of Word Formation 21

References 24

Appendix 25

UNIT 1. MORPHEME

I. DEFINITION.
 ‘A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in a
language.’
[Richards, Platt &
Weber, 1987: 183]
 ‘A morpheme is a short segment of language that meets
3 criteria:

2
 a. It is a word or a part of word that has meaning.
b. It cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts
without violation of its meaning or without
meaningless remainders.
c. It recurs in differing verbal environments with a
relatively stable meaning.’
[Stageb
erg, 1981: 83]
Ex 1: ‘Man’ is a morpheme because it satisfies the three
criteria of a morpheme:
o ‘Man’ is a word with the meaning ‘a male person’.
o ‘Man cannot be divided into ‘m-‘ and ‘-an’. If we do
so, the meaning of ‘man’ is violated, and ‘m-‘ is a
meaningless remainder.
o ‘Man’ can recur in differing verbal environments
with a relatively stable meaning. For example:
manly; mannish; unman; manhood
Ex 2: ‘Weaken’
‘-en’ in the word ‘weaken’ is a morpheme because:
o It is a part of word with meaning ‘make’
(weaken = make something weak).
o It cannot be divided into ‘e’ and ‘n’ because,
in this case, the remainders ‘e ; n’ become
meaningless.
o It can recur in differing verbal environments
with a stable meaning, such as strengthen,
widen, lengthen ….

II. DISTINGUISHING PHONEMES, SYLLABLES, MORPHEMES,

AND WORDS
2.1. Morphemes & Phonemes
Phonemes: In isolation, they have no meaning but can
cause a change in meaning by substitution
Ex: Pin # Bin; Ban # Bat
Morphemes are meaningful units of a word.
Ex: Work-er  work : to do something; -er: person
A morpheme may consists of one phoneme like the /-z/ in boys
or many phonemes as in father /fa:56/ (4 phonemes)

2.2. Morphemes & Syllables

A syllable is a sound or group of sounds with a vowel or
diphthong as the center of the syllable. A syllable is thus

3
 identified by the vowel or diphthong. It has nothing to do with
meaning.
A morpheme may be a part of a syllable, a syllable, or many
syllables.
Ex: Cats : one syllable; 2 morphemes.
Boy : one syllable; 1 morpheme.
Father: 2 syllables ; 1 morpheme.
Apparatus: 4 syllables ; 1 morpheme.

2.3. Morphemes & Words

Words are made up of morphemes. In other words,
morphemes are the constituents of words.
A word may consist of one morpheme or many morphemes.
Ex: Boy, sister: 1 morpheme
Boyish, manhood: 2 morphemes
Workability: 3 morphemes
Undesirability: 4 morphemes
Normalizers: 5 morphemes ….
A morpheme has a meaning and so does a word. However, a
word is a free form that can stand alone with meaning while a
morpheme is not necessary a free form. A morpheme can
stand alone or not.

III. CLASSIFICATION
Morphemes can be classified basing on 2 criteria:
A. By form
 Free morpheme. ‘A free morpheme is one that can be
uttered alone with meaning.’ (Stageberg, 1981: 85)
Ex: Boy; Work
 Bound morpheme: ‘A bound morpheme, unlike the
free, cannot be uttered alone with meaning. It is always
annexed to one or more morphemes to form a word.’
(Stageberg, 1981: 85)
Ex: Worker ; Boys ; Audi ence; Played

B. By meaning
This classification puts morphemes into two classes: bases
and affixes
 Bases / Roots: ‘A base morpheme is the part of a word
that has the principal meaning.’ (Stageberg, 1981: 85)
It has its own meaning (lexical meaning).

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 Ex: worker ; boyish; Audience; Intervene
Bases can be subdivided into:
+ Free base: the base is a free morpheme. Ex: singer;
workable
+ Bound base: the base is a bound morpheme. Ex:
audience; suicide.

Bases and stems: A base is the morpheme with principle

meaning. A stem is the existing word before we add an
affix. (Stem = base + derivational affixes)
Ex: Worker => work is the base but also the stem of the
word
Workers => work is the base; worker is the stem
Normal => norm is the base and also the stem
Normalize => norm: base; normal: stem
Normalizer => norm: base; normalize: stem

 Affixes: An affix is a bound morpheme that occurs

before or within or after a base. (Stageberg, 1981: 89)
Affixes differ from roots (bases) in three ways:
+ They do not form words by themselves – they must be
added to a stem.
+ Their meaning, in many instances, is not as clear and
specific as the
meaning of roots, and many of them are almost
completely meaningless.
+ Compared with the total number of roots, which is very
large, the number of affixes is relatively small.
(Stockwell. R. & Minkova,
D., 2001:63)
Affixes can be subdivided into:
+ By position:
- Prefixes are bound morphemes added before the
base. In English, prefixes are a small class of morphemes,
about 75. Their meanings are often those of English
prepositions and adverbials.
Ex: Prefix; Undo; Impossible
- Infixes are bound morphemes that have been
inserted within a word. In English these are rare and are
most commonly replacements, not additions. They occur in
irregular noun plurals or past tense and past participle.
Ex: Geese; teeth; sang;

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 - Suffixes are bound morphemes that occur after a
base. Suffixes may pile up to the number of three or four,
whereas prefixes are usually single.
Ex: Singer ; working; norm al iz er s (4 suffixes)

+ By function:
- Derivational: affixes added to a stem to form new
words (lexical function). Ex: work (v) => worker (n) =>
workable (a)
- Inflectional: affixes added to show grammatical
forms of the word (grammatical function). Ex: boys (plural);
working (present participle);

Derivational affixes may be of a certain number, but there

are only 8 inflectional morphemes as follows:
+ Noun: - plural {-s} Ex: boys
- possessive {-‘s} Ex: Paul’s hat (sing.); the boys’
hats (Plur.)
+ Verb: - simple present tense, 3 rd person {-s} Ex: he
works
- simple past {-ed} Ex: he worked
- present participle {-ing} Ex: working
- past participle {-ed} Ex: worker
+ Adjective /Adverb: - comparative {-er} Ex: slower
- superlative {-est} Ex: biggest

IV. CHARACTERISTICS
1. Derivational suffixes.
Derivational suffixes have the following characteristics:
1. The words with which derivational suffixes combine is an
arbitrary matter.
Ex: to form a noun from a verb, we add different suffixes:
work => worker; agree => agreement; converse =>
conversation; fail => failure..
2. In many cases, but not all, a derivational suffix changes the
part of speech of the word to which it is added.
Ex: work (v) => worker (n) => workable (a) => workability
(n) …
3. Derivational suffixes usually do not close off a word; that is,
after a derivational suffix one can sometimes add another

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 derivational suffix and can frequently add an inflectional
suffix.
Ex: person => person al => person al ity => person al iti
es

2. Inflectional suffixes
Inflectional suffixes have the following characteristics:
a. They do not change the part of speech
Ex: boy => boys (both are noun)
b. They come last in a word.
Ex: played ; working …
c. They go with all stems of a given part of speech.
Ex: He eats, drinks, dreams, entertains …
d. They do not pile up; only one ends a word.
Ex: He sings; singing; worked…
The exception here is the plural possessive of the noun. Ex: The
students’ worries (2 inflectional suffixes: plural & possessive).

The differences between derivational suffixes & inflectional suffixes

Derivational suffixes Inflectional suffixes
+ create a new word + show grammatical form
+ in most cases, change the + do not change the part of
part of speech speech
+ need not close off a word + close off a word
+ can pile up: many in a word + cannot pile up: only one in a
word
+ go with some stems + go with all stems
arbitrarily

Exercise 1
Identify the number of morphemes in the following words, then give
the name and meaning of the italicized part.
Word Numbe Name Meaning
r
Ex: Worker 2 DS Person
1 Antedate
2 replay
3 manly

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4 Keepers
5 Hygiene
6 weakened
7 Unable
8 Inactively
9 Impossibly
10 Malfunctio
n
11 Idolize
12 Selectivel
y
13 Biomass
14 Intervene
15 Womanly
16 Infamous
17 Enlightene
d
18 Unlikely
19 Unenliven
ed
20 Falsify

Exercise 2.
Identify the bound bases in the following words and give their
meaning.
Word Bound Base Meaning & Example
Ex Audible Audi- To hear; audience
1. Infanticide
2. Oratory
3 Aquarium
4 Photography
5 Biography
6 Calligraphy
7 Corporation
8 Tenant
9 Tenacious
10 Pendulum
11 Manual
12 Project

Exercise 3

8
Give the meanings of the bound bases italicized in the words below
0 Ex: suicide To kill
1 Geo graphy
2 Bio logy
3 Biblio phile
4 Intervene
5 Comprehen
d
6 Recur
7 Inspect
8 Oppose
9 Inspire
10 Rodent
11 Portable
12 Rupture
13 Annual
14 Carnal
15 Suicide

Exercise 4
Analyze the following words into morphemes and give
their names
Ex: Workers => {work}: FB; {-er}: DS; {-er}: IS plural
1. Organists
2. Personalities
3. Flirtatiously
4. Atomizers
5. Friendliest
6. Contradictorily
7. Trusteeship
8. Greasier
9. Countrified
10. responsibilities
11. Unenlivened
12. Terminating
13. Moralizers
14. Provincialisms
15. Gruesomely
16. Workability
17. Marriageability
18. Gangsterdom
19. Affectionately

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 20. Semiprofessionally

Exercise 5
Combine the derivational suffixes in the column B with the
words in the column A to form as many nouns as you can.
A B
1. happy 1. –hood 11. -ance
2. friend 2. –acy 12. –th
3. girl 3. –ism 13. –ure
4. compose 4. –ness
5. shrink 5. –ment
6. active 6. –age
7. supreme 7. –y
8. true 8. –ation
9. pagan 9. –ship
10. discover 10. –ity

V. SUFFIXAL HOMOPHONES
1. Homophones
Homophones are words which sound alike but have different
meanings.
(Richards, J.C., Platt, H. 1993:
168)
Ex: Too – Two; Flower – Flour ;
2. Suffixal homophones
Suffixal homophones are words having the same ending forms
but of different parts of speech and different meanings.
Ex: Charming & Working ; worked & bored

a. The verbal inflectional suffix {–ing} (IS, present

participle) has 4 homophones:

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  The nominal derivational suffix {-ing} Ex: a meeting;
many readings
 The gerund derivational morpheme {-ing} Ex:
Swimming is good.
 The adjectival derivational morpheme {-ing} Ex:
charming; interesting
 Prepositions ending in –ing Ex: during, concerning,
including, basing ..
b. The verbal inflectional suffix {-ed} (IS past
participle) has one homophone:
 The adjectival derivational morpheme {-ed} Ex:
excited; interested; bored.
c. The inflectional suffix comparative {-er} has two
homophones:
 The nominal derivational {-er} Ex: worker; teacher.
 The verbal derivational {-er} conveying the meaning
of repetition Ex: chatter; mutter; glitter
d. The adverbial derivational suffix {-ly} has a
homophone:
 The adjectival derivational suffix {-ly} Ex: lovely;
daily; manly

3. Ways to identify the suffixal homophones

a. Noun & Gerund
 Noun:
- can take the plural form +s . Ex: Readings,
Meetings …
- can be preceded by a / an in singular. Ex: a
reading, a meeting
- can have a modifier which is an adjective.
- cannot have DO
 Gerund: used as an uncountable noun
- cannot have plural form
- cannot be preceded by a / an
- can have a modifier which is an adverb.
- Can have Object

b. Gerund & Present Participle

 By function
 Gerund: used as a noun and can perform the
functions of a noun:
 Subject: Swimming is good for health.

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  Direct Object: I enjoy swimming in the morning.
 Indirect Object: I give swimming all my favor.
 Object of Preposition: Before swimming, don’t
eat too much.
 Subject Complement: Seeing is believing.
 Object Complement: I consider studying this
way wasting time.
 Present Participle: used as an adjective or adverb
 Nominal Modifier: The boy sleeping is my son.
 Verbal Modifier: She rushes into my arms crying
loudly.
 Sentence Modifier: Coming home, I found the dog
poisoned.
 By Position
 Gerund can be put after a preposition.
Ex: A swimming pool => a pool for swimming.
 Present Participle can be put after the auxiliary
‘to be’ to form continuous form.
Ex: A barking dog => a dog is barking
 Stress Pattern
 Gerund / ´ ` / Ex: A swímming poøol; a daùncing
teøacher.
 Present participle / ` ´ / Ex: A baørking doùg; a
daøncing teùacher

c. Present participle & Adjective ending in - ing

By position
 Present participle when modifying a noun can be
put before or after the noun.
Ex: I saw a burning house – I saw a house burning.
In the two examples above, there is no difference in
function of the underlined participle ( nominal modifier);
however, there is a small difference in emphasis: the pre-
nominal modifier put the emphasis more on the complete
state than on the action in progress ( the post nominal
modifier).
 Adjective when modifying a noun is put only
before the noun. If we put it after the noun, its
function will change (OC in this case).
Ex: I found a charming girl. I found the girl
charming.

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 M / Ajal OC /
Ajal
By meaning
 Present participle expresses an action in
progress.
Ex: A barking dog => a dog is barking
 Adjective expresses the quality or the state of the
noun.
Ex: An interesting book; a frightening night.
By qualifier
 Present participle cannot be qualified by an
intensifier (very, quite, fairly …)
Ex: We cannot say: A very barking dog.
 Adjective can be qualified by an intensifier.
Ex: A very charming girl; a quite interesting story

d. Present participle & Preposition

 Coming home, I found the dog poisoned
Present participle phrase: the present participle
has the same subject as the main verb.
 Concerning the weather, the trip should be
cancelled.
Preposition phrase: not the same subject.
e. Past participle & Adjective ending in –ed
By meaning
 Past participle has an active meaning or passive
meaning.
Ex1: An escaped prisoner: a prisoner who has
escaped from prison.
Ex2: An invited guest: a guest who has been
invited.
 Adjective expresses a feeling.
Ex: I am very interested in football
By qualifier
 Past participle cannot be qualified by an
intensifier.
Ex: We cannot say: A very invited guest.
 Adjective can be qualified by an intensifier.
Ex: I am very tired; She is quite frightened

f. Noun ending in –er & comparative form of adjective

or adverb.

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 Noun: Verb + er. Ex: worker; singer; teacher
Comparative: Adjective / Adverb + er. Ex: slower;
bigger

g. Adjective in –ly & adverb in –ly

Adjective = Noun + ly. Ex: manly; lovely
Adverb = Adjective + ly. Ex: Slowly; Quickly.

Exercise 6
Identify the –ing’s of the italicized words in the following
sentences.
Ex: It is a boring game. (adjective)
1. It was a charming spot => ______________
2. Jim lost both fillings from his tooth => __________________
3. It was located by a sweetly babbling brook => ______________
4. It was exciting to watch the fight => _______________
5. Old sayings are often half true => ________________
6. From the bridge, we watched the running water =>
________________
7. That barking dog keeps everyone awake => ______________
9. Matisse’s drawings are magnificently simple =>
_______________
10. A refreshing shower poured down => ______________
11. The attorney made a moving appeal => ______________
12. What an obliging fellow he is! => ______________
13. That was a touching scene => _____________
14. He told a convincing tale => __________

Exercise 7
Identify the suffixes of the italicized words in the following
sentences.
1. You should read the printed statement => _________
2. Merle is a neglected child => ___________
3. This is a complicated question => _____________
4. The invited guest all came => _______________
5. We had a reserved seat => ____________
6. A celebrated painter visited the campus => ___________
7. A worried look crossed his face => ______________
8. The punished boy ran away from home => _____________
9. A reserved girl usually doesn’t have many friends =>
____________
10. Helen was excited about her new job => _______________

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VI. IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENTS

1. Definition
“Immediate Constituents (IC) are any of the two
meaningful parts forming a larger meaningful unit” (Arnold,
1983: 83). In other words, the IC’s are the two meaningful parts
(constituents) we get immediately after every cut of a word.
Ex: Work | er => work is an IC; -er is an IC
Teacher | s => teacher is an IC; -S is an IC.
In doing word diagram to show layers of structure, we make
successive division into two parts called Immediate
Constituent ( IC ). We continue this process, cutting every part
into two more until we have reduced the word to its ultimate
constituents, that is, to the smallest unit morphemes of which
the word is composed.

Ex: Un gentle man ly

2. Three recommendations on IC cut

a. If a word ends in an inflectional suffix, the first cut is
between this suffix and the rest of the word.
Ex:Worker s Enjoy
ed
b. One of the IC’s should be, if possible, a free form. A free
form is one that can be uttered alone with meaning.
Ex: Wrong: en large ment Right: en large ment

In depend ent in depend

ent
c. The meanings of the IC’s should be related to the
meaning of the word.
Ex: Wrong: rest rain Right: re
strain

Exercise 8
Diagram the following words to show the layers of structure:

Itemized preprofessionally newspaperdom

counterdeclaration

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 Malconstruction contradictorily midafternoon
supernaturally

Uncomfortably expressionism insufferably

contemporaneously

Irresistibility reattainable deversifications

emotionally

Deconstructionalists favoritism southerners

immortality

Unverbalized conceptualization insupportably

reimbursements

Malformations anticlerical unbearably unbelievably

moralizers

Enthusiastically counterdeclarations unhappinesses

disestablishments

Refertilizers affectionately misapprehension

familiarizations

VII. ALLOMORPHS
1. Definition
An allomorph is ‘any of the different forms of a morpheme.’
(Richards,
Platt & Platt, 1993:13)
In other words, allomorphs are

16
 different phonemic forms of the same morpheme when it
is at different position of occurrence.
Having the same meaning
Being in complementary distribution ( in CD )
Two sounds are said to be in CD when ‘there is strict separation
of places when particular realizations can occur.’ (Peter Roach,
2000: 38).
Ex: The morpheme {s } has + three phonemic form : / s / ; /
ız / and / z /
+ the same meaning: plural
+ in CD: - / s /: after / k, p, t, f, θ /
- / ız /: after / s, z, ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ
/
- / z /: after the other
sounds
So, / s / ; / ız / and / z / are allomorphs of the same morpheme {s
}.

2. Classification
Allomorphs are of two kinds: Phonologically conditioned
allomorphs & Morphologically conditioned allomorphs.

a. Phonologically conditioned allomorphs

An allomorph is phonologically conditioned when its
distribution is determined by a preceding or following
phoneme.
Ex: Cats => {s } is pronounced / s / after the voiceless
phoneme / t /
Dogs => {s } is pronounced / z / after the voiced
phoneme / g /
Foxes => {s } is pronounced / ız / after the voiceless
fricative / s /
Impossible {ım } is pronounced / ım / before the
bilabial phoneme
/p/
Illegal => {ıl } is pronounced / ıl / before the lateral
phoneme / l /
The allomorphs of the morpheme {s } and {-ed } are
phonologically conditioned.

b. Morphologically conditioned allomorphs

17
An allomorph is morphologically conditioned when its
distribution is determined by a particular morpheme.
Ex: Man => Men; Tooth => Teeth; Ox => Oxen; Sing =>
Sang => Sung…
The irregular form of the morpheme {s } and {-ed } are
morphologically conditioned.

b. Basing on their formation, allomorphs can be

classified as:
Additive allomorphs: by adding to a word.
Ex: Boys; Stopped; Oxen; Children …
Replacive allomorphs: by replacing a sound.
Ex: Man => Men; Mouse => Mice; Sing => Sang …
Suppletive allomorphs: by supplying a new form.
Ex: Be => Was; Go => Went; Good => Better; Bad =>
Worse; …
Zero allomorphs: by keeping the same form; there is no
change in form.
Ex: A sheep => Two sheep; Put => Put; Cut => Cut …
Some nouns have zero allomorph in plural: swine, deer,
sheep, trout, pike, quail, grouse.

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 UNIT 2. WORDS
1. Definition.
A word is ‘the smallest linguistic unit which can occur on its
own in speech or writing.’ (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1993:406)
In other words, a word is a form that can stand alone with
meaning (a free form) and that cannot be divided into smaller
free forms. Ex: boy; hygiene; audience; apparatus; worker.

2. Classification
English words may be classified on the basis of the kinds and
combinations of morphemes of which they are composed.
Words can be put into three types: simple, complex, and
compound words.

a. Simple words
Simple words consist of a single free morpheme.
Ex: play; boy; girl; hygiene; apparatus; father…

b. Complex words
Complex words contain, as their immediate constituents,
either two bound forms or a bound and a free form.
Ex: worker; lioness; suicide; exclude …

c. Compound words
Compound words contain two or more free forms.
Ex: green house; sunflower; undergo; bad-tempered …

d. Distinguishing compound words from grammatical

structures

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 Compound words can be distinguished from grammatical
structures in three ways:
Compound words (Cp) cannot be divided by the insertion
of intervening material between the two parts, but
grammatical structures (GS) can be so divided.
Ex:a/ She is a sweetheart (Cp)
b/ She has a sweet heart (GS)
In the example (a) , a compound word, we cannot insert
anything between sweet and heart.
In the example (b) , a grammatical structure (Adjective +
Noun), we can insert something.
Ex: She has a sweeter heart than her sister.
She has a sweet, kind heart.
She has a sweet, sweet heart.

A member of a compound word cannot participate in a

grammatical structure, but a grammatical structure can.
Ex: It is a greenhouse (Cp) => we cannot say ‘It is a very
greenhouse.’
It is a green house (GS) => we can say ‘It is a very
green house.’

Stress pattern
Compound word has the stress pattern / ´ ` /
Ex: a greùenhoøuse ; a daùncing teøacher; an EÙnglish
teøacher
Grammatical structure has the stress pattern / � ´ /
Ex: a greâen house; a daâncing teùacher; an EÂnglish
teùacher

Exercise 9
Identify the following units as simple word, complex word,
compound word, or grammatical structure.
1. knave 2. knavish
3. telegraph 4. aquanaut
5. bicycle 6. workman
7. a shaârp shoùoter 8. passbook
9. a buùll’s eøye 10. a buøll’s eùye
11. glowworm 12. import
13. inaccessible 14. outlast
15. rattlesnake 16. philosophy
17. refusal 18. enable

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19. oyster 20. pure

UNIT 3. PROCESSES OF WORD FORMATION

The vocabulary of a language can be enriched by different ways.

Besides borrowing from foreign languages, English gets new
words by different processes:
1. Compounding
Compounding is simply the joining of two or more words into a
single word.
Ex: hang glider; sunflower; cornflakes; downpour; high school ….

2. Derivation
Derivation is the forming of new words by combining derivational
affixes or bound bases with existing words.
Ex: disadvantage; worker; friendship; undo …

3. Invention
Now and then new words are totally invented to satisfy the needs
of society, especially in sciences and technologies.
Ex: nylon; Kodak; Dacron (a kind of material, terylene )

4. Clipping
Clipping is the process of forming a new word by cutting off the
beginning or the end of a word, or both, leaving a part to stand
for the whole.
Ex: Disco (discotheque); cab (cabriolet); curio (curiosity)
Sport (disport); bus (omnibus); chute (parachute)
Flu (influenza); fridge (refrigerator)
Amerindian (American Indian); agribusiness (agricultural
business);
Taxicab (taximeter cabriolet); maitre d’ maitre d’hoâtel

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5. Acronymy
Acronymy is the process whereby a word is form from the initials
or beginning segments of a succession of words.
Ex: NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization; MP: Members of
Parliament

6. Blending
Blending is the fusion of two words into one, usually the first part
of one word with the last part of another.
Ex: gasohol: gasoline + alcohol; simulcast: simultaneous +
broadcast

7. Back-formation
Back-formation is the formation of a word from one that looks like
its derivative.
Ex: greed <= greedy; laze <= lazy; donate <= donation …

Exercise 10
Fill in the following table
Word Original Process Explanation Example
Worker Work Derivation Forming a new Singer
word by adding
affixes to a stem
Taxi
Deli
Van
Wig
Cute
NOW
UNESCO
OPEC
APEC
ASEM
Laser
Happensta
nce
Smog
Telecast
Transistor
Autobus
Escalator
Speed

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Need
Bead
Televise
Revise
Supervise
Donate
Coronate
Housekeep
Typewrite
Administrat
e
Resurrect
Reminisce
Reluct
Back-seat-
drive
Advance-
register

23
 REFERENCES

Blake, N.F. & Moorhead J. Introduction to English Language.

Burton- Robert, N. 1998. Analyzing Sentences. Longman.

Fromkin, V., Blaire, D. and Collins P. 1990. An Introduction to

Language. Sydney: Harcout.

Hudson, G. 1999. Essential Introductory linguistics. Blackwell.

Nguyen Hoa Lac, (?). An Outline of Morphology. NXB TP

HoChiMinh

Nguyen Thuy Nga, 2004. English Syntax and Morphology. ÑHM TP

HCM.

O’Grady, W. 1993. Contemporary Linguistics. New York: St. Martin

Press

Richards, J.C., Platt J., and Platt H. 1993. Dictionary of Language

Teaching and Applied linguistics. Longman Group UK
limited.

Stageberg, N.C. 1983. An Introductory English Grammar. Holt,

Rinehart and Winston.

To Minh Thanh, 2003. English Morphology. NXB Ñai Hoc Quoc Gia
TP HCM

24
 APPENDIX

Meanings of some selected affixes

(Selected from English words: history and structure, Stockwell
and Minkova, 2001)

PREFIXES
Counting-prefixes: those which in some way quantify the
root.
a- or an- ‘lacking’ Ex: asymmetric , amoral, atonal
ambi- ‘both, around’ Ex: ambiguous, ambivalent, amphitheater
arch- ‘chief, principal, high’ Ex: archbishop, archduke
bi- ‘twice, double’ Ex: bilingual, bilateral, bicycle
di- ‘two’ Ex: dioxide, ditransitive
mono- ‘one’ Ex: monosyllabic, mono-way
multi- ‘many’ Ex: multifaceted, multivalent, multicolor,
multilateral
omni- ‘all’ Ex: omnipotent, omnibus, omnidirectional
poly- ‘many’ Ex: polysyllabic, polygonal, polygamy
tri- triangular, tridimensional
uni- ‘one’ Ex: unisex, uniform, unidirectional

Involvement prefixes: those which say something about

the kind of involvement of the participants in the action of
the root.
Anti- ‘opposed, instead’ Ex: antacid, antibiotic, antifreeze,
antipathy
Auto- ‘self’ Ex: automobile, automatic
Co- con- ‘together, jointly’ Ex: coexistence, cooperate, concur
Contra- ‘against, opposite’ Ex: contradiction, contrary
Vice- ‘in place of , instead’ Ex: vice president, vice consul

Judgment prefixes: those which make a judgment about

the root
Dis- used as an intensifier Ex: disturb, disannul
Eu- ‘good, well’ Ex: evangelical, eugenics
Extra- ‘outside the scope of’ Ex: extraordinary,
Mal- ‘ill, evil, wrong’ malfunction, malformation, malodorant

25
Meta- ‘transcending, changed’ Ex: metaphysics, metamorphosis
Mis- ‘badly, wrongly’ Ex: mislead, miscalculate
Pro- ‘on behalf of’ Ex: pro-education, pro-British
Proto- ‘first, chief’ Ex: proto-organic, prototype
Pseudo- ‘false, deceptive resemblance’ Ex: pseudonym, pseudo-
archaic
Locative prefixes: those which say something about place
or direction
Ab-, a-, abs- ‘from, away’ Ex: abnormal, abstinence
Ad- ‘toward’ Ex: admit, advance
Apo- ‘away, from’ Ex: apology
Cata- ‘down, away, back, opposite’ Ex: catastrophe
Circum- ‘ around’ Ex: circumstance, circumspect
Counter- ‘against, opposite’ Ex: counterfeit, counter-declaration
De- ‘away from, down’ Ex: demobilize, demolish, deodorant
En- ‘ in, into’ Ex: enclose, encircle, endanger
Ex- ‘out from , away’ Ex: exclude, ex-wife, eccentric
In- ‘in, into’ Ex: inject, income, inhale
Infra- ‘below, beneath, within’ Ex: infrastructure,
Inter- ‘between, among’ Ex: interchange, intervene,
international
Intra- ‘inside’ Ex: intramural, intracellular
Ob- ‘toward, against’ Ex: obstruction, obdurate
Para- ‘ beside, along with’ Ex: parallel , paramedic
Per- ‘through’ Ex: perspiration , pervade
Peri- ‘around, nearby’ Ex: perimeter
Retro- ‘backwards, back’ Ex: retroflex, retrospection
Sub- ‘ under, below’ Ex: subway, suffer, subdivide
Super- ‘over, above’ Ex: super-segmental, supernatural,
superman, supermarket
Trans- ‘across, surpassing’ Ex: transparent, transoceanic

Measurement prefixes
Hyper- ‘above, over to exceed’ Ex: hypertension, hypernym
Hypo- ‘below, under’ Ex: hypotension, hyponym
Macro- large, broad’ Ex: macroeconomic,
Micro- ‘tiny, small’ Ex: microscope, microphone
Mid- ‘ middle’ Ex: mid-autumn , midwinter
Semi- ‘half, party’ Ex: semicolon, semi-auxiliary, semi-
professional
Ultra- ‘beyond, extreme’ Ex: ultraviolet,

26
Negative prefixes
Dis- ‘apart, lacking’ Ex: displease, dislike , disestablish
In- ‘ negative, not’ Ex: incredible, incomprehensible
Non- ‘not’ Ex: nonsense , non-defining
Ob- ‘inverse, in the opposite direction Ex: object., objective
Un- ‘not’ Ex: unclear, unimportant
Un- ‘opposite’ Ex: untie, undress, unlock

Temporal prefixes: those which say something about time

or duration
Ante- ‘preceding, before’ Ex: antedate, antechamber
Fore- ‘before’ Ex: forecast,
Post- ‘after, behind’ Ex: postwar, postpone
Pre-, pro- ‘before’ Ex: prefix, preposition
Re- ‘again, back’ Ex: review. Return

SUFFIXES
Suffixes which form adjectives from nouns or verbs
-able ‘fit for doing, fit for being done’ Ex: comfortable edible,
-al, -ial, -ical, -ual ‘having the property of’ Ex: fraternal,
analytical, natural
-an, -ian ‘belonging to, resembling’ Ex: American, Russian,
Augustan
-ary ‘having a tendency or purpose’ Ex: secondary
-ate ‘full of’ Ex: passionate, affectionate
-ese ‘belonging to’ Ex: VNmese, Japanese
-esque ‘ having the style of’ Ex: statuesque , picturesque
-ful ‘ full of’ Ex: beautiful, powerful, skillful
-ic ‘ having the property’ Ex: romantic, historic
-ish ‘like to’ Ex: childish, mannish
-ive ‘characterized by’ Ex: abusive, active, selective
-less ‘without, free from’ Ex: fearless, careless
-ly ‘appropriate to’ Ex: friendly, timely, daily
-ous ‘of the nature of’ Ex: virtuous, glorious, luxurious
-some ‘like, characterized by’ Ex: awesome, bothersome,
troublesome
-y ‘full of, characterized by’ Ex: healthy, mighty, moody

Sufixes which form abstract nouns

-acy, asy ‘state or quality’ Ex: accuracy; advocacy
-age ‘condition, state, rank, office of’ Ex: postage, anchorage

27
-ance, -ence ‘state, act, fact of’ Ex: repentance, emergence,
perseverance
-ad(e) ‘ general noun’ Ex: parade, lemonade; salad
-al ‘act of’ Ex: renewal, revival, trial
-ation ‘state of’ Ex: purification, organization
-ery ‘collectivity’ Ex: slavery, carpentry
-hood ‘state of, condition of’ Ex: childhood, manhood,
womanhood,
-ism ‘doctrinal system of principles’ Ex: communism, realism,
romanticism
-ity ‘state, quality, condition of’ Ex: diversity, university,
actuality
-ment ‘condition of’ Ex: treatment, amusement
-ness ‘state, condition, quality of’ Ex: sadness, happiness
-ship ‘state, condition’ Ex: friendship, trusteeship, dictatorship

Suffixes which form agentive nouns

-ant, -ent ‘one who’ Ex: agent, tenant, participant
-arian ‘member of a sect’ Ex: authoritarian, utilitarian
-ast ‘one associated with X’ Ex: enthusiast, pederast
-er ‘agent’ Ex: worker, singer
-ist ‘one connected with’ Ex: socialist, dentist
-ician ‘one skilled in some art or science’ Ex: physician,
musician, magician

Suffixes which form verbs from roots and stems

-ate ‘cause X to happen’ Ex: create, frustrate, terminate
-en ‘to become’ weaken, darken, cheapen
-ify ‘to cause to be’ Ex: purify, verify, amplify
-ize ‘to cause to be’ Ex: legalize, plagiarize, memorize

28
THE ENGLISH SYNTAX

29
 CONTENTS
Abbreviations
Analyzing by Form, Function, and Position 33

Chapter 1: FORM CLASSES

I. Parts of Speech 34
A. Lexical Words 34
B. Functional Words 39
II. The Parts of a Sentence 44
A. Sentence 44
B. Phrases 47
C. Distinguishing Suffixal Homophones 51
D. Subordinate Clauses 56

Chapter 2: FUNCTIONAL CLASSES

A. Subject 61
B. Object 62
C. Complement 65
D. Modifier 71

Chapter 3: POSITIONAL CLASSES

A. Nominals 79
B. Adjectivals 81
C. Adverbials 82
D. Verbals 84

Chapter 4: BASIC SENTENCE PATTERNS 88

Chapter 5: TREE DIAGRAM 102

REFERENCES 115

ABBREVIATIONS
Aj Adjective
AP Adjective Phrase
Av Adverb
AvP Adverb Phrase
Ajal Adjectival
Aval Adverbial

30
Aux Auxiliary
C Complement
CoA Complement of Adjective
CoN Complement of Noun
Conj Conjunction
Comp Complementiser
CoV Complement of Verb
Det Determiner
DO Direct Object
DS Derivational Suffix
G Gerund
Inf Infinitive
IO Indirect Object
Intr V Intransitive Verb
IS Inflectional Suffix
LV Linking verb
N Noun
NP Noun Phrase
O Object
OC Object Complement
P Preposition
Part Participle
Pl. Plural
PP Prepositional Phrase
Past P Past Participle
Pres P Present Participle
PPP Past Participle Phrase Tr.V Transitive
verb
Pres PP Present Participle Phrase VP Verb
Phrase
PN Pronoun V Verb

The term ‘syntax’ is from the Ancient Greek ‘syntaxis’,

a verbal noun which literally means ‘arrangement’ or
‘setting out together’. Traditionally, it refers to the
branch of grammar dealing with the ways in which
words, with or without appropriate inflections, are
arranged to show connections of meaning within the
sentence.

31
 (Ma
tthews, 1992:1)

‘Syntax deals with how sentences are constructed.’

(Robert J.
Van Valin, 2001:1)

‘Syntax: the grammatical principles, units, and

relations involved in sentence structure.’
(Jacobs, 1995:4)

‘Syntax involves learning the various forms of a word

and how they should be deployed in a sentence. It also
means recognizing the function of grammatical words
and organizing lexical and grammatical words in a
meaningful order not only within a phrase but also
within clauses.’
(Blake N.F. & Jean
Moorhead, 1993: 41)

ANALYZING BY FORM, FUNCTION, AND

POSITION
A word or a group of words in a sentence can be of different
grammatical categories or parts of speech. For example, ‘late’
may be an adjective or an adverb; ‘swimming’ may be a gerund
or a present participle etc.

32
Ex: I usually get up late. (adverb)
I am always late to school (adjective)
Swimming regularly helps to keep fit. (gerund)
Swimming one hour every morning, I am getting fitter and
fitter. (present
participle)
A word cannot be analyzed precisely basing on its form only.
Stageberg suggested a three-criteria analysis of sentence units:
analyzing by Forms, Functions, and Positions.
Ex: This morning, I met him at the supermarket.

This morning is a Noun Phrase by Form; a Modifier by Function;

and an adverbial by position.
At the supermarket is a Prepositional Phrase by Form; a Modifier
by Function, and an Adverbial by Position.

Ex: This morning, I met him at the supermarket.

NP / M / Aval PP / M / Aval

CHAPTER 1.

FORM CLASSES – THE PARTS OF SPEECH

I. PARTS OF SPEECH

33
‘Grammar is the system of rules that define a language. It
comprises the classes of words, their pronunciations, and their
functions and relations in the sentence’. (Lester, p.243)
The parts of speech are the classes of words. Words in English
can be divided into two main classes:

A. Open classes: consisting of lexical words. Some

characteristics of open classes:
 They have lexical meaning / a definable meaning which
can be found in the dictionary.
 They have a very large membership.
 They can have more words added to them as the
language grows and changes.
 They are Nouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs.

B. Closed classes: consisting of grammatical / structural

or functional words. Some characteristics of closed
classes.
 They do not have lexical meaning. They have
grammatical meaning.
 They have a smaller, restricted membership which rarely
changes.
 They do not open for new words.
 They are pronouns, auxiliaries, prepositions,
conjunctions, determiners.
(Blake, 1993:5)

A. LEXICAL WORDS

1. NOUNS
A noun is a word to name a person, place, thing, quality, or
idea.
Ex: Tom, Mars, automobile, beauty, justice …
Types of nouns
 Proper nouns name a particular person, place… as
John Smith, New York…They are always capitalized.

 Common nouns name one or all members of a class

or group and do not require capitals as boy, cat,
city…

34
 Concrete nouns name things that readers can
perceive with their senses as desk, symphony,
smoke …

 Abstract nouns name intangible qualities and ideas

as liberty, sweetness, love, bravery….. (Lester,
p.245)

 Countable nouns are used for individual things that

can be counted as a chair, a table…
+ A count noun may be preceded by a / an in the
singular.
+ A count noun takes a final –s / -es in the plural.

 Uncountable nouns are used for things that cannot

be counted as bravery, furniture …
+ An uncount noun is not immediately preceded by
a / an.
+ An uncount noun has no plural form.
+ Most uncount nouns refer to a ‘whole’ that is
made up of different parts.
+ Many nouns can be used as either count or
uncount nouns with usually a change in meaning.
Ex: A coffee (a cup of coffee); Fishes (kinds of fish)
… (Azar, 1989: 204-205)

 Collective nouns refer to a group of people and can

take a singular or plural verb.
+ Singular if the word is used to mean a single
group or unit. Ex: Family is the basic element of
society.
In this case we use it, its, which / that.
Ex: The government wants to improve its image.
The crowd which has gathered here is in a
cheerful mood.

+ Plural if the word is used to mean all the

members of the group.
Ex: My family are going to Vung Tau this weekend.
In this case, we use they, their, who.
Ex: The teacher staff want to improve their image.

35
 My family, who have just come back from DL,
are going to
VT this weekend. (Nguyen viet Thu,
2003: 56-57)

2. ADJECTIVES
An adjective is a word that describes the quality or the state of
something. It is a modifier or attributive adjective when it
goes right after or before a noun.
Ex: She is a beautiful girl. I want someone intelligent.
It is a subject complement or predicative adjective when
following a linking verb.
Ex: The plan seems incomplete and unusually expensive.
(Lester, p.250)

3. ADVERBS
Adverb show or clarify time, place, manner, and degree. They
also affirm or deny. Usually they answer the question when,
why, where, how, what for…
An adverb modifies verbs, adjectives, adverbs, phrases,
clauses, and sentences.
Ex: He sings beautifully. (beautifully modifies sings)
Severely punished by his father, the boy ran away
from home
The boy sitting alone in the corner of the class is a
new student.
She is extremely nice.
He drove very quickly.
Coming home, he went straight to bed.
Luckily, he did not die.

4. VERBS
A verb shows either action (process, feeling, movement) or a
state of being.
A. Types of verb
a. Auxiliary
 Primary or semi-auxiliaries: the ones that can
act as auxiliary or main verb e.g. be, have, do,
need …
Ex: I am a teacher (main verb)
I am teaching English. (auxiliary)
My friend has a beautiful car. (main verb)

36
 He has just bought it from a friend
(auxiliary)
 Modal auxiliaries: modal verbs; they are
always auxiliaries e.g. can, could, may, might,
shall, should, …
 Some compound auxiliaries: have to; have
got to; be to; be able to; be about to; be
supposed to; be expected to …

b. Main verbs
 Linking verbs express a state of being. For
example: be; seem; appear; taste; smell; feel ...
A linking verb can be identified by:
+ describing a state. Ex: The soup tastes good
+ followed by an adjective. The well ran dry.
+ can be replaced by ‘be’, ‘become’, remain…
Ex: The screw worked loose => the screw
became / was
loose.
Note: After a linking verb, we usually have a
subject complement (if there is a subject).

 Action verbs express an action.

+ Transitive verbs require a direct object to
be complete.
Ex: I want a beer (want what?)
+ Intransitive verbs: self-sufficient verbs;
they do not need
an object.
Ex: He is laughing.

B. Forms
1. Finite verbs agree with the subject.
Ex: The boy goes to school by bus.
A clause must contain a finite verb.

2. Non-finite verbs do not agree with the subject and

do not form a
clause (only a phrase): infinitive, gerund,
present participle, past
participle.
Ex: The boy sitting near the window is a new student.

37
 Prest.p phrase/ OP
EXERCISE 1
Identify the nouns (count or uncount), adjectives, adverbs,
verbs (auxiliary, finite, non-finite, linking, transitive, or
intransitive) in the following sentences.
1. The tree service will remove the dead trees, and the garden
will get more sun.
2. Scientists do not understand what triggers migration of birds,

and they think that birds might have built-in biological clocks.

3. We think violence occurs often in real life, and it occurs in so

many television shows.

4. Terry Fox ran all the way across Canada, and he had only one

leg.

5. I will not be able to afford my books, and I earn some money.

6. Professor Mills did not lecture on the Civil War, and he did not

cover it on the test.

7. Behavioral psychologists help people change bad habits, and

people often cannot change on their own.

8. All the engineers studied the problem, and the building still fell

down.

9. Baseball and football players walked off their teams on strike,

and they were tired of not being able to be free agents.

10. Hans will graduate with honors and then attend medical

school.

38
B. FUNCTIONAL WORDS

1. PRONOUNS
A pronoun acts in the place of a noun, phrase, or clause
called its antecedent.
Types of pronouns
a. Personal pronouns refer to specific persons or things.
They change form to show number and person. Ex: I, me,
we, us…

b. Relatives pronouns introduce dependent clauses called

relative or adjective clauses. Ex: who, which , that,
whom, when, where, why, whose …
They are very similar to question words. The difference
is that, in most cases, relative pronouns have an
antecedent while question words do not.
Ex: I don’t remember the town where I was born.
(relative pro)
I don’t remember where I was born. (QW)
I’ll follow you where you go. (Adv)

Some special relative pronouns:

 As
When the antecedent is modified by same and such, the
adjective clause is usually introduced by as.
Ex: She wore the same dress as she wore at Mary’s
wedding.
I’ve never heard such stories as he’s telling.

 But
In a negative sentence, but is used instead of who /
which to form a double negation.
Ex: There’s not a single man here but loves you. (= who
doesn’t)
(Dang Thi Huong,
1998:217)

39
c. Interrogative pronouns introduce a question : who,
what, which whom… Ex: Who are you? What do you
want?

d. Reflexive pronouns name a receiver of an action that

is identical to the one doing the acting: myself, yourself,
himself, herself … A reflexive pronoun can have the
functions of a noun.
Ex: John is looking at himself in the mirror. ( at John)
Pro/OP (object of preposition)

e. Intensive / Emphasizing pronouns also name a

receiver of an action that is identical to the one doing the
acting as reflexive pronouns but with the function for
emphasis.
Ex: The President himself visited me last night.

f. Reciprocal pronouns : each other; one another.

Ex: They are fighting each other.

g. Demonstrative pronouns show which nouns perform

or receive the action: This, That, These, Those.
Ex: The new computers are now in the library. Those
on the far wall have hard disks. These have color
monitors.

h. Possessive pronouns : mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours,

yours, theirs
Ex: That car over there is mine.

i. Indefinite pronouns stand for a vague or unspecified

number of people or things.
All both many one
Another each neither others
Any either nobody several
Anybody everybody no one some
Anyone everyone none somebody
Anything few nothing someone
something…

40
 Note: Demonstrative pronouns and Indefinite
pronouns become Adjectives when they precede a
noun. Ex: Many books; these boys;

2. AUXILIARIES (See p.9)

3. PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions are words used with a noun or pronoun (and
their modifiers, if any) to form a phrase that shows place,
position, time, or means. In this phrase, the preposition is
the head and the following word is its object (OP: Object of
Preposition).
Ex: The boy is sitting near the window.
NP/OP
Types of preposition
a. Simple prepositions consist of one word e.g. about,
above, across, after, …

b. Compound prepositions consist of two or more

words e.g. according to, ahead of, as well as, because
of, by reason of, in addition to, in case of, in front of, in
place of, in spite of, inside of, instead of, rather than,
with respect to, with the exception of, on behalf of, on
account of, with regard to, in advance of, by way of, in
comparison with, by means of, together with, contrary
to, due to, apart from, up to, out of, up at, as for,
owing to …

c. -ing prepositions have a verb as stem e.g.

assuming, beginning, barring, concerning, considering,
during, following, including, involving, pending,
regarding, succeeding, …
(Stageb
erg, 1981: 169-172)

4. CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses to show
order and to relate two or more ideas.
Types of conjunctions

41
 a. Coordinating conjunctions join equal items: and, or, but,
so, nor, for, yet.
Ex: Paul and Peter went to school by bicycle. (joins 2
words).
We left the party early, but everyone else stayed
there. (joins 2
clauses).
We will live in a dorm or on an off-campus apartment.
(joins 2
prepositional phrases)

b. Correlative conjunctions also join items of equal

grammatical rank, but they always function as a pair: both
…and; either … or; neither … nor; not only … but also …
Ex: You look attractive in either the pink dress or the
yellow.

c. Subordinating conjunctions introduce dependent

clauses. Subordinating conjunctions show relationships of
cause, time, location, degree, manner,…
Ex: Unless you take the car, I won’t go.
I’ll buy a car if I win the lottery
When the subordinate clause precedes the main one, it is
usually separated by a comma.
(
Lester, p.255)

5. DETERMINERS
Determiners identify the noun and always precede the noun.
Determiners consist of:
a. Articles: a, an, the. Ex: A book; An apple; The boy near
the window.
b. Possessive adjectives or possessive case of proper
names
Ex: My car; his father; Paul’s hat
c. Demonstrative adjectives: this, that, these, those
Ex: This car is mine; That one is his.
d. Numbers: cardinal and ordinal numbers
e. Indefinite words: one, another, some, several, many, a lot
of, a great deal of, such, enough, much …

42
Note
 The first three types (articles, possessive, demonstrative)
are always named determiner.
 The last two types (number and indefinite) are named by
their position:
+ determiner: when they are followed directly by a
noun.
Ex: Three students came to visit me last weekend.
Some students offered me some fruit.
Have you got any children?
+ pre-determiner: When they are before a
determiner.
Ex: All the students must be here on time.
+ post-determiner: When they are after a determiner.
Ex: All the three students received a gift.
I always remember her many acts of kindness to
me.
The government’s decision to control interest
rate is prompt.

EXERCISE 2
Identify the pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and
determiners in the following sentences.
1. Although bloomers were named after Amelia Bloomer, she did

not invent them.

2. Elizabeth Smith Miller designed them to have something

modest to wear while gardening.

3. At first, they consisted of a short dress worn over “Turkish

trousers”, full pants gathered at the ankles.

4. Suffragists, who liked the freedom of “pantalettes’, as they

were called, led the trend to wear them.

43
5. Finally, even Amelia Bloomer herself stopped wearing the

“Bloomer costume” because it diverted attention from more

important women’s issues, which were her main concern.

6. Each new generation of women starts a fashion trend.

7. You might ask, “Who has shocked the nation in recent years?”

8. Gussie Moran shocked officials but not herself by wearing lace-

panty undergarments at the staid Wimbledon tennis

tournament.

9. “Those are pioneers of the women’s movement”, said one

unnamed source.

10. A woman who wishes to be free must sometimes appear

bold to everybody else.

II. THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE

1. SENTENCE
1. Definition
‘A sentence is a grammatically self-contained unit of
speech that contains a subject and a predicate.’
(Lester, p.258)

‘A sentence is a group of words grammatically linked to

make complete sense that begins with a capital letter
and ends with a full stop.’
(Blake, 1993: 17)

The traditional definition of a sentence is ‘a group of

words that contains a subject, a finite verb and makes
complete sense’.

44
 (Dang Thi
Huong, 1998:203)

In fact, sentences can be defined in several different

ways. There is no perfect definition for sentence.
However, basing on these different definitions, we can
draw out some main features of a sentence:
 The words in the sentence must be grammatically
linked.
 A sentence must carry a complete sense.
 Usually a sentence contains a Subject and a
Predicate.
 A sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with
a full stop.

2. The parts of a sentence

Usually a sentence is divided into two parts: Subject and
Predicate.

a. Subject
The subject of the sentence acts, is acted upon, or is
discussed.
The subject may be:
 The simple subject consists of a noun or a pronoun
without its modifiers.
Ex: Classes start tomorrow.
Paul is laughing loudly.
 The complete subject consists of the simple subject
plus any modifiers.
Ex: Adult education classes at the museum start
tomorrow.
The boy you met last night at the supermarket is
my son.
 A compound subject has two or more subjects
joined by a coordinating conjunction such as and, or,
but, so, nor, for, yet, both … and, either .. or, neither
… nor …
Ex: My father and his old friend are having tea in the
garden.

b. Predicate

45
 The predicate tells what the subject is doing, indicates
what is being done to the subject, or expresses
something about the subject.
The predicate may be:
 The simple predicate consists of the verb alone.
Ex: The bell rang.
The girl giggles.
 The complete predicate consists of the verb, which
is the grammatical center of the predicate, and any
objects, modifiers, or complements.
Ex: That boy offered me a special gift on his birthday
last week.
 The compound predicate has two or more verb
phrases joined by coordinating conjunctions, plus
adverbial modifiers.
Ex: Ted collects old records and plays them in a jazz
club.
(Lester,
p.259 - 261)

3. Types of sentence
Sentences can be classified according to their function or
their structure.
a. By Function
 A statement or declarative sentence is an
informative sentence.
Ex: Mary opened the letter straightaway.
Michael caught the error.
 A question or interrogative sentence asks for
information.
Ex: Do all mammals walk?
Has Mary opened the letter?
 A command or imperative sentence issues an
order.
Ex: Open the letter.
Stop talking!
 An exclamation sentence expresses emotion.
Ex: What big eyes you have!
How beautiful you are!

b. By Structure
 A simple sentence consists of one finite clause.

46
 Ex: Mary opened the letter. (one subject + one
predicate)
+ Simple sentence with compound subject
Ex: My new student and his old father come from
England.
+ Simple sentence with compound predicate
Ex: My father likes coffee but dislikes tea.
 A complex sentence contains one main clause and
one or more subordinate clauses.
Ex: Although it rains very hard, the poor boy walks to
school.
The person who wins will receive a $2000
scholarship.
 A compound sentence has two or more
independent clauses linked by a coordinating
conjunction or a semi-colon.
Ex: Some journalists travel all over the world for
their stories,
but most spend their time on the telephone.
 A compound-complex or mixed sentence
contains at least two main clauses or one
independent clause and one main clause plus at least
one subordinate clause.
Ex: Many television reporters started in radio,
but others moved
to television from newspapers, where the
emphasis is on
investigation and good writing.

EXERCISE 3
Analyze the following sentences
Ex: He says that he likes coffee => Complex sentence
He says: Main clause; that he likes coffee: subordinate
noun clause
1. Listed below are groups of words that are only pieces of
sentences, fragments of thoughts.
2. As you make revisions, remember to capitalize the first word of
each sentence and to end the sentence with a period.
3. To write complete sentences with ease, learn the parts of a
sentence that are explained in this chapter.
4. The use of illegal drug named Ectassy has increased
alarmingly in Britain over the last few years.

47
5. The subject of the sentence is that part about which something
is said.
6. John wasn’t happy at school until he found he had the ability to
make people laugh.
7. He can with this knowledge prevent or combat destructive
fires.
8. Delayed by the bad weather, the plane arrived one hour late.
9. The beautiful girl sitting in the first row gave me her
new address yesterday.
10. Ann went to Canada to visit relatives for a week and
decided to stay there for work.
11. A little confused, the girl didn’t know how to answer
the question.
12. With growing interest, I read eagerly the book he lent
me yesterday.
13. The committee found it hard to decide each year who
merits the Nobel peace prize.
14. They worked without pause, and within an hour they could
finish what they had been given.
15. Tom finds a computer very useful for his study and he has
decided to find a part time job to save money.
16. The police found the man who had a scar on his right
cheek guilty of the fire.
17. Although the teacher has already arrived, the students
keep talking loudly.
18. Because of her encouraging remarks, he has been working
like a steam engine.
19. Before you pass judgment, you should consider the
actualities of the case.
20. Harold doesn’t like making speeches in front of the
class because he is very shy.

B. PHRASES

1. Definition
‘A phrase is a group of words which have a grammatical
relationship to each other and which together perform a
structural unit. A phrase operates as an element in clause
structure.’ (Blake, 1993: 11)

48
‘A phrase is a group of grammatically related words without a
subject and a predicate. A phrase functions as a single part of
speech. It differs from a clause, which has a subject and a
verb.” (Lester: 268)

A phrase contains a head word / main word and performs

as a unit in the sentence.
Ex: in the morning
to cook a pot of chili on an open campfire.
coming home in the evening
the dog sleeping near the front gate

2. Identification
A phrase is identified by the head word. (HW)
 Noun phrases (NP) consist of a head noun and
modifying words.
A noun phrase can perform different functions:
+ Subject. Ex: The boy near the window is my son.
+ DO. Ex: I love the boy next door.
+ I O. Ex: I offer the boy next door a bouquet.
+ OP. Ex: I went out with the boy next door last
night.
+ SC. Ex: Paula is the girl I met yesterday.
+ OC. Ex: Paul calls her his expected sweetheart.

 Adjective phrases (AP) consist of a main word, which is

an adjective, and its modifier(s).
Adjective phrases tell which one or what kind about a
noun that immediately precedes or follows the phrase.
An adjective phrase may be of different functions:
+ Modifier. Ex: A very handsome boy is playing
chess in class.
+ Modifier. Ex: The films harmful to children are not
to be shown.
+ SC. Ex: Paula is very charming.
+ OC. Ex: Paul find the exercise extremely difficult.

 Adverb phrases (AvP) contain a head word, which is an

adverb, and its modifier(s).
Adverb phrases tell why, when, where, how, what for,
under what conditions, to what degree … to describe a
verb, adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause.

49
 An adverb phrase is in function modifier.
Ex: He sings very beautifully. (verb modifier)
Very luckily, the boy did not die. (sentence modifier)

 Preposition phrases (PP) consist of a preposition as

head word and its object. PP = P + NP.
A preposition phrase may function as :
+ A noun
Ex: On the beach now is much better than in class.
(subject)
I prefer in class. (DO)
The mouse emerged from behind the wardrobe.
(OP)
My favorite hiding place is under the table. (SC)
I find your explanation over their head. (OC)
+ An adjective
Ex: My son is the boy near the window. (noun
modifier)
The smile on Jack’s face faded at the news. (noun
modifier)

+ An adverb
Ex: Work with extreme caution when you set the
fuse.
(verb
modifier)
Due to the bad weather, the plane arrived one
hour late.
(sentence
modifier)

 Infinitive phrases (Inf.P) consist of an infinitive verb as

head word, followed by its object(s), modifier(s), or
complement(s).
Inf.P = Inf. + O/C/M
Infinitive phrases may act as :
+ A noun
Ex: To eat a lot of vegetables everyday is good for
health (S)
They are trying to build a fire. (DO)

50
 To study English effectively, the best way is to be
in an
English speaking environment. (SC)
I consider to study this way to waste time. (OC)
+ An adjective
Ex: A test to check cholesterol level is needed for fat
people.(M)
+ An adverb
Ex: We used dynamite to demolish the building
quickly. (VM)
To pass the final exam, you must study hard. (St
M)

In some circumstances, the infinitive may take a

subject:
Ex: The coach wanted his players to learn patience.
( ‘his players’
is the subject of ‘to learn’).

 Gerund phrases (GP) contain a gerund as head word

and its object(s), modifier(s), or complement(s). GP = G
+ O/C/M
A gerund phrase acts as a noun phrase.
Ex: Swimming everyday is good ( S )
I enjoy swimming in the morning. (DO)
I give studying English all my favor ( IO )
Before going to school, I always have a big
breakfast (OP)
Most children’s hobby is playing in the rain. (SC)
I find to live this way being in prison (OC)

 Present participle phrases (PresPP) consist of a

present participle as head word plus its object, modifier,
or complement.
Pres.PP = Pres.P + O/C/M.
A present participle can serve as :
+ An adjective
Ex: The boy sitting near the window is a new student. (
noun M)
+ An adverb
Ex: The little girl rushes into my arms crying loudly.
(verb M)

51
 Coming home, I found my dog poisoned
(sentence M)

 Past participle phrases (PPP) contain a past participle

as head word followed by its modifier(s). PPP =
Past.P + M
A past participle phrase can act as
+ An adjective
Ex: On the river bank sat little Robert, covered with
mud (NM)
+ An adverb
Ex: Wounded by an arrow, the eagle fell on the
ground (St M)
Note: Participial phrases must share the same subject
with the main
verb.

 Absolute phrases
An absolute phrase modifies an entire clause rather than
one word and is grammatically unconnected to the
clause, so it is set off by commas.
An absolute phrase usually consists of a participle and its
own subject.

An absolute phrase acts as an adverb phrase / modifier /

adverbial.
Ex: Their child being hurt on the playground, the parents
sued the city.
The general paced the room, voice pitched with
passion, eyes darting from one person to another,
hands gesturing wildly.
The van loaded, we headed for the mountains.
The President left the room, reporters clustering
around him.
The concert being over, everyone went home.
(L
ester, 268-273)
 Verb phrases
A verb phrase consists of the main verb, its
auxiliary(es), object(s), complement(s), or modifier(s).
Verb phrases act as the Predicator of a sentence.
Ex: The small boy is sleeping.

52
 Paul usually goes to school early with his friends.
The boy is playing chess with his friends in the
class.

C. DISTINGUISHING SUFFIXAL HOMOPHONES

h. Noun & Gerund

 Noun:
- can take the plural form +s . Ex: Readings,
Meetings …
- can be preceded by a / an in singular. Ex: a
reading, a meeting
- can have a modifier which is an adjective.
- cannot have DO
 Gerund: used as an uncountable noun
- cannot have plural form
- cannot be preceded by a / an
- can have a modifier which is an adverb.
- Can have Object

i. Gerund & Present Participle

 By function
 Gerund: used as a noun and can perform the
functions of a noun:
 Subject: Swimming is good for health.
 Direct Object: I enjoy swimming in the morning.
 Indirect Object: I give swimming all my favor.
 Object of Preposition: Before swimming, don’t
eat too much.
 Subject Complement: Seeing is believing.
 Object Complement: I consider studying this
way wasting time.
 Present Participle: used as an adjective or adverb
 Nominal Modifier: The boy sleeping is my son.
 Verbal Modifier: She rushes into my arms crying
loudly.
 Sentence Modifier: Coming home, I found the dog
poisoned.

 By Position
 Gerund can be put after a preposition.

53
 Ex: A swimming pool => a pool for swimming.
 Present Participle can be put after the auxiliary ‘to
be’ to form continuous form.
Ex: A barking dog => a dog is barking

 Stress Pattern
 Gerund / ´ ` / Ex: A swímming poøol; a daùncing
teøacher.
 Present participle / ` ´ / Ex: A baørking doùg; a
daøncing teùacher

j. Present participle & Adjective ending in - ing

By position
 Present participle when modifying a noun can be
put before or after the noun.
Ex: I saw a burning house – I saw a house burning.
In the two examples above, there is no difference in
function of the underlined participle ( nominal modifier);
however, there is a small difference in emphasis: the pre-
nominal modifier put the emphasis more on the complete
state than on the action in progress ( the post nominal
modifier).
 Adjective when modifying a noun is put only before
the noun. If we put it after the noun, its function will
change (OC in this case).
Ex: I found a charming girl. I found the girl
charming.
M / Ajal OC /
Ajal

By meaning
 Present participle expresses an action in progress.
Ex: A barking dog => a dog is barking
 Adjective expresses the quality or the state of the
noun.
Ex: An interesting book; a frightening night.

By qualifier
 Present participle cannot be qualified by an
intensifier (very, quite, fairly …)
Ex: We cannot say: A very barking dog.

54
  Adjective can be qualified by an intensifier.
Ex: A very charming girl; a quite interesting story

k. Present participle & Preposition

 Coming home, I found the dog poisoned
Present participle phrase: the present participle has
the same subject as the main verb.
 Concerning the weather, the trip should be
cancelled.
Preposition phrase: not the same subject.

l. Past participle & Adjective ending in –ed

By meaning
 Past participle has an active meaning or passive
meaning.
Ex1: An escaped prisoner: a prisoner who has escaped
from prison.
Ex2: An invited guest: a guest who has been invited.

 Adjective expresses a feeling.

Ex: I am very interested in football

By qualifier
 Past participle cannot be qualified by an intensifier.
Ex: We cannot say: A very invited guest.
 Adjective can be qualified by an intensifier.
Ex: I am very tired; She is quite frightened

m. Noun ending in –er & comparative form of

adjective or adverb.
 Noun: Verb + er. Ex: worker; singer; teacher
 Comparative: Adjective / Adverb + er. Ex: slower;
bigger

n. Adjective in –ly & adverb in –ly

 Adjective = Noun + ly. Ex: manly; lovely
 Adverb = Adjective + ly. Ex: Slowly; Quickly.

EXERCISE 4

55
Identify the –ing’s of the italicized words in the following
sentences.
Ex: It is a boring game. (adjective)
1. It was a charming spot => ______________
2. Jim lost both fillings from his tooth => __________________
3. It was located by a sweetly babbling brook => ______________
4. It was exciting to watch the fight => _______________
5. Old sayings are often half true => ________________
6. From the bridge, we watched the running water =>
________________
7. That barking dog keeps everyone awake => ______________
9. Matisse’s drawings are magnificently simple =>
_______________
10. A refreshing shower poured down => ______________
11. The attorney made a moving appeal => ______________
12. What an obliging fellow he is! => ______________
13. That was a touching scene => _____________
14. He told a convincing tale => __________

EXERCISE 5
Identify the suffixes of the italicized words in the
following sentences.
1. You should read the printed statement => _________
2. Merle is a neglected child => ___________
3. This is a complicated question => _____________
4. The invited guest all came => _______________
5. We had a reserved seat => ____________
6. A celebrated painter visited the campus => ___________
7. A worried look crossed his face => ______________
8. The punished boy ran away from home => _____________
9. A reserved girl usually doesn’t have many friends =>
____________
10. Helen was excited about her new job => _______________

EXERCISE 6
Analyze the underlined phrases in the following sentences
Ex: Explaining the process, Dr. Ford drew simple
illustrations
PresPP/M
1. Leaves falling, air smelling of crisp apple, and white clouds

billowing against the sky, no other season matches autumn.

56
2. Crowds poured into the streets to welcome home the victors,

the hometown football team.

3. The team having won all its games , Chicago celebrated as

never before.

4. Even the stern history professor, his face smiling and eyes

shining, dismissed us to join the throng.

5. An unnecessary tragedy, an athlete’s neck injury, marred the

final days of the winning football season.

6. Successfully merchandising a product is creative.

7. Americans have always needed to know the point of it all.

8. They have also been getting tougher by enforcing strict new

anti-litter laws.

9. Taking criticism from others is painful but useful.

10. Merely to argue for the preservation of park land is not

enough.

11. Angry and proud, Claire resolved to fight back.

12. After giving birth, most women lapse into some sort of

melancholy.

13. Workers managed to pipe the gas through a purifying plant

and into a pipeline.

57
14. All human acts – even saving a stranger from drowning or

donating a million dollars to the poor – may be ultimately

selfish.

15. This method of growing plants without soil has long been

known to scientists but has only recently begun to attract

amateurs’ attention.

16. His leaving the farm prompted her to sick a job in town.

17. Crawling through the thicket, I suddenly remembered the

box of shells left on top of the truck.

18. They worked fast, one man sawing logs and the other

loading the truck.

19. Not wanting to appear in court, Marilyn decided to pay the

fine.

20. All told, fame is fickle.

D. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

1. Definition.
A subordinate clause is a group of related words that
contains both a subject and a predicate (a finite verb). Like
a phrase, a subordinate clause (dependent) is not a
sentence. It is linked to the main clause by a subordinate
conjunction or a relative pronoun.

2. Identification.
Subordinate clauses are identified by their functions in the
sentence.

58
a. Noun clause (NC) is in the functions of a noun.
 Subject
Ex: What you said is very interesting.
Why he forgot his appointment is a mystery.
That you are very charming is undeniable.
Whether you come or not is not important to her.
It is essential that you know the truth.
 Direct object
Ex: He said that he loved me
I don’t know where you are living
 Indirect object
Ex: She made whomever she met the same greeting.
She offered whoever came a gift.
Give the tool to whoever can use them best.
 Object of preposition
Ex: You can go with whomever you like.
From where you are standing, you can see
everybody.
 Subject complement
Ex: That’s what I intended to say.
 Object complement
Ex: She made me what I am now.
You can call me whatever you like.
 Complement of noun
Ex: The hope that you’ll pass the exam is great.
The notion that women are poor drivers cannot
hold under investigation.
 Complement of adjective
Ex: I am hopeful that you’ll pass the exam.
She is glad that you can come with us.

b. Adjective clauses modify a noun or pronoun. They

are introduced by a relative pronoun.
Ex: The boy who is sleeping in class is my son.
I’ll never forget the town where I was born.
Days when we have no chores to do are as rare
as winning
lottery tickets.

c. Adverb clauses tell when, where, why, how, under

what conditions, to what degree. Usually they modify

59
 the verb, adjective, adverb, or the whole sentence
and are separated by a comma when they precede the
main clause.

Different types of adverb clause

 Manner : introduced by as, as if, as though, in that
…
Ex: Paul did the work as it ought to be done.
He ran as if he were mad.
We were at a disadvantage in that they
outnumbered us two
to one.

 Place: introduced by where, wherever.

Ex: Put it back where you found it.
I’ll follow you wherever you go.

 Time: introduced by when, while, after, before, as

soon as, as long as, by the time, once, no sooner …
than, …
Ex: Come back as soon as you can.
I’ll have finished by the time you get back.
I met him as he was coming out of school.
You’ll find the way all right once you get there.
He had no sooner arrived than he demanded a
meal.

 Reason / Cause: introduced by because, since, as,

seeing that, now that…
Ex: Since you won’t help me, I must do the job
myself.
Now that we’ve mastered this step, we can
progress to the
next one.

 Purpose: introduced by so that, in order that, lest

(so that.. not), for fear that, in case (so that…not) …
Ex: Some people eat so that they may live.
I am telling you this lest you should make a
mistake.

60
 He tiptoed into the room for fear that he might
wake the
baby up.
We didn’t move in case we woke him up.
 Concession / Opposition : introduced by though,
although, as though, even though, even if, however
(+ adjective / adverb), no matter how, whether …
or not, in spite of the fact that, whatever, whoever
…
Ex: He did well in his exam even if he didn’t get a
prize.
However hard he tries, he can never win her
heart.
Whatever you may say, I still think I did the right
thing.
No matter whether you agree or not, I’ll pay him
the price
he asks.
He’s coming today in spite of the fact that I told
him I didn’t
want him.
Poor as he is, he lives honestly. (although he is
poor)
Try as he will, he can never get success. (though
he tries
hard) .
Much as you may earn, you can never satisfy her
needs
(although you may earn a lot of money …)

 Comparison or Degree : introduced by as, than

Ex: This work is not so easy as you think.
She was more clever than I could think.

 Result or Effect : introduced by so … that, such …

that, so that
Ex: He ran so fast that I could not catch him.
She is such a charming girl that nobody can help
loving her.
He bought a good book so that he learnt English
well.

61
 He bought so good a book that he learnt English
well.
He bought such a good book that he learnt
English well.
 Condition : introduced by if, unless, supposing,
provided, on condition that, as long as.
Ex: Unless you take the car, I won’t go.
As long as my parents still support me, I don’t
have to find a
part-time job.
I shall go provided that he asks me.
(Dang Thi Huong, 1998: 208-
224)
EXERCISE 7
Analyze the subordinate clauses in the following
sentences.
Ex: Richard left dirty footmarks wherever he went.
AvC/M
1. Food manufacturers contend that modern processing often

robs food of its natural color.

2. What my son wants to wear is now almost entirely his

business.

3. Grocers today must deal with shoppers whose basic

attitudes are drastically changed.

4. As I talked to my neighbors, I found that all of them did

depend on a world that stretched far beyond their property

lines.

5. As it declines in value, money becomes more of an

obsession.

62
6. If a pitcher who throws only a fastball and a curveball is in

a tight situation, the batter can reasonably expect the

fastball.

7. Bloodhounds do not follow tracks as people often believe …

Because a trail so often hangs several inches or sometimes

feet above the ground, hounds can follow a person even if

he wades through water.

8. At present, computers are rapidly moving into offices

around the world to take over secretarial chores that involve

processing words.

9. The language is what it is, and not what you want it to be.

10. Don’t handle those cups as if they were made of iron

63
CHAPTER 2.

FUNCTIONAL CLASSES
In a sentence, a word or group of words may perform different
syntactic or grammatical functions.

A. SUBJECT
The subject of the sentence acts, is acted upon, or is
discussed.
a. Identification
In a sentence, the subject of the verb can be identified by:
 making a question
i. Who? for a person.
Ex: A boy is sleeping in class. => Who is
sleeping in class?
o What? for an animal or a thing.
Ex: A dog is barking => What is barking?
A book is on the table => What is on the
table?
 basing on S – V agreement
the verb must agree with its subject
Ex: A boy is sleeping in class.
Two boys are playing cards.
There is a book on the table.
There are two books on the table.

b. Types of subject:
 Real subject: the verb always agrees with the real
subject.
Ex: The boy is playing chess in class.

 Formal / Unreal / Expletive subject: There; Here ;

It.

64
 The formal subject can be omitted and replaced by
the real one.
Ex: There is a book on the table => A book is on the
table It is very difficult to study English =>
To study English is
very difficult.

B. OBJECT
a. Objects of verb complement the meaning of the verb.
 Direct objects ( DO ) receive the action expressed by a
transitive active verb. A DO can be identified by making
the question What, Whom and transforming into passive
Ex: Sarah bought some flowers. (bought what?)
i. Some flowers were bought by Sarah.
I love the girl in the first row. (love whom?)
ii. The girl in the first row is loved by me.

 Retained objects ( RO ) occur in the passive voice of

some transitive verbs.
Ex: The girl was bought a dress by her mother.

 Indirect objects (IO) receive the action of the verb

indirectly, through a preposition. Indirect objects can be
identified by the question to whom or for whom,
sometimes with a different preposition.
Ex: Sarah bought her mother a dress. (for whom?)
NP/IO
He sold the student a ticket (to whom)
He built them a playpen (for whom)
He played me a game of chess (with whom)
He asked her a question (of whom)

Indirect objects can be in the form of different parts of

speech.

+ Give - type verbs such as give, make, find, tell, buy,

write, send, ask, play, build, teach, assign, feed, offer,
throw, hand, pass, sell, pay, …
For this type of verb, when the IO precedes the DO, there
is no preposition, and the IO is a NP. On the contrary, if

65
 the IO follows the DO, a preposition is needed and the IO
is a PP.
Ex: Sarah bought her mother a dress.
NP/IO
Sarah bought a dress for her mother.
PP/IO

+ Explain – type verbs such as explain, deliver,

describe, say, dictate, introduce, read, write, sing. For
this type of verb, the IO always requires a preposition,
regardless its position.
Ex: The teacher explained the lesson to the students.
PP/IO
The teacher explained to them the lesson.
PP/IO
+ Some verbs as read, write, sing may have an IO
without DO. In this case the IO always needs a
preposition.
Ex: When I arrive in America, I’ll write to you.
PP/IO
If I have enough time, I’ll sing for you.
PP/IO

 Prepositional objects. For the verbs that require a

preposition, the PP complement the verb through a
preposition and is called a prepositional object.
Ex: Max glanced at the girl. (PP / Pre.O)
I don’t believe in him. (PP / Pre.O)
The teacher looked at the new student.
You can rely on Kevin.
Your success depends on your efforts.
The manager is dealing with a critical client.
The Prime Minister can’t count for the loss of votes.

They blamed the gardener for fire.

NP/DO PP/prepO
That firm supplies the university with paper.
He convinced the jury of his innocence.
The government should inform the public of the
consequences.
I congratulated Paul on his success.
It reminds me of my home town.

66
 They robbed her of her handbag.

b. Object of prepositions (OP) follow and complement the

preposition. The object of preposition may be of different
parts of speech.
Ex: The boy is sitting near the window. (NP)
I want to sit beside you. (PN)
From here, I can see all of you. (Adverb)
Before swimming, don’t eat too much. (Gerund)
From behind the wardrobe, the cat jumped out to
catch the mouse.
(Prepositional phrase)
From where I am standing, I can see all of you. (NC)

EXERCISE 8
Give the name and function of the underlined parts in the
following sentences.
Ex: To live each day fully is my credo.
InfP/S
1. Some early literature in America was devoted to

descriptions of life in the colonies.

2. During the 1600s, religious writings formed the bulk of

American writings.

3. Each wrote numerous religious tracts during the 1700s.

4. There is still great interest in the writings of Jonathan

Edwards.

5. The speech was awarded first place by the judges.

6. High winds leveled a city in West Texas.

7. Mary baked Timothy a cake.

8. What pictures did they hang on the wall of the living-room?

67
 9. The girl that he is talking to looks attractive in either the

pink dress or the yellow.

10. She made whomever she met the same greeting.

C. COMPLEMENTS
a. A subject complement (SC) refers to, identifies,
describes, or qualifies the subject. A subject complement
helps to complement the meaning of the subject though a
linking verb.
A linking verb is a verb describing a state and usually
followed by an adjective.
The subject complement may be a nominal (what? who?)
or an adjectival (how?)
Ex: He is a teacher.(what, who)
NP/SC/Nal
She is charming. (how)
A/SC/Ajal
They are in a hurry. (how).
PP/SC/Ajal
That is what I intended to say. (what)
NC/SC/Nal

b. An object complement (OC) refers to, identifies,

describes, or qualifies the DO. Object complements help to
complement the meaning of some transitive verbs, such as
name, choose, elect, appoint, designate, select, vote make,
declare, nominate, call, fancy, consider, imagine, think,
believe, feel, keep, suppose, find, prove, label, judge.

The semantic relationship between a Direct Object and an

Object complement is similar to the relationship between
the Subject and Subject Complement.
+ We chose John the leader of our class
iii. John was the leader of the class.
+ I find you very charming
iv. You are very charming
This explains why it is often possible to insert to be or as in
front of the Object Complement.
+ The judges considered the girl to be the winner
+ John regarded Peter as a helper.

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 An object complement may be a nominal (what?), an
adjectival (how?), or sometimes an adverbial (where) .
Ex: He considered her brilliant.
She made me sad.
I painted the door green. => V – N – A (how)
I find you charming.

We chose him leader. (N)

Mary called her mother. => V – N =
N(al) (what)
You can call me whatever you like. The DO &
OC refer to
She made me what I am.(NC) the same
person.
I thought the caller you. (PN)

I imagine her eating. (Pres. part)

I want my fish fried. (Past part) =>
the
We supposed him upstairs. (Adverb)
meaning is
I found your explanation over their head.(PP)
subjective

c. A complement of the noun (C o N) completes / explains

the noun in the same way as the direct object. (what?)
Ex: I hope that you’ll pass the exam.
NC/DO
The hope that you’ll pass the exam is great.
NC/CoN
I believe that Henry is lazy.
NC/DO
My belief that Henry is lazy is very strong.
NC/CoN

d. A complement of the adjective (CoA) completes /

explains the adjective in the same way as the direct object.
Ex: I fear that they are lost.
NC/DO
I am fearful that they are lost.
NC/CoA

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 I hope that you’ll pass the exam.
NC/DO
I am hopeful that you’ll pass the exam.
NC/CoA

He hesitated to see her.

InfP/DO
He was hesitant to see her.
InfP/CoA

He hoped that a change would occur.

NC/DO
He was hopeful of a change.
PP/CoA
Compare:
1/a. The theory that the monkey is our ancestor is
wrong.
NC/CoN
b. The theory that you told me is wrong.
AC/M
“A noun complement is also known as a contentive, so called
because the complement normally specifies the content of its
head noun.” (Jacobs, 1995:100)
As a complement of noun, ‘that the monkey is our ancestor’
completes the meaning of ‘the theory’: it tells us what the theory
is about. Meanwhile, ‘that you told me’ in the 2nd example, does
not supply the content of the theory but only identifies the
theory (which theory); it is therefore a post-modifier of the
noun.
2/a. I am certain that you’ll pass the exam.
NC/CoA
b. It is certain that you’ll pass the exam.
NC/ Real Subject

3/a. She was glad that you came.

NC/CoA
b. She was glad when you came.
AvC/M
There is a two-way dependency of complement and head noun
and a one-way dependency of modifier and head noun. “
Complements typically follow their heads in English.
Modifiers, by contrast, can precede or follow their heads….”

70
 (Burton-Roberts, 1997:43)
In 2/a and 3/a, the underlined parts cannot be moved to another
place.
“That you’ll pass the exam I am certain” is grammatically
incorrect
“That you came she was glad” is also grammatically
incorrect.
They are therefore complements of the preceding adjective
(certain & glad)

In 2/b and 3/b, the underlined parts can be moved to another

place
“That you’ll pass the exam is certain”. As ‘that you’ll pass
the exam’ can replace the formal subject ‘it’, it is a real subject.
“ When you came, she was glad”. As ‘when you came’ can
be put before or after the head, it is a modifier.

e. A complement of the verb (CoV), / Predicator

complement completes the verb in the same way as the
direct object when the verb is a linking verb without a
subject or a transitive verb which ‘takes an obligatory
complement but does not passivise…’ (Downing & Locke,
1992: 55-56). This complement is called Predicator
Complement or Complement of Verb.
Compare:
1/a. John became a famous singer.
NP/SC
b. To become a famous singer is not an easy thing.
NP/CoV
In 1/b, the underlined part cannot be the subject
complement since there is no subject. It completes the
meaning of the verb ‘to become’.

2/a. It seems that he has never been paid the money.

NC/CoV
b. A century ago, it seemed unlikely that we would find a
cure for TB
NC/ Real S
=> A century ago, that we would find a cure for TB seemed
unlikely.

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 In 2/a, we cannot replace the subject ‘it’ by the underlined
part as we
can in 2/b, so in 2/a the underlined part is a C o V, and in
2/b the
underlined part is a Real Subject.

More examples of Predicator Complement / C o V:

 We have plenty of time. => Not: Plenty of time is had.
 I don’t possess any valuables.
 His argument lacks force.
 Will 5 o’clock suit you?
 This jar contains nails.
 This lesson composes 5 parts.
 These gloves don’t fit me.
 The room measures 5 m long.
 Each ticket costs 2 dollars.
 This bag of potatoes weighs 50 kilos.
 The flight to HN took 2 hours.
 Joes resembles his father.
(The underlined parts above cannot be passivised)

A number of ditransitive verbs (verbs with 2 objects) take a

Direct Object + a Predicator Complement.
“Usually only the object constituent can become subject in a
passive clause …. Both Direct and Indirect Objects share this
potential.” (Downing & Loke, 1992: 88)
In the following examples:
a. We’ll allow everybody a ten minute break.
b. The shop assistant charged me too much for the
toothpaste.
‘everybody’ in (a) and ‘me’ in (b) can be made the subject of the
passive verb
a'. Everybody will be allowed a ten minute break.
b'. I was charged too much for the toothpaste.
So they can be called Object. However, they are not Indirect
Object because they do not fulfill the criterion for Indirect Object.
We can not say:
We will allow a ten minute break to everybody.
The shop assistant charged too much to me for the tooth
paste.
They therefore are called Direct Object.

72
On the other hand, ‘a ten minute break’ in (a) and ‘too much’ in
(b) cannot be made the subject of the passive verb.
Not A ten minute break will be allowed to everybody.
Too much was charged to me for the toothpaste.
So they cannot be an object. They are called Predicator
Complement (Downing & Loke, 1992: 55-56, 88-92).

More examples:
a. He wished me a happy day.
DO Pred C
b. He gave the door a push.
c. Let’s ask someone the way.
d. The bank has refused me a loan.

EXERCISE 9
Give the name and function of the underlined parts in the
following sentences.
1. Jim doubts that he can pass the exam.

2. Paul is certain of winning the lottery.

3. Joining club is a good way of meeting new people.

4. Standing next to Ed made Jane taller than she is.

5. John wanted to become an engineer.

6. To be successful doesn’t mean to be wealthy.

7. She wants to know if anyone has an umbrella to lend her.

8. Without a doubt, dancing helps develop grace and

confidence.

9. The assertion that women are poor drivers does not hold

up under investigation.

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 10. We entertained a suspicion that Mink had been

cheating.

11. The principle that water runs only downhill seems

sometimes to be contradicted by our senses.

12. Mrs. Hawkins is devoted to her daughter.

13. Juliet became forgetful of her duties.

14. We thought that Chico was a fine player.

15. We thought Chico to be a fine player.

16. The director found him a new costume.

17. My uncle remains the worst bridge player in town.

18. Your cigar smells so aromatic.

19. The government’s action to control interest rates has

been very prompt.

20. I wasn’t happy at school until I found I had the ability

to make people laugh.

D. MODIFIERS
A modifier is a word or word group that affects the meaning of
a head word in that it describes, limits, intensifies, and / or
adds to the meaning of the head.
Modifiers may appear before or after the heads they modify.
a. Pre-modifiers appear before the head.
Ex: A dirty dog
Extremely dirty
Very fast
Often reads
b. Post-modifiers appear after the head.

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 Ex: The dog there
The dog barking angrily
The dog across the street
A dog to be feared
Reads rapidly
Reads standing

c. Pre-nominal modifiers consist of all the words that

appear before the head noun and modify the noun as an
adjective (adjectival)
Ex: His car
John’s hat
A charming girl
This large college dormitory
The summer’s red garden roses

When there are many pre-nominal modifiers, they must

appear in some order.
Ex: All the first three college students were awarded
$1000.

The pre-nominal modifier adjectives also appear in some

order.
Ex: This beautiful antique Mayan flower vase costs a lot of
money.

PRE-NOMINAL MODIFIER CHART

Restricte Pre- Determiner Post- Adjectiv Noun
r determin determin e
er er
Especially All Articles Cardinal Red School
Even Both Possessive numbers Blue College
Just Half adj. Ordinal Old Garden
Merely Double Poss. of numbers New Fence
Only names Poss. of High Paper
Particularl Demonstrati common Low ….
y ve adj nouns Japanese
Almost Indefinite Indefinite Wooden
Nearly words words …..

(Stageberg, 1983: 258)

ADJECTIVE ORDER CHART

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Pre Det. Opinion Size Shap Age Colo Origin Materi Non- Hea
- Adjectiv e r al materi d
det e al Nou
n
All the pretty littl rubber toys
e
A beautif antiqu Mayan flower vase
ul e
Som roun whit Chines Disc
e d e e s

(Smalley, 1986: 64)

d. Post-nominal modifiers consist of all the words that
appear after the head noun and modify the noun as an
adjective (adjectival).
The post-nominal modifier may be of different parts of
speech:
 An adjective beginning with a- as asleep, afraid,
alive, ajar …
Ex: The door ajar made the little girl worried.
I have never seen a dragon alive.
 An adjective phrase
Ex: The mailman, exuberantly happy, whistled
merrily.
He had never seen a woman more lovely.
The mailman, weary and wet, trudged along in
the rain.
 An adverb
Ex: The people upstairs are very noisy.
The woman ahead is a new teacher.
The president then was Mr. Bill Clinton.
The beer particularly interested him.
 A noun phrase
Ex: The party last night was wonderful.
Our vacation next summer will be in VN.
The decision that time was correct.
 A preposition phrase
Ex: The boy near the window is a new student.
The house between the fences was painted
green.
 A participle or participle phrase
Ex: The woman weeping was escorted to the door.

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 The hawk, spotting his prey, swooped to the
meadow.
They refused to pay the money demanded.
The snow, driven by the wind, sifted through the
cracks.
 An infinitive or infinitive phrase
Ex: Do you have anything to do?
I have some homework to finish before lunch.
It was a day to remember forever.
 An adjective clause
Ex: The small boy who is sleeping is my son.
The boat he wants is a catamaran.
The client whose stock he was handling died.

EXERCISE 10
Identify the nominal modifiers in the following sentences
Ex: The weather this morning is very beautiful.
NP/M/Ajal
1. We watched the brown river, swollen with rain.

2. It was a large outdoor swing, the property of our neighbor.

3. The fireworks were a sight to behold.

4. The hoe leaning against the house is dull.

5. The mountaintop, high and craggy, was hidden in a black

cloud.

6. The building which is near the library is new.

7. I’ll see you the day before you go.

8. The skiing last winter was good.

9. The students here are a courteous group.

10. This matter too must be discussed.

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e. Modifier as an adverb / adverbial
A modifier / adverbial ( M / Aval) is a modifier of an
adjective, an adverb, a phrase, a verb, or a sentence. A
modifier / adverbial can be identified by the questions with
when, where, why, how, what for …
A modifier of an adjective, an adverb, or a phrase usually
appears before the head.
Ex: That girl is extremely nice. (modifies ‘nice’)
She sings very beautifully. (modifies
‘beautifully’)
Coming home, he went straight to bed. (modifies
‘to bed’)

f. Verbal modifiers / adverbial

 One – word adverbials may appear before or after
the verb.
Ex: They shouted angrily.
He rarely drove carelessly.
John never works long.
The captain was walking ahead.
You can put it anywhere.

 Word-group adverbials may be of different kinds of

word or word groups and usually appear after the
verb.
+ A prepositional phrase
Ex: The car slid into the garage.
Harry was studying German at that time.
+ A noun phrase
Ex: You should hold the hammer this way.
I’ll pay the next time.
He studied the whole afternoon.
+ An adverb clause
Ex: I’ll see you before you leave.
I study English so that I could go abroad.
I won’t go unless you take the car.
+ An infinitive phrase
Ex: He works in order to succeed.
They waited to see the results.
O’Brian dieted to reduce his weight.

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 + A present participle phrase
Ex: She rushed into my arms crying loudly.
The girl sat eating an ice-cream.
He gulped his coffee standing up.
+ A past participle phrase
Ex: He returned defeated by the weather.
The eagle fell down wounded by an arrow.
She sat fascinated by the music.

EXERCISE 11
Analyze the underlined parts in the following sentences
Ex: The boy laughing noisily is from Africa.
PrestpP/M/Ajal PP/M/Aval
1. He left the office encouraged by the interview.

2. He spent every evening drinking beer.

3. He came to see his brother in the prison every weekend.

4. She danced keeping her eyes closed.

5. You can do the problem either way.

6. Jim wants to become a physical therapist.

7. To become a physical therapist , one must have 5 years of

college training

8. His ambition to become a physical therapist was strong.

9. That is a movie to see.

10. He is reluctant to leave the home.

11. The text chosen by the instructor was up to date.

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12. On the river bank sat little Robert, covered with mud.

13. Sue objected to taking the test over.

14. The girl taking the test over was Sue.

15. Karl opened his book bag to look for his term paper.

16. The desire to finish his term paper in time forced Paul

to try his best.

17. His desire was to finish his term paper early.

18. Jim’s work had much improved by that time.

19. She entered my room singing a gay tune.

20. Open your eyes when you hear the bell.

g. Sentence modifiers
A sentence modifier is an adverbial that modifies, as its
head, all the rest of the sentence, and is often set apart by
a comma.
Ex: Naturally, he behaved at the party. (‘naturally’
modifies the whole
sentence).
Compare this
He behaved naturally at the party. (here ‘naturally’
modifies the
verb ‘behaved’

Happily, he did not die. Sentence modifier

He did not die, happily => he did not die. How
happy!

He did not die happily => verbal modifier: He died

painfully.

A sentence modifier may be of different forms:

 Single-word adverbial
Ex: Luckily, I knew how to swim.

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  Clause adverbial
Ex: Since the door was closed, we climbed in the
back window.
 Prepositional phrase
Ex: To my surprise, the contract is invalid.
 Absolute structure
Ex: The guests having departed, we resumed the
normal household routine.
 Infinitive phrase
Ex: To keep dry in a tent, you should be provided
with a fly.
 Present participle phrase
Ex: Coming home, I found the dog poisoned.
 Past participle phrase
Ex: Delayed by the bad weather, the plane arrived
one hour
late.
Usually, a sentence modifier is in initial sentence position, but it
may also appear in medial and final position.
(Stageberg, 1981: 246-268)

EXERCISE 12
Give the name and function of the underlined parts in the
following sentences, then explain the difference in
meaning.
1. Oliver did not die happily.

2. Happily, Oliver did not die.

3. He was anxious to tell the truth.

4. He was anxious, to tell the truth.

5. Hopefully, we are going to London.

6. We are going to London hopefully.

7. Honestly, he is going to sell his car.

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 8. He is going to sell his car honestly.

9. Frankly, I did not wish to speak.

10. I do not wish to speak frankly.

CHAPTER 3.
POSITIONAL CLASSES
These are based on the positions occupied by the form classes.
The members of these classes are both words and word groups.
2. nominal (Nal)
3. adjectival (Ajal)
4. adverbial (Aval)
5. verbal (Val)

A. NOMINALS

These positions are characteristically the habitation of nouns.

They are the positions occupied by items having these functions:
 SV Subject of verb
 SC Subjective complement
 DO Direct object of verb
 IO Indirect object of verb
 OC Objective complement
 OP Object of preposition
 RO Retained object

The occupancy of these positions does not positively identify

nouns because words of other form classes can occupy this
position as well.
Ex: Rich is good.
A/S/Nal
i. Rich is an Adjective by Form; a Subject by Function;
and a Nominal by Position.

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 Steadily is the best way to work.
Av/S/Nal
I enjoy swimming.
G/DO/Nal
On the beach now is much better than in class.
PP/S/Nal
My favorite hiding place is under the table.
PP/SC/Nal
From here, you can have an overview of the city.
Av/OP/Nal
She offered whoever came a special gift.
NC/IO/Nal
They thought Peter to be the winner.
InfP/OC/Nal

EXERCISE 13
The underlined word groups below are nominals. Identify
their form and function.
1. Jerry knows that history is never completely true.

2. His greatest ambition is to win the match.

3. You made me what I am.

4. He assigned whoever was late an extra problem.

5. Do you object to what I wrote?

6. Petty gossiping makes one unpopular.

7. Under seventeen requires an accompanying parent.

8. Can you see from where you sit?

9. He did not give finding the cat a second thought.

10. She became what she had hoped.

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 B. ADJECTIVALS

Adjectivals occupy the position of:

 A nominal modifier ( M / Ajal) (which?)
 A subjective complement ( SC / Ajal) (how?)
 An objective complement ( OC / Ajal) (how?)
Besides adjectives, words of other form classes can also occupy
this position:
Ex: A college student must study hard.
N/M/Ajal
The people upstairs are very noisy.
Av/M/Ajal
The boy sitting in the corner is a new student.
PrestpP/M/Ajal
The small boy severely punished by his father ran away
from home.
PPP/M/Ajal
That girl is very charming.
AP/SC/Ajal
I found your explanation over their head.
PP/OC/Ajal
The man seemed in the money (= rich)
PP/SC/Ajal
This is not the size I ordered.
AC/M/Ajal
Angry and upset, the applicant slammed the door.
AP/M/Ajal

EXERCISE 14
Underline the word-group adjectival and identify its form.
1. This will be a day to remember for ever.

2. The drugstore on the corner sells the Times.

3. Our guests came on the week when I was housecleaning.

4. A girl spoiled by her mother is not a good roommate.

5. Just choose a time convenient to yourself.

6. Who is the head of this club?

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 7. Have you finished the book I lent you?

8. Would you like something sweet?

9. Everybody interested is invited to appear.

10. An invitation was extended to everyone concerned.

C. ADVERBIALS

An adverbial is a modifier of an adjective, an adverb, a phrase, a

verb, or a whole sentence. The position of adverbial is the most
flexible. It can be at different positions. We can identify an
adverbial by making the question with when, where, why, how,
what for …
An adverbial modifying an adjective, an adverb, or a phrase
usually appears before the head.
Ex: Very interesting
Extremely fast
Right by the sea
An adverbial modifying a verb may be at 5 different positions in a
sentence:
+ At the beginning
Ex: Really, you should know better.
+ After the subject
Ex: She often would forget her keys.
+ After the first auxiliary
Ex: He would seldom make the effort.
+ After an intransitive verb or linking verb
Ex: He drove carelessly
She is seldom late
She is outside
+ At the end
Ex: John will be the coach tomorrow
He will play football tomorrow
They may choose John captain tomorrow

However, this position may be confusing.

Compare
+ I met her at the bank.

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 PP/M/Aval
+ I considered her in the way (=bothersome)
PP/OC/Ajal

+ I love the girl in the first row.

PP/M/Ajal

Some suggested ways to distinguish an adverbial from an

adjectival:

1. Substitution test:
Try to replace the word or word-group by an adjective for
adjectival and
by an adverb for adverbial.
Ex: I considered her in the way
ii. I considered her bothersome. ( OK )
iii. I considered her there. (unacceptable)

2. Passive transformation
When we put a sentence into passive, the nominal modifier
will go with its head noun while the adverbial modifier or the
objective complement will remain in the same position.
Ex: I met her at the bank.
PP/M/Aval
iv. She was met at the bank.
I considered her in the way (=bothersome)
PP/OC/Ajal
v. She was considered in the way.
I love the girl in the first row.
PP/M/Ajal
vi. The girl in the first row is loved by me.

3. Movement test
Most adverbials can be moved to another position while a
nominal modifier or subjective complement cannot.
Ex: I met her at the bank.
PP/M/Aval
vii. At the bank, I met her.
I considered her in the way
PP/OC/Ajal
viii. Not: In the way I considered her.

86
 I love the girl in the first row.
PP/M/Ajal
ix. Not: In the first row I love her.

EXERCISE 15
Identify the form of the italicized adverbials in the
following sentences
1. I’ll dress while you shave AvC
2. When the coffee is ready, blow the wistle. ______
3. He might under the circumstances agree to the job
______
4. Our guide split the log with ease ______
5. Chewing his tobacco meditatively, he studied the sky
______
6. A hungry trout rose to the surface ______
7. To find the camp, just follow the creek downstream
______
8. Jake hunts to make a living ______
9. He fell, wounded by an arrow ______
10. You must
hold the knife this way ______

D. VERBALS

Verbals are those forms that occupy verb positions and perform
predicator ( P ) function.
A verbal may be:
a. A verb phrase
+ a finite verb
Ex: The girl giggles.
VP/P/Val
+ Auxiliary + main verb
Ex: The girl is laughing.
VP/P/Val
+ (aux.) + MV+ O/C/M
Ex: The boy goes to school by bus everyday.
VP/P/Val
The boy is eating chocolate alone in a corner of
the class.

87
 VP/P/Val

b. A non-finite verb
+ standing alone: When standing alone in a sentence, a
non-finite verb is
identified by its position and function
in the sentence.
Ex: To see is to believe.
Inf/S/Nal Inf/SC/Nal
They struggled to survive.
Inf/M/Aval
That is a day to remember.
Inf/M/Ajal

+ beginning a verbal phrase: When a non-finite verb

begins a verbal
phrase, it is always in
function Predicator
( P ) and Verbal (Val)
Compare:
Eating a lot of vegetables everyday is good for health.
GP/S/Nal
Eating a lot of vegetables everyday is good for health.
G/P/Val
His ambition is to win the match.
InfP/SC/Nal
His ambition is to win the match.
Inf/P/Val
He wants to become an engineer.
InfP/DO/Nal
He wants to become an engineer.
Inf/P/Val

EXERCISE 16
Analyze the following underlined parts by Form, Function,
and Position
1. Having sprinkled the lawn, he turned off the water.

88
 2. She remembered seeing the play before.

3. Do you like to be there?

4. We urged the guests to remain for dinner.

5. She was proud of being a member of the band.

6. He wanted the teacher to give him an A.

7. After having been cheerful for weeks, Chuck was now

depressed.

8. Keeping quiet, she peered through the window.

9. Calling Josephine an artist was a compliment.

10. Jim’s father did not object to his becoming a Marine.

EXERCISE 17
Identify the Form, Function, and Position of the
underlined parts
1. Last Monday was a holiday.

2. The Monday washing is on the line.

3. Mrs. Reed always jogs Mondays.

4. Won’t you come in ?

5. The outs were angry with the ins.

6. They stomped upstairs.

7. They slept in the upstairs room.

8. One can see the airport from upstairs.

9. Jake was wrestling with his math.

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10. The wrestling roommates were exhausted.

11. Juniper found wrestling exciting.

12. They came in wrestling.

13. The student movie is presented weekly.

14. The student movie is a weekly occurrence.

15. His way is the best.

16. He did this his way.

17. The mechanic ran the engine full speed.

18. By this means he burned out the carbon.

19. He raised the hood because the engine was hot.

20. They found the cabin just what they wanted.

CHAPTER 4.
BASIC SENTENCE PATTERNS

90
We do not speak English by merely stringing words together in
some random fashion. Instead, we carefully arrange our words
into patterns. In English, there are 9 basic sentence patterns and
a multitude of sub-patterns. Any sentence we speak will probably
be based on one of them.
In order to identify a sentence pattern, we base on the main verb.

Basing on the main verb in the sentence, 9 basic sentence

patterns can be divided into 4 groups.

TO BE : Pattern number 1, 2, 3.
LINKING VERB : Pattern number 4, 5.
INTRANSITIVE VERB : Pattern number 6.
TRANSITIVE VERB : Pattern number 7, 8, 9.

Pattern 1 : N be ADJ

Ex: Food is good.

(1) (2) (3)

 The first position is the position of the Subject / nominal.

This position can be occupied by other words or word-
groups / S/Nal.

 The 2nd position is ‘to be’, a linking verb with the meaning
“may be described as”. (description)

 The 3rd term must be an adjective or an adjectival in

function SC/Ajal, answering the question with how.
This position may also be occupied by a PP that can be
replaced by an adjective.

Ex: They are in a hurry. (how?) (= hurried)

PP/SC/Ajal
The teacher was in bad mood. (how?) (= irritable)
PP/SC/Ajal
Your explanation was over their head (how) (=
incomprehensible)

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 PP/SC/Ajal

Pattern 2 N be ADV

The girl is here

(1) (2) (3)

 The first position is the position of the Subject / nominal.

This position can be occupied by other words or word-
groups / S/Nal.

 The 2nd position is also ‘ to be’, but here it is an intransitive

verb with the meaning “be located” or “ occur”. (location)

 The 3rd term is occupied by an adverb of time or place / M /

Aval, answering the question with when or where.
This position may also be occupied by a PP that can be
replaced by there or then .
Ex: The wolf is at the door (where). ( = there)
PP/M/Aval
The game is at 3 o’clock (when) ( = then)
PP/M/Aval

Pattern 3 N1 be N1

My brother is a doctor
(1) (2) (3)

 The superscript 1 after the N in position (1) & (3) means

that the both nouns refer to the same person (brother =
doctor).

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  ‘To be’ in the 2nd position means “be identified or classified
as”.

 The 3rd term is a noun in function SC/Nal, answering the

question with what.
This position can be occupied by other words or word-
groups / SC /Nal.
Ex: My hobby is to go fishing (what).
InfP/SC/Nal
That car is hers.
PN/SC/Nal
That is what I intended to say.
NC/SC/Nal

To sum up
Pat. 1: N be A - Description - How? - SC - Ajal.
Pat. 2: N be Av - Location - When / Where? - M - Aval.
Pat. 3: N1 be N1 - Identification / Classification - What? - SC -
Nal ( N = N )

EXERCISE 18
Identify the pattern of the following sentences.
1. Sandy must have been the culprit.
2. The dinner was tasty.
3. They are in agony.
4. They are at the cinema now.
5. My favorite dog is under the table.
6. My favorite hiding place is under the table.
7. Seeing is believing.
8. The appointment is in the afternoon.
9. In a corner of the room is an old wardrobe cramped with old
clothes.
10. On the beach now is much better than in class.
11. What is important now is to arrive on time.
12. What he required was beyond my ability.
13. What he wants to know is where I am from.
14. Whether we are going for a picnic again is the
question he is always asking.
15. Aspirin is probably the most useful medicine known to
man.

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 16. She is never at home on weekends.
17. I am very glad to see you.
18. Paying one’s bill is sometimes difficult.
19. John is at the university now.
20. The government’s action to control interest rates has
been very prompt.

Pattern 4 N LV ADJ

The girl seems happy

(1) (2) (3)

 In pattern 4, the verb is a linking verb (LV), as it links the

adjective with the subject. A linking verb describes a state
and can be replaced by seem, become, be or remain.
Ex: The cyclist appears weary.
The boy grew sleepy.
The screw worked loose.
The defendant stood firm.
His face went pale.
She turned red at the thought.
The well ran dry.
 The 3rd position is an adjective, sometimes a PP, in function
SC / Ajal, describing the state of the subject.( how?)
 This position may sometimes be confusing when the
adjective and adverb have the same form.
Ex: The teacher seemed hard. (1) (how?)
The teacher worked hard. (2) (how?)

In (1), ‘hard’ describes the subject and so it is pattern 4:

A/SC/Ajal
In (2), ‘hard” describes the action of the verb and so it is
pattern 6: Av/M/Aval

Pattern 5 N1 LV N1

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The girl remained an outstanding student
(1) (2) (3)

 The two superscripts show that both nouns have the same
referent (girl = student).
 The 2nd slot is a LV as in pattern 4.
 The 3rd position is a noun / noun phrase / SC / Nal,
identifying the subject (what?).
 This position may sometimes be confusing as it can also be
occupied by a DO in another pattern.
Ex: The girl made a fruit cake (1) (what?)
A fruitcake makes a nice gift (2) (what?)

In (1) the two nouns do not have the same referent, and the
2nd noun is a
DO, completing the meaning of the verb ‘made’
(made what?)
In (2) the two nouns have the same referent, so the verb
must be a LV
and the noun is a SC / Nal (fruitcake = gift)

To sum up
Pat. 4 : N – LV – Adj – how? – Description – SC – Ajal
Pat. 5 : N1 – LV – N1 – what? – Classification – SC – Nal (S = SC)
In fact, Pat.4 & Pat.5 are similar to Pat.1 & Pat.3. The only
difference is that in Pat.1 & 3, the verb is ‘to be’; in Pat.4 & 5, the
verb is a LV.

Pattern 6 N Int.V (intransitive

verb)

Girls smile
(1) (2)

 The verb in pattern 6 is an intransitive verb, which is a self-

sufficient verb and can stand alone with its subject.
 An intransitive verb does not have an object and so can not
be put into passive form.

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  Pattern 6 can have verbal modifiers / adverbial. (when,
where, why, how, what for?)

EXERCISE 19
Identify the pattern of the following sentences
1. The table stood near the desk.
2. Jameson stood loyal to his firm.
3. Donald continued my friend, despite our differences.
4. The milk remained sweet for a week.
5. Jane remained my good roommate for 3 years.
6. The new comer remained quietly in her room all day.
7. The dog smells bad.
8. The dog smelled hungrily at the package.
9. The bird flew high in the sky.
10. The tent flap blew open during the night.
11. The patient is lying still on the hospital bed.
12. The patient is lying motionlessly on the ground.
13. Jim fell sick during the night.
14. Jim fell off the ladder last night.
15. You will never keep slender that way.
16. The beer may stay cold until evening.
17. You may stay at home as long as you want.
18. You look sharp today.
19. He looked sharply to the right.
20. To be wealthy does not mean to be happy.

Pattern 7 N1 TrV (transitive verb)

N2

The girl bought a dress

(1) (2) (3)

 In pattern 7, the verb is a transitive verb which is completed

by a noun or a nominal, for which one can substitute him,
her, it, or them. This noun, as shown by the superscript 2,
does not have the same referent as the subject ( N 1 ). It is
called the DO.
 Since there is a DO, pattern 7 can be put into passive form
by making the DO the S of the passive verb.

96
 Ex: The girl bought a dress => A dress was bought by the
girl.
 The 3rd position can be occupied by other words or word-
groups in function DO / Nal.
 When the N2 is a reflexive pronoun (myself, yourself,
himself …) the both nouns (S & DO) refer to the same
person.

Verbs with reflexive pronouns are not made passive.

Ex: He scratched himself.

Pattern 8 N1 TrV N2 N3

The mother bought the girl a dress

(1) (2) (3) (4)

 The superscript 1, 2, 3 indicate that each noun has a

different referent.
 The verb has two objects: IO (the girl) and DO (a dress)
 The IO may often be replaced by a PP.
Ex: He sold the student a ticket.
NP/IO/Nal
He sold a ticket to the student.
PP/IO/Nal
He built them a playpen.
PN/IO/Nal
He built a playpen for them.
PP/IO/Nal
He played me a game of chess.
PN/IO/Nal
He played a game of chess with me.
PP/IO/Nal
He asked her a question.
PN/IO/Nal
He asked a question of her.
PP/IO/Nal
 The verbs that can be used in Pattern 8 are in a restricted
group. Some of the common ones are give, make, find, tell,
buy, send, ask, play, build, teach, assign, feed, offer, throw,
hand, pass, sell, pay.

97
  Pattern 8 can be transformed into the passive by making
either the IO or DO the subject of the passive verb.
Ex: The girl was bought a dress by her mother.
RO (retained object)
A dress was bought for the girl by her mother.
RO
 If a pronoun is used in the position of the DO ( N 3 ), it must
be put before the IO.
Ex: The mother bought it for the girl.
Not The mother bought the girl it.

Similarly, if the two objects are both pronouns, the DO must

occur first.
Ex: The mother bought it for her.
Not The mother bought her it.

Note: For the explain-type verbs and verbs that may have an IO
without a DO, the IO is always in the form of a PP and cannot be
made the subject of the passive verb. (See p. 35)

Pattern 9 N1 TrV N2 N2

The students chose Peter leader

(1) (2) (3) (4)

 The 3rd position is occupied by a DO / Nal and can be of

different parts of speech.
Ex: Paul considered Peter his friend. (noun)
The judges designated him winner. (pronoun)
I consider to live this way to be in prison. (inf.P)
I find watching TV a waste of time. (GP)
He considered whoever came to his party his best
friends. (NC)
 The 4th position is an OC and can be occupied by different
words or word-groups.
Ex: They elected John President.
I thought the caller you.

98
 I considered to study that way wasting time. What?
Nal
He found to travel around the world to study. DO =
OC
You can call me whatever you like.
We thought Chico to be a fine player.

I found her charming.

I imagine her eating. How?
Ajal
I believe him seated.
We considered her in the way (bothersome).

We supposed him upstairs.

Where? Aval

 In Pattern 9, only the DO can be made the subject of the

passive verb.
Ex: John was elected President.
Not President was elected John. (no sense)
 Only a small group of verbs can be used for Pattern 9:
name, choose, elect, appoint, designate, select, vote, make,
declare, nominate, call, fancy, consider, imagine, think,
believe, feel, keep, suppose, find, prove, label, judge.

EXERCISE 20
Identify the pattern of the following sentences
1. Your recital was wonderful.
2. Mabel was here a moment ago.
3. The rancher told his guests a tall tale.
4. The archers were not successful hunters.
5. The frogs croaked in the marsh.
6. Jerry thought the proposal a mistake.
7. She had been secretary for a long time.
8. The Roman won the first battle.
9. The judges believed Lightening the best horse in the show.
10. The director found him a new costume.
11. My uncle remained the worst bridge player in town.
12. The coach designated Jane the new manager of the
team.
13. Migrant workers pick the strawberries in early June.

99
 14. The glasses are in the cupboard.
15. Your cigar smells so aromatic.
16. He has always seemed a serious boy.
17. Who is at the cottage this week?
18. They stayed roommates for three years.
19. The board elected Mr. John the president.
20. She fed him the baby food.

Sometimes, the same sentence may be of two different

patterns, so it has two different meaning and is ambiguous.

EXERCISE 21
Identify the possible patterns in the following sentences
then give the two possible meanings according to the
patterns identified.
1. He found her a doll.
x. Pat. 8: He found a doll for her.
xi. Pat. 9: He considered her as a doll.
2. The guard turned out a drunkard.
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
3. I’m getting her socks.
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
4. The man gave the library books.
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
5. It was a little pasty.
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
6. He accepted Wednesday.
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
7. The doctor made them well.
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
8. She taught the group singing.
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
9. He found the mechanic a helper.
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................

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 10...........................................Our spaniel made a good friend.
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
11.................................The judges designated the girl winner.
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
12....................................................The detective looked hard.
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
13........................................................Mary called her mother.
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
14..................................................He considered those errors.
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................

EXERCISE 22
Identify the sentence pattern of the following sentences
and then analyze the underlined parts by Form, Function,
and Position.
1. No matter you agree or not, I shall pay him the price he
asks. (P. 8)
AvC/M/Aval NP/DO/Nal
2. There’s not a man here but would like to be in your

position.

3. The notion that people can work less and earn more is

contrary to reason.

4. “How glad I am to see you” were his first words.

5. I meant to plug in the electric blanket but I plug in the

electric kettle by mistake.

101
6. Lydia always mocks my attempts to speak French, but at

least, I’m willing to try.

7. I’ve done everything I can to help Any get his life

straightened.

8. If there should be a global nuclear war, some scientists

predict that life on earth as we know it would end for ever.

9. The two men were fishing for trout in the clear stream

beside the woodman’s cottage.

10. The committee elected the oldest member president

for the coming year.

11. Old Mother Hubbard went to the cupboard to fetch her

poor dog a bone.

12. When she got there, the cupboard was bare, and so

the poor dog had none.

13. If you write to this address, they will send you a

colored brochure.

14. When April with his sweet showers has pierced the

draught of March to the root, people wish to go on

pilgrimages.

15. Hardly knowing what to do, she picked up a little bit of

stick and held it out to the puppy

102
16. Alice looked at the jury-box and saw that, in her haste,

she had put the lizard in head downwards.

17. The poor little lizard was waving its tail in a

melancholy way, being quite unable to move.

18. To gain the maximum amount of fruit from a

strawberry bed, a certain amount of attention is badly

needed.

19. By this time of year, most of us are viewing our flower

borders with a fairly critical eye, noting spaces where

improvements can be made.

20. That people throw away money on gambling never

ceases to amaze me.

21. They reported to the police what the prisoner had

done to escape from the prison always guarded by many

soldiers.

22. It disappointed the candidate that few people came

to listen to the speech he had carefully prepared.

23. The small boy was quite sure that his father had told

him that the earth was flat.

24. Although his fault may be great , he has achieved

some notable successes that not everybody can do.

103
 25. After the snow shower had passed, the weary travelers

continued trudging through the deserted landscape.

26. It seems that the government is unaware of the

difficulties which are being caused by its policies .

27. All the fifteen bomber planes of the squadron re-

crossed the channel safely that night.

28. I find it amusing that children take their games so

seriously.

29. They elected chairman the man who had worked all

his life for the honor of the company.

30. They found in a mud hut all the children who had

been kidnapped a week ago.

31. He has been less fortunate than other entrepreneurs

in his business deals.

CHAPTER 5

TREE DIAGRAM

Usually, a sentence consists of two main parts or constituents:

Subject and Predicate. These parts can be further divided into
smaller ones and until the smallest constituents. This sentence
structure can be represented in a branching diagram. Such a
diagram is called a constituent structure tree or, to be short, a
tree diagram.

104
The ‘tree’ is upside down with the ‘root’ at the top and the
‘leaves’ at the bottom. At each point where the tree ‘branches’,
there is a group of words that forms a part or structural
constituent of the sentence. At the bottom of the tree are the
individual words. In addition to revealing linear order, a
constituent structure has hierarchical structure. This
expression means that the groups and subgroups of words
composing the structural constituents are shown by the level on
which they appear in the tree.

STRUCTURE FORMULAE

A. SENTENCE
S = NP + VP S

NP VP

det N V NP

det

The child found the

puppy

If the sentence has a sentence modifier, the tree then will consist
of 3 main branches.

NP NP VP

A N det N V NP

det

105
 last night the child found a
puppy

B. NOUN PHRASE
N P = det + N’
N’ = N + M word
phrase
clause

1. Modifier is a word

NP NP
NP
det N’ det N’ det
N’
A N N N
G N
A small boy a college student a
swimming pool

NP NP
NP
det N’ det N’ det
N’
Av N prestP N
pastP N
An upstairs room a barking dog the
invited guests

NP

Det N’

106
 N Inf

A day to remember

2. Modifier is a phrase
 AP = A + M
NP NP

Det N’ det

N’

AP N AP

Av A A conj A

A very intelligent boy a handsome &

intelligent boy

NP NP

Det N’ AP

NP

N AP A conj A

det N

A conj A

107
The boy hungry and thirsty hungry & thirsty

the boy

 PP = P + NP

NP

Det N’

N PP

P NP

Det N

The boy near the window

 PrestPP = PrestP + O / M / C

NP

Det N’

N PrestPP

Prest N Av PP

P NP

det N’

PP

108
 P

NP

Det N

The boy eating chocolate alone in a corner of

the class

 PPP = Pastp + M
NP

det N’

N PPP

Av pastP PP

PP

P NP

det N’ P

NP

A N

Det N

The boy severely punished by his old father for

skipping class

 InfP = Inf + O / M / C
NP

Det N’

109
 N InfP

inf Av PP

P NP

det N’

A N PP

NP

de

t N

A day to remember forever due to its fatal effect on our

life

3. Modifier is a clause

 AC / M / Ajal

S’ = Comp (complementiser) + S
C. VP = Aux. + V’
V’ = V + O / M / C

NP

Det N’

N S’

NP VP

P N aux V’

V N Av PP

110
 P NP

det N’

PP

NP

Det N

The boy who is eating chocolate alone in a corner of

the class

D. COMPOUND SENTENCE

S1 conj S2

NP VP NP

VP

111
 det N V NP det N V

NP

My father likes coffee but my mother prefers

tea

S1 Conj S2

NP VP NP VP

Det N Aux V’ Pro V NP

V N N

His paintings weren’t selling, and he had money problem

S1 Conj S2

NP VP NP VP

V NP V NP NP

PN det N PN PN Det N

112
There was no news, so they ask him some questions

E. COMPLEX SENTENCE

 NC / CoN / Nal
S

NP

VP

det N’

V A

N S’

comp S

NP VP

det N V PP NP

P NP det

det N

The theory that the robber escaped by a helicopter last night

is wrong

 NC / CoA / Nal

NP VP

V AP

113
 A S’

Comp. S

PN NP VP

PN aux V

We were delighted that you were able to come

 NC / DO / Nal

PP NP VP

P GP PN V S’

G N comp S

NP VP

PN aux V’

After visiting Milan they decided that they must see Napples

 NC / S / Nal

114
 S’=NP VP

comp S V S’

NP VP comp S

V Av NP VP

PN V NP

PN

That Sheila left early proves that she loves you

 NC / Real S / Nal

115
 S

AvP NP VP S’

NP Av V A Comp S

Det N NP VP

PN Aux V’

V NP

PN Det
N’

N
PP

P N

A century ago, it seemed unlikely that we would find a cure

for TB.

 AvC / St.M / Aval

116
 S

S’ NP VP

Comp S Aux V’

NP VP V Av
PP

Det N V AP PN P
NP

Av A
Det N

Though the patient seems much improved she will have to rest quietly for
a few more days

117
 EXERCISE 23
Draw the tree diagram for the following sentences.
1. After visiting Milan, they decided that they must see Naples.
2. Although the patient seems much improved, she will have to
rest quietly for a few more day.
3. During the years that follow, these three men found their
destinies inextricably linked.
4. Aspirin is probably the most useful medicine known to man.
5. A century ago, it seemed unlikely that we would find a cure for
TB.
6. I’ve had a clod for three weeks, and I’m feeling miserable.
7. Our mode of life had to change when the baby was born.
8. The managing director was largely responsible for the collapse
of the company.
9. Ann went to Canada to visit relatives for a week and decided to
stay there for work.
10. a girl spoiled by her mother is not a good roommate.
11. Our guests came on the week when I was housecleaning.
12. The migrant workers from Australia are trying to get any
job they can.
13. The black pen that I accidentally left on the bus
yesterday belonged to my uncle’s sister.
14. Whether we are going for a picnic again is a question he’s
always asking.
15. The basketball players chose John their captain for next
year.
16. A tall college student in the class is playing chess with his
close friend.
17. I love the idea that grasshoppers can sing.
18. We scored the runs when we needed them.
19. It seems very likely that the proposal will pass.
20. That Sheila left early proves that she loves you..
21. I’ve done everything I can imagine to help Any get his life
straightened.
22. According to the manufacturer’s guarantee, I should
return my new camera to the factory in the event that it has
something wrong.
23. Alexander nearly fainted when she learnt that she had
won the lottery.
24. He’s coming today in spite of the fact that I told him I
didn’t want him.

118
 25. We will put off the picnic until next week, when the
weather may be better.
26. The fact that he didn’t turn up shows that he was never
really serious about coming.
27. He hotly denied the rumor that he had been visited by
the police in connection with recent crime.

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Burton-Robert, N. 1997. Analyzing Sentences – An Introduction to

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Dang Thi Huong. 1998. Practical English Grammar. HCM: Ñai Hoc
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Downing, A. and Loke, P. (1992) A University Course in English

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Fromkin, V., Blaire, D. & Collins P. 1990. An Introduction to

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Ha Van Buu. 1996. Nhöõng Maãu Caâu Tieáng Anh. NXB TP HCM.

Hudson, G. 1999. Essential Introductory Linguistics. Blackwell.

Jackson, Howard. 1981. Analyzing English – An Introduction to

Descriptive Linguistics. Second Edition. Pergamon Institute of
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Kaplan, J.P. 1989. English Grammar: Principles and Facts. New

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Lester, J. D. A Writer’s Handbook: Style and Grammar. HBJ

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Nguyen Thuy Nga. 2004. English Syntax and Morphology. ÑHM TP
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Smalley, R. L. 1982. Refining Composition. Macmillan Publishing

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