Power Flow Control Solutions for a Modern

Grid using SMART Power Flow Controllers

 IEEE Press
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Power Flow Control Solutions for a Modern Grid using
SMART Power Flow Controllers

Kalyan K. Sen, PhD, PE, MBA, FIEEE

Mey Ling Sen, MEE, MIEEE
Sen Engineering Solutions, Inc.
Copyright © 2022 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Sen, Kalyan K., author. | Sen, Mey Ling, author.

Title: Power flow control solutions for a modern grid using SMART power
flow controllers / Kalyan K. Sen, PhD, PE, MBA, FIEEE, Mey Ling Sen,
MEE, MIEEE, Sen Engineering Solutions, Inc.
Description: First edition. | Hoboken, New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., [2021] | Series: IEEE press series on power engineering | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021031547 (print) | LCCN 2021031548 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119824350 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119824367 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119824381 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Electric current regulators. | Electric power
systems–Control. | Smart power grids. | Electric power Transmission.
Classification: LCC TK2851 .S48 2021 (print) | LCC TK2851 (ebook) | DDC
621.31–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021031547
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021031548

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Images: (Center) Courtesy of Kalyan Sen; (top) © Sam Robinson/Getty Images

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Pondicherry, India

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To our family, friends,
and all our gurus who brought us to this point.
 vii

Contents

Authors’ Biographies xiii

Foreword xv
Nomenclature xix
Preface xxv
Acknowledgments xxix
About the Companion Website xxxi

1 Smart Controllers 1
1.1 Why is a Power Flow Controller Needed? 1
1.2 Traditional Power Flow Control Concepts 5
1.3 Modern Power Flow Control Concepts 14
1.4 Cost of a Solution 22
1.4.1 Defining a Cost-Effective Solution 22
1.4.2 Payback Time 24
1.4.3 Economic Analysis 24
1.5 Independent Active and Reactive PFCs 26
1.6 SMART Power Flow Controller (SPFC) 39
1.6.1 Example of an SPFC 40
1.6.2 Justification 41
1.6.3 Additional Information 41
1.7 Discussion 42

2 Power Flow Control Concepts 45

2.1 Power Flow Equations for a Natural or Uncompensated Line 60
2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 63
2.2.1 Shunt-Compensating Voltage 67
2.2.1.1 Power Flow at the Modified Sending End with a Shunt-Compensating Voltage 70
2.2.1.2 Power Flow at the Receiving End with a Shunt-Compensating Voltage 73
2.2.1.3 Exchanged Power by a Shunt-Compensating Voltage 79
2.2.1.4 Representation of a Shunt-Compensating Voltage as a Shunt-Compensating
Impedance 79
2.2.2 Series-Compensating Voltage as an Impedance Regulator, Voltage Regulator, and Phase
Angle Regulator (Asymmetric) 80
2.2.2.1 Power Flow at the Sending End with a Series-Compensating Voltage 92
2.2.2.2 Power Flow at the Receiving End with a Series-Compensating Voltage 95
2.2.2.3 Power Flow at the Modified Sending End with a Series-Compensating Voltage 100
2.2.2.4 Exchanged Power by a Series-Compensating Voltage 109
viii Contents

2.2.2.5 Additional Series-Compensating Voltages 126

2.2.2.5.1 Phase Angle Regulator (Symmetric) 126
2.2.2.5.2 Reactance Regulator 129
2.2.2.5.2.1 Reactance Control Method 137
2.2.2.5.2.2 Voltage Control Method 139
2.2.2.6 Representation of a Series-Compensating Voltage as a Series-Compensating
Impedance 145
2.2.2.6.1 Equivalent Impedance of a Voltage Regulator (VR) 152
2.2.2.6.2 Equivalent Impedance of a Phase Angle Regulator (Asymmetric) 154
2.2.2.6.3 Equivalent Impedance of a Phase Angle Regulator (Symmetric) 157
2.2.2.6.4 Equivalent Impedance of a Reactance Regulator 160
2.2.3 Comparison Between Series- and Shunt-Compensating Voltages 165
2.3 Implementation of Power Flow Control Concepts 168
2.3.1 Voltage Regulation 168
2.3.1.1 Direct Method 168
2.3.1.2 Indirect Method 170
2.3.2 Phase Angle Regulation 173
2.3.2.1 Single-core Phase Angle Regulator 173
2.3.2.2 Dual-core Phase Angle Regulator 176
2.3.3 Series Reactance Regulation 178
2.3.3.1 Direct Method 178
2.3.3.2 Indirect Method 178
2.3.4 Impedance Regulation 179
2.3.4.1 Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) 181
2.3.4.2 Sen Transformer (ST) 183
2.4 Interline Power Flow Concept 185
2.4.1 Back-to-Back SSSC 186
2.4.2 Multiline Sen Transformer (MST) 188
2.4.3 Back-to-Back STATCOM 192
2.4.4 Generalized Power Flow Controller 194
2.5 Figure of Merits Among Various PFCs 196
2.5.1 VR 196
2.5.2 PAR (sym) 196
2.5.3 PAR (asym) 198
2.5.4 RR 202
2.5.5 IR 204
2.5.6 RPI, LI, and APR of a PFC 206
2.6 Comparison Between Shunt-Compensating Reactance and Series-Compensating
Reactance 228
2.6.1 Shunt-Compensating Reactance 230
2.6.1.1 Restoration of Voltage at the Midpoint of the Line 230
2.6.1.2 Restoration of Voltage at the One-Third and Two-Third Points of the Line 232
2.6.1.3 Restoration of Voltage at the One-Fourth, Half, and Three-Fourth Points of the
Line 233
2.6.1.4 Restoration of Voltage at n Points of the Line 235
2.6.2 Series-Compensating Reactance 239
 Contents ix

2.7 Calculation of RPI, LI, and APR for a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), a RR, and an IR in a Lossy
Line 242
2.7.1 PAR (sym) 245
2.7.2 PAR (asym) 246
2.7.3 RR 248
2.7.4 IR 249
2.8 Sen Index of a PFC 253

3 Modeling Principles 255

3.1 The Modeling in EMTP 255
3.1.1 A Single-Generator/Single-Line Model 259
3.1.2 A Two-Generator/Single-Line Model 264
3.2 Vector Phase-Locked Loop (VPLL) 277
3.3 Transmission Line Steady-State Resistance Calculator 280
3.4 Simulation of an Independent PFC, Integrated in a Two-Generator/Single-Line Power
System Network 281

4 Transformer-Based Power Flow Controllers 297

4.1 Voltage-Regulating Transformer (VRT) 297
4.1.1 Voltage Regulating Transformer (Shunt-Series Configuration) 298
4.1.2 Two-Winding Transformer 315
4.2 Phase Angle Regulator (PAR) 322
4.2.1 PAR (Asymmetric) 322
4.2.2 PAR (Symmetric) 332

5 Mechanically-Switched Voltage Regulators and Power Flow Controllers 341

5.1 Shunt Compensation 341
5.1.1 Mechanically-Switched Capacitor (MSC) 341
5.1.2 Mechanically-Switched Reactor (MSR) 353
5.2 Series Compensation 354
5.2.1 Mechanically-Switched Reactor (MSR) 354
5.2.2 Mechanically-Switched Capacitor (MSC) with a Reactor 363
5.2.3 Series Reactance Emulator 369

6 Sen Transformer 375

6.1 Existing Solutions 377
6.1.1 Voltage Regulation 383
6.1.2 Phase Angle Regulation 385
6.2 Desired Solution 386
6.2.1 ST as a New Voltage Regulator 389
6.2.2 ST as an Independent PFC 392
6.2.3 Control of ST 394
6.2.3.1 Impedance Emulation 395
6.2.3.2 Resistance Emulation 396
6.2.3.3 Reactance Emulation 396
6.2.3.4 Closed-Loop Power Flow Control 397
6.2.3.5 Open-Loop Power Flow Control 398
6.2.4 Simulation of ST Integrated in a Two-Generator/One-Line Power System Network 425
x Contents

6.2.5 Simulation of ST Integrated in a Three-Generator/Four-Line Power System

Network 439
6.2.6 Testing of ST 453
6.2.7 Limited-Angle Operation of ST 485
6.2.8 ST Using LTCs with Lower Current Rating 498
6.2.9 ST with a Two-Core Design 501
6.3 Comparison Among the VRT, PAR, UPFC, and ST 510
6.3.1 Power Flow Enhancement 510
6.3.2 Speed of Operation 511
6.3.3 Losses 512
6.3.4 Switch Rating 512
6.3.5 Magnetic Circuit Design 513
6.3.6 Optimization of Transformer Rating 513
6.3.7 Harmonic Injection into the Power System Network 515
6.3.8 Operation During Line Faults 515
6.4 Multiline Sen Transformer 516
6.4.1 Basic Differences Between the MST and BTB-SSSC 519
6.5 Flexible Operation of the ST 520
6.6 ST with a Shunt-Compensating Voltage 522
6.7 Limited Angle Operation of the ST with Shunt-Compensating Voltages 526
6.8 MST with Shunt-Compensating Voltages 531
6.9 Generalized Sen Transformer 532
6.10 Summary 533

Appendix A Miscellaneous 535

A.1 Three-Phase Balanced Voltage, Current, and Power 535
A.2 Symmetrical Components 538
A.3 Separation of Positive-, Negative-, and Zero-Sequence Components in a Multiple
Frequency Composite Variable 544
A.4 Three-Phase Unbalanced Voltage, Current, and Power 547
A.5 d-q Transformation (3-Phase System, Transformed into d-q axes; d-axis Is the
Active Component and q-axis Is the Reactive Component) 551
A.5.1 Conversion of a Variable Containing Positive-, Negative-, and Zero-Sequence
Components into d-q Frame 556
A.5.2 Calculation of Instantaneous Power into d-q Frame 560
A.5.3 Calculation of Instantaneous Power into d-q frame for a Three-Phase, Three-Wire
System 560
A.6 Fourier Analysis 566
A.7 Adams-Bashforth Numerical Integration Formula 569

Appendix B Power Flow Equations in a Lossy Line 571

B.1 Power Flow Equations for a Natural or Uncompensated Line 575
B.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 582
B.2.1 Shunt-Compensating Voltage 583
B.2.1.1 Power Flow at the Modified Sending End with a Shunt-Compensating
Voltage 584
B.2.1.2 Power Flow at the Receiving End with a Shunt-Compensating Voltage 587
 Contents xi

B.2.1.3 Exchanged Power by a Shunt-Compensating Voltage 590

B.2.1.4 Representation of a Shunt-Compensating Voltage as a Shunt-Compensating
Impedance 590
B.2.2 Series-Compensating Voltage as an Impedance Regulator, Voltage Regulator,
and Phase Angle Regulator (Asymmetric) 591
B.2.2.1 Power Flow at the Sending End with a Series-Compensating Voltage 596
B.2.2.2 Power Flow at the Receiving End with a Series-Compensating Voltage 600
B.2.2.3 Power Flow at the Modified Sending End with a Series-Compensating
Voltage 606
B.2.2.4 Exchanged Power by a Series-Compensating Voltage 615
B.2.2.5 Additional Series-Compensating Voltages 624
B.2.2.5.1 Phase Angle Regulator (Symmetric) 624
B.2.2.5.2 Reactance Regulator 628
B.2.2.6 Representation of a Series-Compensating Voltage as a Series-Compensating
Impedance 631
B.2.2.6.1 Equivalent Impedance of a Voltage Regulator (VR) 635
B.2.2.6.2 Equivalent Impedance of a Phase Angle Regulator (Asymmetric) 636
B.2.2.6.3 Equivalent Impedance of a Phase Angle Regulator (Symmetric) 638
B.2.2.6.4 Equivalent Impedance of a Reactance Regulator 640
B.2.2.7 RPI, LI, and APR of a PFC 640
B.3 Descriptions of the Examples in Chapter 2 644

Appendix C Modeling of the Sen Transformer in PSS®E 647

C.1 Sen Transformer 647
C.2 Modeling with Two Transformers in Series 648
C.3 Relating the Sen Transformer with the PSSE®E Model 649
C.4 Chilean Case Study 650
C.5 Limitations – PSS®E Two-Transformer Model 654
C.6 Conclusion 655

References 657
Index 669
 xiii

Authors’ Biographies

Kalyan K. Sen was born in Bankura, West Bengal, India.

He received BEE (first class honors, 1982), MSEE (1983), and PhD
degrees (1987), all in Electrical Engineering, from Jadavpur
University (India), Tuskegee University (USA), and Worcester Poly-
technic Institute (USA), respectively. He also received an MBA
(2012) from Robert Morris University (USA). He is the President
and Chief Technology Officer of Sen Engineering Solutions, Inc.
(www.sentransformer.com). From 1987 to 1990, he was an Assistant
Professor at Prairie View A&M University. From 1990 to 2020, he
worked mostly at Westinghouse and its successor companies in
the United States, except during 1999–2001 when he worked at
ABB in Sweden. He was a key member of the Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems
(FACTS) development team at Westinghouse Science & Technology Center for which he became a
Westinghouse Fellow Engineer. He contributed to the concept development, simulation, design,
and commissioning of FACTS projects at Westinghouse since their inceptions in the 1990s. He
conceived some of the basic concepts in power flow control technology for which he was elevated
to the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Fellow grade with the citation: for
the development and application of power flow control technology.
Kalyan has authored or coauthored more than 25 peer-reviewed publications, 8 issued patents, 2
books, and 3 book chapters in the areas of power flow control and power electronics. He is the
coauthor of the book titled, Introduction to FACTS Controllers: Theory, Modeling, and Applications,
IEEE Press and John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2009, which is also published in Chinese and Indian
(English) paperback editions. This book is used in universities and industries worldwide. His inter-
ests are in power converters, control systems, electrical machines, and power system simulations
and studies. He is a licensed Professional Engineer in Pennsylvania and New York. He also served
as a Fulbright Specialist (sponsored by the U.S. Government) and Global Initiative of Academic
Networks (GIAN) Scholar (sponsored by the Government of India). He is an individual member
of CIGRE.
Kalyan has served many organizations. He has been serving as an IEEE Power & Energy Society
(PES) Distinguished Lecturer since 2002. In that capacity, he has given presentations on power flow
control technology more than 150 times in 15 countries. He is an AdCom Member of the Power
Electronics Society (PELS) and serves as the PELS Regions 1-6 Chair. He is the IEEE Division II
Representative to the Board of Governors of Society on Social Implications of Technology (SSIT)
and serves as the Chapters Committee Chair. He also serves as the Chair of IEEE Pittsburgh SSIT
xiv Authors’ Biographies

Chapter. In 2003, he reestablished the Pittsburgh Chapters of the PES and the Industry Applications
Society (IAS). Both Chapters received the “Outstanding Large Chapter” awards for their activities
in 2004. He served as the Founding Chair of IEEE Pittsburgh PELS Chapter that received the
Best Chapter Award in 2015. Under his Chairmanship, the IEEE Pittsburgh Section received
the “Outstanding Large Section” award for its activities in 2005. He served as an Editor of the IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery from 2002 to 2007. He served as the Technical Program Chair of the
2008 PES General Meeting in Pittsburgh, and the Chapters and Sections Activities Track Chair at
the 2008 IEEE Sections Congress in Quebec City, Canada. He has served as the Special Events Chair
of the IEEE Pittsburgh Section for a decade. He received the IEEE Pittsburgh Section Outstanding
Volunteer Service Award and Power & Energy Society Outstanding Engineer Award (2004). He
is a Distinguished Toastmaster (DTM) who led District 13 of Toastmasters International (TI) as its
Governor to be the 10th-ranking District in the world in 2007–2008. He has been serving as a Boy
Scouts of America Leader for almost a decade.

Mey Ling Sen was born in Aruba, Dutch Caribbean. She received
BSEE (high distinction, 1988) and MEE (1990) degrees from Worcester
Polytechnic Institute (USA) and Rice University (USA), respectively. As
an Engineering Consultant, she worked at ABB and Westinghouse/
CW. She is the Co-Founder and Chief Operating Officer of Sen Engi-
neering Solutions, Inc. She is the co-inventor of the Sen Transformer,
which is used as a Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, and
Time-bound (SMART) Power Flow Controller that is based on func-
tional requirements and a cost-effective solution. Her interests are in
power electronics, electrical machines, and electric power engineering.
As a member of IEEE, she has served the Pittsburgh Chapters of PES and IAS in various posi-
tions, including Chapter Chair. Both Chapters received the “Outstanding Large Chapter” awards
for their activities in 2008 and 2009, respectively. She also served IEEE Pittsburgh Section as the
Treasurer in 2012 and Chair of Women in Engineering in 2016 and 2018–2019. She has been serv-
ing as the Special Events Chair of the IEEE Pittsburgh Section since 2020. She received IEEE
Pittsburgh Section Power & Energy Society Outstanding Engineer Award (2018). She is a Dis-
tinguished Toastmaster (DTM). She served as the TI’s President’s Distinguished Area Governor in
2007–2008.

Technical Reviewers
J. M. DeSalvo
A. Parsotam
B. Shperling
 xv

Foreword

This book is a product of the authors’ five decades of combined experiences in the research and
development of power flow control technology. The traditional power grid as we know it is chan-
ging drastically. Mega-sized wind and solar projects are being integrated into the traditional major-
ity carbon-based power grid in order to curb the production of greenhouse gases significantly.
Power systems of today were designed based on central generating stations and transmission and
distribution lines to get the energy to the loads. However, with land-based and off-shore wind plants
and distributed and utility-scale solar plants being connected to the grid, the old paradigm does not
work since the geographic locations of the renewable resources do not in general coincide with the
traditional generating plants. There is a need for the T&D systems to be revisited and modified/
upgraded for the new power flow regimes. The line impedances that were tuned or optimized to
serve certain flow patterns may now hinder delivery of the renewable energy to the desired desti-
nations. The intermittent nature of the renewable energy sources brings additional challenges to
system frequency and voltage control and to adopting the needed dynamic capability and the ability
to control power flows bidirectionally at the right price. This can be mitigated with impedance reg-
ulation in strategically-selected transmission corridors. Furthermore, in many localities there are
no new right-of-ways (ROWs), and rebuilding is limited to existing ones. Even though rebuild could
be inevitable, flow control may help in some scenarios and may be much more economical.
The key to a clean energy transition depends on the electric grid’s ability to generate and distrib-
ute renewable energy through the transmission and distribution system. The intermittency of sup-
ply and bidirectional flows, coupled with the remote locations of solar and wind projects, are
challenging grid planners and operators. Even before we have reached large penetration of renew-
ables, forecasters are factoring renewable curtailment as a major strategy to balance supply and
demand, which adversely impacts the economics of the projects.
The concept of a SMART Power Flow Controller, developed in this book, is based on impedance
management of the transmission line, which will be essential to (1) building the capacity to inte-
grate and expand the use of clean distributed energy resources, (2) pursuing efficient asset utiliza-
tion and reducing system losses, (3) facilitating greater transfer of clean energy from generation
sites to load centers, and (4) improving grid reliability and resiliency. This technology can be cus-
tomized, based on the required range and speed of operation, component non-obsolescence, ease of
relocation, and interoperability.
This book starts with the derivation of the fundamentals of power flow in an AC transmission line
and develops various solutions that can be used to enhance power flow while reducing the losses in
AC transmission lines. The book builds on the evolution of power flow controllers in AC transmis-
sion systems covering the theory, modeling, and various applications. The subject is treated from
xvi Foreword

the working engineers’ point of view. After reading the appropriate parts of this book, students,
teachers, and practicing engineers will be able to conduct studies of power system networks to
mitigate their unique power flow problems.
The book’s unique contribution is that it

•• provides the basic theory and the step-by-step explanation of various power flow controllers;
offers modeling techniques that are essential to electric utilities when conducting the needed
studies and analysis;

• provides computer codes in the most widely-used Electro-Magnetic Transients Program (EMTP)
formats;

• describes a new class of power flow controllers, based on the transformers/Load Tap Changers
(LTCs) technology, developed by the authors and named the Sen Transformer (ST).
It is important to emphasize that the ST offers the equivalent control features of two devices –
Phase Angle Regulator (PAR) and Voltage Regulator (VR) – for almost the price of one. If one pur-
chases a PAR, which offers the phase angle or active power flow control only, the ST offers the
added voltage or reactive power flow control capability with perhaps a small additional cost.
The low-cost power flow control technology, such as ST, is of interest to utilities because of its
simplicity, compared to power electronics inverter-based Unified Power Flow Controller.
I believe that the Sens’ inventions are fundamental contributions toward the advancement of
low-cost electric power flow control technology. A simulation model of the ST has already been
developed in PSS/E, the most widely used load flow software, and the report is given in
Appendix C. As an application example exercising the PSS/E model, it was verified that the ST per-
formed as the most suitable candidate for power flow enhancement in a segment of the Chilean
network. Also, a distribution-level Chinese demonstration of a 10-kV unit of ST confirmed the
anticipated performance of the ST.
The topic of power flow control is of great interest to many power engineering professionals, util-
ity engineers, large power equipment manufacturers, university professors, and students. The spe-
cialty of the book is that it develops the modern power flow control theories from the basics and
supplements the theory with relevant computer models using the most widely used simulation
software – EMTP and PSS/E. This book expands upon what the authors had presented in their last
book, titled Introduction to FACTS Controllers – Theory, Modeling, and Applications.
In summary, the subject of power flow control cannot be overstressed; it is a very important topic
to the electric power industry and electric utilities, particularly in today’s environment. Due to the
current need for integrating renewable energy sources into the grid reliably to reduce the carbon-
based generation, electric utilities are seriously considering all available technical solutions. This is
a timely book that gives the reader clear instructions on how to model, design, build, and evaluate
power flow controllers. It supplements nicely the very few existing books. I realize that this book is
practical, hands-on, and a true guide for the practicing engineers. The book gives significant
amounts of detail in modeling and presentation that will be much appreciated by researchers/engi-
neers in the field.
Since the 1990s, I have been interacting with Dr. Kalyan Sen on Flexible Alternating Current
Transmission Systems (FACTS)-related projects. As the Lead Simulation Engineer at Westing-
house, Dr. Sen developed the FACTS models, which were essential for performing the feasibility
study of the Convertible Static Compensator (CSC) FACTS project before its installation at the
New York Power Authority (NYPA) Marcy 345 kV substation in central NY.
I have read this book with great interest. It is a work of love, written by two spouses who spent
their entire careers in developing a much-needed power flow control technology that can help
 Foreword xvii

utilities worldwide to plan and operate their power grids. The specialty of the Sens’ book is that it
is coauthored by an engineer who actually designed and commissioned a number of power
electronics-based FACTS controllers at Westinghouse since their inceptions in the 1990s. There-
fore, the book includes a flavor of practical relevance. This book is going to aid the transformational
change that is taking place in the electric utility industry worldwide.

White Plains, New York Bruce B. Fardanesh Ph.D.,

IEEE Life Fellow
Vice President, System Planning & Analysis
New York Power Authority
 xix

Nomenclature

β Relative phase angle of the series-compensating voltage with respect to the

sending-end voltage
δs Phase angle of the voltage at the sending end of a line
δr Phase angle of the voltage at the receiving end of a line
δ Power angle (difference of phase angles of the voltages at the two ends of a line)
δ Modified power angle (difference of phase angles of the voltages at the two
ends of a line after compensation)
δl Lowest modified power angle
δh Highest modified power angle
ε Least error of the calculated voltage and actually-tapped voltage in the Sen
Transformer
θ Phase-locked loop (PLL) angle
θI Phase angle of the line current
θVX Phase angle of the voltage across the line reactance
ο
Degree
φ Power factor angle
ϕ Phase angle between the voltage across the line reactance and the voltage
difference between the sending and receiving ends
ω Angular frequency
ψ Phase-shift angle of the modified sending-end voltage with respect to the
sending-end voltage
Ω Unit of resistance, reactance, and impedance
a1-b1-c1 Series-compensating windings in the A phase of ST
a2-b2-c2 Series-compensating windings in the B phase of ST
a3-b3-c3 Series-compensating windings in the C phase of ST
A-B-C Exciter windings of ST
A1-B1-C1 Shunt-compensating windings in the A phase of ST
A2-B2-C2 Shunt-compensating windings in the B phase of ST
A3-B3-C3 Shunt-compensating windings in the C phase of ST
A Ampere (unit of current)
AC Alternating Current
ANSI American National Standards Institute
apr Instantaneous apparent power rating
APR Apparent Power Rating
xx Nomenclature

ATC Available Transfer Capability

b Multiplier of VXn from 0 to 1
BPS Bulk Power System
BTB-SSSC Back-To-Back SSSC
BTB-STATCOM Back-To-Back STATCOM
BYPBRK Bypass breaker
C Capacitance
cos(φ) Power factor
cp Compensating points of the Sen Transformer
CSC Convertible Static Compensator
cr, cs , cse Intercept
d Duty cycle
DC Direct Current
DCLS DC Link Switch
E Shunt- or series-connected voltage
EHV Extra High Voltage
ES Electronic Switch
F Farad (unit of capacitance)
FACTS Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems
FC Fixed Capacitor
GaN Gallium Nitride
GHG Green-House Gas
GPFC Generalized Power Flow Controller
GST Generalized Sen Transformer
GTO Gate-Turn Off
H Henry (unit of inductance)
HV High Voltage
Hz Hertz (unit of frequency)
i Instantaneous current, such as line current (i), exciting current (iex), sending-
end current (is), source current (isrc), and so on
I Line current magnitude
I Line current
IBR Inverter-Based Resource
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
Iex Exciter current through the primary winding of the Sen Transformer
IPFC Interline Power Flow Controller
In Natural line current magnitude
IR Impedance Regulator
Is Current at the sending end of the line
Isrc Source current
ITCR Current through Thyristor-Controlled Reactor
k Number of TCSC sections
kHz Kilo Hertz (unit of frequency)
kR Factor, representing the ratio of line resistance, R, when line current is I and
the line resistance, Rn, when line current is In.
 Nomenclature xxi

L Inductance
LTC Load Tap Changer
LV Low Voltage
MC Magnetic Circuit
mr, ms , mse Slope
ms Millisecond
MST Multiline Sen Transformer
Mvar Mega VAR (unit of reactive power)
n (subscript) Natural
NC Normally-Closed
NERC North American Electric Reliability Corporation
NO Normally-Open
p Three-phase instantaneous active power
P Active power
PAR Phase Angle Regulator
Plinen Power loss in the natural or uncompensated line
Plink Active power on the common link
Pr Active power at the receiving end of the line
Prh Highest active power at the receiving end of the line
Prl Lowest active power at the receiving end of the line
Prn Natural active power at the receiving end of the line
Ps Active power at the sending end of the line
Pse Exchanged active power by a Series Unit
Psh Exchanged active power by a Shunt Unit
Psn Natural active power at the sending end of the line
Psrc Active power at the source
Ps Active power at the modified sending end of the line
PFC Power Flow Controller
POC Point of Connection to the utility
PST Phase-Shifting Transformer
pu Per unit
q Three-phase instantaneous quadrature power
Q Quality factor
Q Reactive power
QB Quadrature Booster
Qlinen Reactive power absorbed by the natural or uncompensated line
Qlink Reactive power on the common link
Qr Reactive power at the receiving end of the line
Qrh Highest reactive power at the receiving end of the line
Qrl Lowest reactive power at the receiving end of the line
Qrn Natural reactive power at the receiving end of the line
Qs Reactive power at the sending end of the line
Qse Exchanged reactive power by a Series Unit
Qsh Exchanged reactive power by a Shunt Unit
Qsn Natural reactive power at the sending end of the line
Qsrc Reactive power at the source
xxii Nomenclature

Qs Reactive power at the modified sending end of the line

rk Voltage error at a possible kth operating point in the Sen Transformer
R Line resistance
R Resistance of a section of a line
Reff Effective line resistance
ROM Rough-Order Magnitude
RMS Root Mean Square
RR Reactance Regulator
Rse Series-compensating resistance
Rsh Shunt-compensating resistance
s Second
S Apparent power
SiC Silicon Carbide
SMART Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, and Time-bound
SPFC SMART Power Flow Controller
Sr Apparent power at the receiving end of the line
Ss Apparent power at the sending end of the line
se (subscript) Series-exchanged, i.e. cse, mse, Pse, Rse, Xse, Qse, Zse
Sse Exchanged apparent power by a Series Unit
sh (subscript) Shunt-exchanged, i.e. Psh, Rsh, Xsh, Qsh, Zsh
Ssh Exchanged apparent power by a Shunt Unit
SSSC Static Synchronous Series Compensator
Ss Apparent power at the modified sending end of the line
ST Sen Transformer
STATCOM STATic synchronous COMpensator
SVC Static Var Compensator
SynCon Synchronous Condenser
t Time
TCR Thyristor-Controlled Reactor
THD Total Harmonic Distortion
TNA Transients Network Analyzer
TSC Thyristor-Switched Capacitor
TSR Thyristor-Switched Reactor
TTC Transmission Transfer Capability
UHV Ultra High Voltage
UPFC Unified Power Flow Controller
UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply
v Instantaneous voltage
V Phase voltage magnitude
V Phasor voltage
V Volt (unit of voltage)
va volt-ampere (unit of instantaneous apparent power)
VA Volt-Ampere (unit of apparent power)
VAR Volt-Ampere Reactive (unit of reactive power)
VR Voltage Regulator
VRT Voltage-Regulating Transformer
 Nomenclature xxiii

VSC Voltage-Sourced Converter

Vd Voltage across the compensating resistance
Vdq Voltage across the compensating impedance
Vq Voltage across the compensating reactance
Vr Voltage at the receiving end of the line
Vs Voltage at the sending end of the line
Vs Voltage at the modified sending end of the line
Vs h Highest voltage at the modified sending end of the line
Vs l Lowest voltage at the modified sending end of the line
Vs s Series-compensating voltage
VR Voltage across the line resistance
VRn Natural voltage across the line resistance
VR,X Voltage across the line impedance Z = R + jX
VRn,Xn Natural voltage across the line impedance Z = R + jX
VX Voltage across the line reactance
VXn Natural voltage across the line reactance
W Watt (unit of active power)
WECC Western Electricity Coordinating Council
X Line reactance (total)
XC Capacitive reactance of a section of a line
Xeff Effective line reactance
XL Inductive reactance of a section of a line
Xse Series-compensating reactance
Xsh Shunt-compensating reactance
Zse Series-compensating impedance
Zsh Shunt-compensating impedance
 xxv

Preface

Both authors have been involved in exploring various power flow controllers since the early 1990s.
Kalyan Sen developed power electronics inverter-based Flexible Alternating Current Transmission
Systems (FACTS) models while working at Westinghouse where pioneering development of
FACTS products took place. Note that a forced-commutated inverter with a DC link capacitor is
also referred to as a Voltage-Sourced Converter (VSC). Being an active contributor through patents,
publications, design, and commissioning of much-advertised FACTS controllers since its inception
in the 1990s, Kalyan has a first-hand knowledge of specific applications where the inverter-based
controllers are the desirable solutions and where these solutions are not suitable at all. He has writ-
ten an award-winning technical committee paper on the modeling of Unified Power Flow Control-
ler (UPFC) in the IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. Mey Ling Sen explored an alternate
approach to the VSC-based FACTS Controllers that is cost effective while meeting functional
requirements for most utility applications. This effort led to the concept of the Sen Transformer
(ST). The ST is fundamentally different from the conventional transformer, in a sense that it uses
three primary windings and nine secondary windings to create a compensating voltage that modi-
fies the line voltage to be a specific magnitude and phase angle, whereas the conventional trans-
former only modifies the magnitude of the line voltage. As a result, by using an ST, the active and
reactive power flows in the line can be regulated independently to maximize the revenue-
generating active power flow and minimize the reactive power flow while maintaining the stability
of the line voltage.
Since 2002, Kalyan has traveled around the world as an IEEE Distinguished Lecturer and lec-
tured in more than 150 places in 15 countries. When he gives a presentation on power flow con-
trollers, his approach is to start from the basics and lead up to the advanced concept of VSC-based
FACTS Controllers and ST. His emphasis is based on real-world experience in modeling, simula-
tion, design, and commissioning. He was requested in many places to compile his lecture material
in the form of a book, which resulted in the publication of Introduction to FACTS Controllers: The-
ory, Modeling, and Applications in 2009. At the inception of the FACTS development in the 1990s,
the main concerns were the high installation and operating costs of the FACTS Controllers. Over
the decades, the list of drawbacks has expanded to include component obsolescence, costly main-
tenance, lack of trained-labor, impracticability of relocation and lack of interoperability. A desired
feature of a Power Flow Controller (PFC) is that it is easily relocatable to wherever it is needed the
most, since the need for power flow control may change with time due to new generation, load, and
so on. Interoperability is desired so that components from various suppliers can be used, resulting
in a global manufacturing standard, ease of maintenance, and ultimately lower cost to consumers.
xxvi Preface

The utilities are searching for a suitable power flow controller that offers its inherent features:
simplicity, operational reliability, cost-effectiveness, component non-obsolescence, high efficiency,
low maintenance, ease of relocation, and interoperability to meet their immediate needs to relieve
grid congestion due to overload, peak load demand, and integration of renewable energy sources
into the grid. The ST combines the best features of the FACTS controllers in terms of the ability to
independently control active and reactive power flows while using time-tested and reliable trans-
former/Load Tap Changers (LTCs) technology that are familiar to the utilities worldwide for
almost a century. More on LTCs can be found in the book, titled On-Load Tap-Changers For Power
Transformers: Operation, Principles, Applications and Selection, by A. Krämer, Maschinenfabrik
Reinhausen, 2000.
Power transformers are the workhorses that make transmission and distribution of AC electric
power possible. Transformers step up the generator voltage (e.g. 25 kV) to the transmission level
(e.g. 345 kV) and step down to distribution level (e.g. 13.8 kV) and, finally, to household utilization
voltage (e.g. 120/240 V). With the addition of an LTC under load, transformers can easily regulate
voltage. Specialty transformers, such as Phase Angle Regulators (PARs), can also regulate phase
angle of the line voltage. The ST can regulate both the voltage magnitude and the phase angle
simultaneously; as a result, the active and reactive power flows through the line can be controlled
independently as desired.
The primary goal of this book is to present the fundamentals so that readers can retain the infor-
mation clearly in their minds and provide a meaningful input in the selection process of adopting a
particular solution. The book describes various concepts that are applicable to electric power indus-
tries. The concepts can be applied using traditional non-power electronics-based solutions and
modern power electronics-based solutions or some hybrid of traditional-modern solutions. The rea-
son for the primary goal is that a particular solution becomes obsolete as time progresses; however,
the fundamental concepts remain the same.
Early power flow controllers employed basic technologies, such as transformers, capacitors, and
reactors for the compensating voltage injection into the line. Later designs used power electronics to
achieve much greater flexibility and optimization through an independent control of active and
reactive power flows. When the first generation of power flow controllers, based on power electron-
ics VSCs, were built in the 1990s, the Gate-Turn-Off thyristor (GTO) was the forced-commutated
semiconductor switch of choice because of its availability in high power rating (4500 V, 4000 A) and
its low forward voltage that resulted in low conduction loss. Early FACTS Controllers used VSCs
with GTOs, switching once-per-cycle that resulted in the lowest switching loss and the lowest over-
all loss of about 1% of the rating of the VSC. These VSCs used special transformers to employ har-
monic-neutralized techniques and produced high-quality AC waveforms without using filters. The
inherent nature of a GTO is its relatively longer turn-on and turn-off times. More commonly used
modern Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) techniques are based on instantaneous turn-on and turn-
off of a switch. A voltage waveform that is created with a PWM technique consists of a fundamental
component of interest and harmonic components, the dominant of which is related to the ratio of
the switching and the fundamental frequencies. A higher switching frequency is desirable, because
the higher dominant frequency requires a reduced-sized filter. To keep the sum of turn-on and
turn-off times of a GTO to be less than 1% of the switching period, it would result in only several
hundred Hz of switching frequency. This would require a fairly large-sized output filter to eliminate
the unwanted low-order harmonic components, generated by a force-commutated inverter.
About a decade later, the VSC of choice started to use Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)-
based PWM techniques. An IGBT offers shorter turn-on and turn-off times, which is less than 1% of
the switching period that results in a switching frequency of several kHz. A lower switching period
 Preface xxvii

means a higher switching frequency and higher order harmonic components that are not of signif-
icant interest, since they do not generate significant amount of harmonic currents for two reasons;
first, higher order voltage harmonic components are lower in magnitudes and second, the higher
order voltage harmonic components “see” higher reactances for a given inductance. However,
some filtering may still be needed, since switching frequency could not be increased to the desired
level in some cases due to generation of excessive losses (3–4% of the rating of the VSC) as a function
of the increased switching frequency. Another decade later, the topology of choice has become mul-
tilevel VSCs that do not need any harmonic filtering. While the topologies of VSCs are changing, so
are the semiconductor switching devices. The upcoming switches are based on silicon carbide (SiC)
and gallium nitride (GaN) for desirable reasons, such as high-speed operation, which results in
lower turn-on and turn-off times, thus lower switching loss, high-temperature operation, lower
cooling requirement, and smaller circuits for the gate drive and the snubber. A higher switching
frequency creates a higher Electro-Magnetic Interference (EMI), which requires the use of an addi-
tional EMI filter. The fact is that with various advances in the power electronics technology and
semiconductor switches, the FACTS controllers become obsolete in a relatively few years and as
a result, a one-to-one component replacement becomes impossible in 10–15 years. In the utility
world where 45–50 years of equipment life is the norm, this means the entire power electronics
inverter-based FACTS installation may need to be replaced several times in those 45- to 50-year
period. In addition, simple maintenance requires highly skilled personnel that are not readily avail-
able. The global standard and interoperability do not exist due to a limited number of manufac-
turers. This is a highly expensive proposition perhaps two orders of magnitude more than a
long-lived and easily maintained transformer/LTCs-based technology, such as ST.
Today’s power grid has evolved into integration of inverter-based, renewable-sourced, electricity
generation from solar and wind farms, which are intermittent in nature. Therefore, traditional
steady-state power flow controllers, such as series-connected reactor/capacitor concepts, need to
be updated with an improved dynamic response. Additionally, increasing installation of roof-top
solar and its integration into a low-voltage distribution network has altered the traditional voltage
profile in the distribution network and increased the need for a bidirectional power flow controller
when the renewable generation is not available. Therefore, all available solutions need to be con-
sidered for future needs, which has led to the concept of SMART Controllers.
A considerable amount of effort has been put into modeling various controllers. Modeling is the
only approach, before any hardware construction, for the verification of the performance of any
concept. The book includes models of many controllers, developed using a freely available Elec-
tro-Magnetic Transients Program (EMTP) software package.
The book is divided into six chapters and three appendices. Chapter 1 presents the origin of power
flow controllers and guides the reader to the selection process of a SMART Power Flow Control-
ler (SPFC).
Chapter 2 is for anyone who would like to become familiar with the subject. It discusses various
topics of the book in simple electrical engineering terms and corroborates the theory with relevant
mathematics. The characteristic equations of various power flow controllers, including their equiv-
alent compensating impedances, are developed. Using these equations, a set of example problems is
given, which gives a quick back-of-the-envelope calculation results without much effort. A figure of
merit, called Sen Index, is defined for all the Power Flow Controllers (PFCs).
Chapter 3 presents the fundamentals of modeling in EMTP and explains the basic differences of
modeling various PFCs, such as the Voltage-Regulating Transformer (VRT), Phase Angle Regulator
(PAR), Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC), and Sen Transformer (ST). Following the Rough-
Order Magnitude (ROM) calculations performed in Chapter 2, using simple equations to
xxviii Preface

characterize a power flow solution, the ROM results may need to be refined by employing the mod-
eling techniques developed in Chapter 3. An example simulation of a series-compensating voltage is
shown to emulate a VRT, a PAR, and an Impedance Regulator (IR).
Chapter 4 presents the transformer-based PFCs and gives some baseline examples for comparison
with other PFCs in the following chapters. It is shown how a VRT and a PAR may be modeled by
using a series-compensating voltage.
Chapter 5 presents some early PFCs that use mechanical switches and set some baselines for com-
parison in the following chapters. It is shown how to model a virtual impedance that is equivalent to
shunt-connected and/or series-connected inductive and/or capacitive compensators.
Chapter 6 presents the evolution of an ST and its wide variety of applications. The most up-to-date
advancements in ST are described in this chapter. This includes various forms of two-core designs.
Also included is a new factory-test method under full power.
Appendix A describes the operation of various items, such as (1) three-phase balanced and unbal-
anced voltage, current, and power; (2) symmetrical components; (3) d-q transformation; and (4)
Fourier analysis. The reader will find it useful to see the industry techniques and the relevance
of the theory and applications.
Appendix B presents the power flow control equations in a lossy line and compares the derived
results from those in Chapter 2 for lossless lines. Simpler versions of these equations are derived in
Chapter 2, considering the line resistance (R) is zero. These examples will be used as future refer-
ences for those involved with PFCs. For the readers to recognize the importance of the equations
and example solutions presented in Chapter 2, a list of all the “Examples” is placed at the end of
Appendix B. Using the information received from Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
(SCADA) about the sending- and receiving-end voltages (Vs and Vr) and active and reactive power
flows (Pr and Qr), other power flow variables, such as the power angle (δ), can be calculated for a
known line impedance (Z = R + jX).
Appendix C presents a load flow study of the Chilean network, integrated with Sen Transformer,
performed by Siemens PTI and sponsored by New York Power Authority.

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Kalyan K. Sen

Mey Ling Sen
 xxix

Acknowledgments

We both would like to thank our former colleagues at Westinghouse where the pioneering
development of FACTS controllers started in 1990 under the technical leadership of Dr. L. Gyugyi.
We are very grateful for all those who dedicated their time to review the manuscript thoroughly
and provide valuable feedback. Special gratitude goes to Mr. R. Alexander, Dr. S. Behzadirafi,
Mr. J. M. DeSalvo, Dr. M. Haj-Maharsi, Dr. A. J, F. Keri, Dr. T. Manna, Mr. A. Parsotam, Mr. G. Pedrick,
Dr. B. Shperling, and Mr. R. Subramanian. We acknowledge the continuous effort to promote Sen
Transformer – a SMART Power Flow Controller technology by Dr. S. Behzadirafi, Mr. A. Ettlinger,
Dr. B. Fardanesh, and Mr. G. Pedrick of New York Power Authority, late Mr. M. Henderson of
New England ISO, Mr. A. Parsotam of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia, Prof. V. Dinavahi of
University of Alberta, Prof. R. Gokaraju of University of Saskatchewan, Mr. R. Alexander, and Mr.
J. M. DeSalvo. We thank American Public Power Association and Abby Anaday on Unsplash for using
their respective photos of Hydropower and Windmill on the coverpage. After performing decades of
research on various power flow control technologies, we feel that “the more we learn, the more we
realize how little we know.” We appreciate feedback from the readers. Our email addresses are
[email protected] and [email protected], respectively.
K.K.S.
M.L.S.
I would like to acknowledge my three professors, in particular, late S. K. Dutta of Jadavpur Uni-
versity for teaching me the basics of power electronics – a new and upcoming subject during
1970–1980, Dr. P. K. Ray of Tuskegee University for giving me a thorough training on how to con-
duct a basic research, and Dr. A. E. Emanuel of Worcester Polytechnic Institute for perfecting the
mold as my PhD thesis Advisor.
Very special thanks go to my two Westinghouse mentors – late T. Heinrich and late M. Brennen
whose insights in power electronics were unparalleled. Proper thanks go to Dr. L. Gyugyi who con-
vinced me to change my job from academia to industry, a change that I never regretted. He is the
inspiration for my life-long passion to develop power flow control technologies. I feel fortunate to
have worked in the development of FACTS products under his supervision.
Throughout my tenure at Westinghouse Science & Technology Center in Pittsburgh, I had a rare
opportunity of working with extraordinary people from all over the world. Not only were they a fine
class of engineers, they also had hobbies that could be considered as careers in their own rights.
During the long hours of commissioning of the world’s first UPFC in Kentucky and a STATCOM
in Texas, and the TNA test in Montreal, the team of engineers kept everyone amused with their life
stories. I thank the fine colleagues at the Tennessee Valley Authority, American Electric Power,
New York Power Authority, Bonneville Power Administration, Western Area Power Administra-
tion, and the Electric Power Research Institute.
K.K.S.
 xxxi

About the Companion Website

This book is accompanied by a companion website:

www.wiley.com/go/sen/powerflowcontrol
All EMTP models that are discussed throughout the book are available in the companion website.
 1

Smart Controllers

The future transmission and distribution system is on the way to be dramatically different from
what it is today. Today’s Bulk Power System (BPS), referred to as grid, that encompasses mainly
electromechanical devices is continuously integrating Inverter-Based Resources (IBRs) to convert
renewable energy sources into electricity. However, most of these sources are solar and wind, which
are intermittent in nature. Commercial nuclear-powered generators, once turned on, deliver elec-
tric power continuously for the next 18 to 24 months before stopping for scheduled maintenance
and refueling. This difference alone, in two different types of electricity generation, creates a need
for a SMART controller that is capable of managing power flow dynamically. A SMART controller
will be essential to increase the transmission capacity of the existing system with line impedance
management and the needed dynamic performance. This technology will help operators optimize
power flows across the grid to reduce voltage stress on the transmission network, reduce line loss, as
well as reduce Green-House Gas (GHG) emissions from traditional carbon-based generation.
SMART is an acronym that stands for Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, and Time-
bound. SMART solutions, which have been used for decades in many fields, are well suited for
applications in electrical engineering. A controller, also referred to as a compensator, is a general
term to describe a regulator that regulates voltage, current, phase angle of a line voltage, resistance,
reactance, impedance, and so on, directly or indirectly in an electric circuit. A controller can be
designed to perform a task (e.g. voltage regulation) and/or multiple tasks with varying cost and
complexity. In the simplest term, a SMART Controller is what one procures is based on what
one needs. A SMART Controller is an evolving technology that uses the best technical features from
all previous concepts to meet the present need by blending functional requirements with the most
cost-effective solution. A SMART Power Flow Controller (SPFC) enhances the power flow control-
lability in electric power transmission and distribution systems. It is recommended that utilities
choose a solution that meets their need in terms of reliability, robustness, cost-effectiveness, com-
ponent non-obsolescence, efficiency, ease of relocation, and interoperability.

1.1 Why is a Power Flow Controller Needed?

The electricity generation is typically located a distance away from the industrial and population,
i.e. load centers. Therefore, electricity is transmitted from the points of generation to the points of
utilization using transmission and distribution lines. One of the major achievements of the late 19th
century was to implement long-distance alternating current (AC) transmission of electric power.
For a given amount of transmitted power, a higher transmission voltage provides less footprint

Power Flow Control Solutions for a Modern Grid using SMART Power Flow Controllers, First Edition.
Kalyan K. Sen and Mey Ling Sen.
© 2022 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/sen/powerflowcontrol
2 1 Smart Controllers

Distribution

Load
Transmission

Generation
Transformer Transformer Load

Figure 1-1 Part of a large interconnected transmission system supplying electric power from the generating
point to the loads.

and less current in the line. Since loss in the line is proportional to the square of the current, it is
most desirable to transmit electricity from generation to load centers through the transmission lines
at higher voltage and lower current. Over the next century, various types of generation, such as coal,
natural gas, nuclear, hydro, renewables, and so on, and loads were integrated through intercon-
nected transmission and distribution lines to form the grid as shown in Figure 1-1.
Electricity flows freely from a higher potential to a lower potential. If two or more lines with dif-
ferent impedances are connected in parallel, the current in each line is, in some form, inversely
proportional to the respective line impedance. This free flow of electricity might take longer paths
to reach its destination and cause unwanted power losses in the lines. Additionally, this free flow
may cause some transmission lines to be overloaded or underloaded. If the impedance of a line is
larger compared to that of the lines connected in parallel, the current and the resulting power flow
through the higher-impedance line is lower compared to that in the neighboring lines, and vice
versa. Therefore, power flow in a line is, in some form, inversely proportional to the impedance
of the line.
Transmission Reliability Margin (TRM) – the amount of Transmission Transfer Capability (TTC)
needed to ensure that the interconnected transmission network is secure under a reasonable range
of uncertainties in system conditions. These uncertainties may result from the following:

1) Simultaneous limitations with a parallel path.

2) Reservations for unscheduled flow, i.e. loop flow.
3) Reservations for unplanned transmission outages, i.e. for paths in which contingencies have not
already been included in the calculation of TTC.

TRM does not include reservations for planned outages and other known transmission condi-
tions, which have been included in the calculation of TTC (Minimum of {Thermal Limit, Voltage
Limit, and Stability Limit}).
Capacity Benefit Margin (CBM) – the amount of TTC reserved by the load-serving entities to
ensure access to generation from interconnected systems to meet generation reliability require-
ments. These reservations may include the following:

1) Transmission reserved by the Control Area Operator to accommodate operating reserves (spin-
ning and supplemental). Such operating reserves may not exceed NERC and WECC applicable
pool requirements or individual members’ reliability requirements.
 1.1 Why is a Power Flow Controller Needed? 3

2) Transmission reserved for the import of ancillary services (such as spinning reserves) from
another control area.
3) Transmission reserved for generation patterns and generation contingencies. These patterns and
contingencies must be based upon reasonable, publicly available assumptions subject to evalu-
ation in applicable dispute resolution proceedings.

According to “Available Transfer Capability Definitions and Determination,” North American

Electric Reliability Council, June 1996, TTC is defined as
TTC = Minimum of Thermal Limit, Voltage Limit, and Stability Limit 1-1
Available Transfer Capability (ATC) is a measure of the transfer capability remaining in the phys-
ical transmission network for further commercial activity over and above already committed uses.
Therefore,
ATC = TTC – TRM – CBM – existing transmission commitments 1-2
It is often desirable to utilize the ATC to increase the power flow through a line as much as pos-
sible according to Equation (1-2), which results in a higher line utilization, meets greater customer
needs, integrates new sources of energy, and avoids or defers building of new transmission lines, at
least in the short term. Sometimes, it is the opposite when it may be desirable to lower the power
flow of the line so that the power flow can be redirected to a desired transmission line that may
include high-voltage and low-current and thus, low-loss lines. This is particularly important when
a line becomes overloaded with a level of current that can trip the line or a fault current that must be
limited. If an overloaded line trips, its current will be redirected in the available lines inversely
proportional, depending on the lines’ impedances. This may cause a previously underloaded
line to become overloaded and tripped, which may create a possible cascaded failure of the grid,
resulting in a blackout. This type of cascaded failure is described in the “Final Report on the August
14, 2003 Blackout in the United States and Canada: Causes and Recommendations” by U.S.-Canada
Power System Outage Task Force, April 2004.
Inadequate management of reactive power and line voltage caused the blackout. Most of the
recent power network blackouts have been related to line voltage collapses, which tend to occur
from lack of reactive power supports in heavily stressed conditions, usually triggered by system
faults. One of the ways to improve the reliability of the line when faced with similar occurrences
would be to regulate the effective impedance of a line between its two ends with an Impedance
Regulator (IR), which is also known as a Power Flow Controller (PFC).
It is also desirable to use a PFC to enhance the power flow in the line to maximize the revenue-
generating active power flow and minimize the reactive power flow within a permissible limit,
while maintaining the voltage stability. The flow of electricity in a particular line of a transmission
system can be controlled by using a PFC as shown in Figure 1-2. Since the power flow in a line is
inversely proportional to the impedance of the line and assuming the line to be an inductive imped-
ance, the power flow can be decreased by inserting an additional inductive impedance in series with
the line, thereby increasing the effective impedance of the line between its two ends. Also, the
power flow can be increased by inserting an additional capacitive impedance in series with the line,
thereby decreasing the effective impedance of the line between its two ends. Therefore, the regu-
lation of the effective line impedance is the key to maintaining desired power flow in a line. Note
that each of a Voltage Regulator (VR) and a Phase Angle Regulator (PAR) also regulates the effec-
tive line impedance indirectly. However, the Reactance Regulator (RR) regulates only the effective
line reactance directly as discussed in Chapter 2, Section 2.2.2.6 (Representation of a Series-
Compensating Voltage as a Series-Compensating Impedance).
4 1 Smart Controllers

Controlled Path
Power
Flow
Controller Distribution

Load
Transmission

Generation
Transformer Transformer Load

Figure 1-2 Power flow along a controlled path.

The demand for electrical energy around the world increases continuously; so does the use of
various sources of energy from traditional synchronous generators, used at coal/natural gas/
nuclear/hydro power stations to modern IBRs that convert renewable wind and solar energy into
usable AC electricity. Often, the available sources of energy generation are far away from the load
centers. The ever-growing need for transmitting more electricity can be met either by installing new
transmission lines, characterized by a lengthy and costly process and/or by harnessing the dormant
capacity of the underutilized transmission lines with a quicker and much less-costly option. The
challenge is how to harness this dormant capacity in the most cost-effective way. Any investment
alternative to harness the dormant capacity of the underutilized transmission lines should be sup-
ported by comparing the investment relative to other competing options with all cost/benefit con-
siderations being evaluated for all tangible and non-tangible factors over the total life cycle.
The free flow of electricity from one particular point to another might not take the shortest path.
Any unwanted path along the way causes extra power loss, loop flow of power, and reduced stability
with increased voltage variation in the line. The power industry constantly searches for the most
economical ways to transfer bulk power along a desired path. Before considering new transmission
lines, it is desirable to explore all the options to increase the loadability of existing transmission
lines. The free flow of power through unwanted longer paths, which causes extra losses in the lines
can be mitigated with the use of a PFC. The optimum power flow through the lines will enhance the
loadability of the lines in the most efficient way. This will reduce the carbon-based generation that
is equal to the unwanted losses in the lines due to free flow of power, which will reduce GHG emis-
sions and contribute to a reduction in global warming.
Traditional regulators, such as VR, PAR, and RR, regulate one of the three power flow control
parameters (line voltage magnitude, its phase angle, and line reactance) and, in turn, control active
and reactive power flows (P and Q) simultaneously, meaning both P and Q either increase or
decrease. Since the effect of line reactance regulation is equivalent to essentially the combined
effects of voltage regulation (using a VR) and phase angle regulation (using a PAR), the two main
power flow control parameters are the line voltage magnitude and its phase angle. An IR is func-
tionally equivalent to the combined effects of a VR and a PAR.
The optimization of P and Q flows in the transmission line requires an independent control of P
and Q flows, which requires a simultaneous regulation of the line voltage magnitude and its phase
angle. This is functionally equivalent to regulating the effective four-quadrant impedance
 1.2 Traditional Power Flow Control Concepts 5

(discussed in Section 1.2) of the line between its two ends. Early PFCs employed basic technologies,
such as transformers, capacitors, and reactors for the compensating voltage injection in the line.
Modern-day PFCs emulate a reactor or a capacitor by creating a compensating voltage whose phase
angle is either leading or lagging the current that is passing through the compensating voltage. The
advantage of using an emulated series capacitor as compared to an actual series-connected capac-
itor is the avoidance of creating any type of resonance with the inductance in the line and the syn-
chronous machine in the form of sub-synchronous resonance. The voltage across the emulator is
limited by the rating of the PFC whereas the voltage across a series-connected capacitor may be
excessively high during resonance. In addition, just by changing the control algorithm, the same
power hardware may be used to emulate a series-compensating capacitor as well as a reactor,
instead of using a separate reactor.
An IR creates a series-connected virtual impedance that modifies the effective impedance of a line
between its two ends. As a result, it is possible to increase power flow in an underloaded line,
decrease power flow in an overloaded line, and control the flows of P and Q independently as
desired. If deployed in critical locations, the IR will maximize the P flow that will generate the most
revenue and minimize the Q flow, reducing unwanted power losses in transmission lines. This will
increase the efficiency of the power grid, increase voltage stability margins, and may avoid a cas-
caded blackout as described in the “Final Report on the August 14, 2003 Blackout in the United
States and Canada: Causes and Recommendations” by U.S.-Canada Power System Outage Task
Force, April 2004.
The consequence of free flow of electricity following the Hanna-Juniper Line Loss on August
14 2003 contributed to a massive blackout of the North-Eastern USA and Canada. When a tree
and the 345-kV line touched each other, the line tripped; as a result, the load got redistributed
among the available transmission paths, which overloaded some lines that then tripped. These
events normally would set off alarms in a local utility’s control room and alert operators to activate
controllers in neighboring regions to reroute power flows around the affected site. However, the
alarm software failed, and thus the local operators were unaware of the problem. Transmission
lines surrounding the failure spot were forced to shoulder more than their safe quota of electricity.
Also, at this time, the reactive power supply was at a minimum and when plant operators tried to
increase the reactive power flow, the generating plant shut down. This further destabilized the sys-
tem’s equilibrium, leading to additional lines and generators dropping out of the grid as the cascade
continued. Within 8 minutes, 50 million people were experiencing a blackout.
The final report on the blackout stated that more high-voltage lines must be built and perhaps
even more important, the power grid must be made SMARTER. A self-healing SMART grid is
needed to be able to recognize the problem and then reconfigure the power grid. If IRs were stra-
tegically located, these overloaded lines would have their power flows controlled to be within their
ATC limits and would neither trip the line nor contribute to the blackout. Hence, the IR improves
grid reliability and resiliency.

1.2 Traditional Power Flow Control Concepts

The flow of AC power, irrespective of its source, has two components: active power and reactive
power. A transmission line consists of electrical conductors that may be composed of many sec-
tions. Each section consists of a resistance (R ), inductive reactance (X L), and line-to-ground
(shunt) capacitive reactance (X C) as shown in Figure 1-3. Since there is no significant storage of
6 1 Smart Controllers

Rʹ XʹL Rʹ XʹL Rʹ XʹL

Vs Vr
XʹC XʹC

Figure 1-3 Representation of a transmission line between sending and receiving ends.

electric power at the utility scale, the active power, except for the loss in the resistance of the con-
ductor, reaches from one end of the line to the other end. This active power can be used for lighting,
heating, cooling, motion force in electric motors, and so on. The distributed series inductive and
shunt capacitive reactances of the line absorb and generate reactive power, respectively. This reac-
tive power flow causes an extra loss in the resistance of the line.
The symbols shown in the figure are

Vs is the sending-end voltage with a magnitude (Vs) and a phase angle (δs),
Vr is the receiving-end voltage with a magnitude (Vr) and a phase angle (δr),
R is the line resistance in each section,
X L is the inductive reactance in each section of the line, and
X C is the line-to-ground (shunt) capacitive reactance in each section.

Transmission lines with lengths less than 50 miles (80.5 km) are classified as being short lines;
lines of lengths between 50 and 150 miles (80.5 and 241.4 km) are classified as medium-length lines
and lines above 150 miles (241.4 km) are considered long lines. Consider a line in the intercon-
nected transmission system, connecting sources and loads as shown in Figure 1-1 as a relatively
short line where the capacitive shunt reactance from the line to ground and among the lines
can be ignored as shown in Figure 1-4. The resistances and inductive reactances from all the line
sections are lumped together as shown in the figure. The natural power flow in an AC transmission
line depends on (1) magnitudes of the sending and receiving-end voltages, (2) phase angle between
these voltages, and (3) line impedance.
The additional symbols shown in the figure are

VXn is the natural voltage across the line reactance with a magnitude (VXn) and a phase
angle (θVXn),
VRn is the natural voltage across the line resistance with a magnitude (VRn) and a phase
angle (θVRn),
In is the natural line current with a magnitude (In) and a phase angle (θIn),
Psn is the natural active power flow at the sending end,
Qsn is the natural reactive power flow at the sending end,

Psn , Qsn Prn , Qrn

VRn VXn
In In

R X
Vs Vr

Figure 1-4 Power flow along a transmission line between sending and receiving ends.
 1.2 Traditional Power Flow Control Concepts 7

Prn is the natural active power flow at the receiving end,

Qrn is the natural reactive power flow at the receiving end,
R is the line resistance (R > 0 and represents a positive resistance), and
X is the line reactance (X > 0 and represents an inductive reactance).

The natural active and reactive power flows (Psn and Qsn) at the sending end are derived in
Appendix B as
A Vs
Psn = R − cos δ + X sin δ B-12
R2 + X 2 Vr
and
A Vs
Qsn = − R sin δ + X − cos δ B-14
R +X2 2 Vr
where
V sV r
A= B-13
R2 + X 2
and the power angle is given in Chapter 2 as
δ = δs − δr 2-27
The natural active and reactive power flows (Prn and Qrn) at the receiving end are
A Vr
Prn = R cos δ − + X sin δ B-21
R +X2 2 Vs
and
A Vr
Qrn = − R sin δ + X cos δ − B-22
R +X2 2 Vs
Ignoring the line resistance as shown in Figure 1-5a, the natural active and reactive power flows
(Psn and Qsn) at the sending end and the natural active and reactive power flows (Prn and Qrn) at the
receiving end for a relatively short lossless line are
Psn = a × sin δ, 2-40
Vs
Qsn = a − cos δ , 2-43
Vr
Prn = a × sin δ 2-46
and
Vr
Qrn = a cos δ − 2-48
Vs
where
V sV r
a= 2-41
X
In addition to using these formulae to characterize a two-generator/single-line power system net-
work, they may be used when designing an electrical generator where the Vs and Vr are the
8 1 Smart Controllers

Psn , Qsn Prn , Qrn

VXn
In In
Electric
(a)
Grid
X
Vs Vr

Internal Internal Terminal

Voltage Reactance Voltage
Electrical
(b)
Machine
X
Vs Vr

PWM Filter Filtered

Voltage Reactance Voltage
+
(c) vDC−
X
Vs Vr
Filter Cf
Inverter Capacitor

Figure 1-5 (a) Electric grid: power flow along a lossless transmission line between sending and receiving
ends; (b) equivalent representation of an electrical machine; (c) equivalent representation of an inverter.

generator’s internal voltage and terminal voltage, respectively, and X is the internal reactance of the
generator as shown in Figure 1-5b. When designing an inverter, Vs represents the inverter’s output
voltage, which is typically created using a Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) technique and passed
through a filter that consists of an inductor with a reactance (X) and a capacitor (Cf) to create a
filtered voltage, Vr, as shown in Figure 1-5c.
The direct way to modify the effective line reactance (jXeff) between its two ends is to connect a
compensating reactance (–jXse) in series with the line as shown in Figure 1-6. The active and reac-
tive power flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end of the line are given by the following equations:
Pr = aeff sin δ 2-207

and
Vr
Qr = aeff cos δ − 2-208
Vs
where
V sV r
aeff = , 2-209
X eff
X eff = X − X se 2-210a

Note that Xse > 0 represents a capacitive compensating reactance and Xse < 0 represents an induc-
tive compensating reactance, respectively. However, Xeff > 0 represents an effective inductive reac-
tance and Xeff < 0 represents an effective capacitive reactance, respectively.
 1.2 Traditional Power Flow Control Concepts 9

Pr , Qr
VX
I
Xse
X
Vs Vs′ Vr
Vq

Vq = |Xse|I e j90°
±

Xeff

Figure 1-6 Power flow in a lossless line with a series-compensating reactance (Xse).

Depending on whether the compensating reactance (–jXse) is capacitive or inductive, the voltage
(Vq = jVq) across the compensating reactance lags or leads the prevailing line current (I) by 90 .
This leads to the concept of an emulated reactance, which is defined as
Vq
X se = − 1-3a
I
or
Vs s
X se = , 1-3b
I
and is shown in Figure 1-7. In this concept, a compensating voltage Vs s = − Vq is created, main-
taining the quadrature relationship with the prevailing line current, and is connected in series with
the line. Note that V s s > 0 is defined to be a capacitive compensation and Vs s < 0 is defined to be
an inductive compensation, respectively.
The concept of an emulated reactance can be further extended to represent an emulated imped-
ance when the compensating voltage is not restricted to be in quadrature, but at any phase angle
with respect to the prevailing line current (I). That means the compensating voltage Vs s = − Vdq
can be made to look like a virtual, four-quadrant, compensating impedance (Zse = Rse − jXse) that
consists of a resistance (Rse = +R or − R) and a reactance (Xse = XC or − XL) in series with the line
without any discrete circuit component as shown in Figure 1-8b. This two-parameter, resistive (Rse)
and reactive (Xse), control makes it possible to modify the magnitude and the phase angle of the line

Pr , Qr
Vsʹs
VX
I

X
Vs Vsʹ Vr
Vq

Vsʹs = |Xse|I e±j90°

Xeff

Figure 1-7 Power flow in a lossless line with a series-compensating voltage (Vs s).
10 1 Smart Controllers

(a) Vsʹs
Pr , Qr
Vd Vq
VX
I

Vs Vsʹ X Vr
Vdq

(b) Rse− jXse ω

jXL
Vdq Vq
− R+ jXL + R+ jXL

I
Vd Rse

− R− jXC + R− jXC
Vsʹs
jXC
jXse

Figure 1-8 (a) Power transmission system with a series-compensating voltage (Vs s); (b) four-quadrant
emulated impedance.

voltage simultaneously, which results in an independent control of active and reactive power flows
in the line.
The series-compensating voltage (Vs s) is related to (Vdq), such that
Vs s = − Vdq 1-4

and
Vdq = Vd + Vq = V d + jV q 1-5

where Vd = Vd and Vq = jVq are the respective active or direct and reactive or quadrature compo-
nents of the compensating voltage with load convention, meaning the line current (I) enters at the
higher potential terminal of the voltages (Vd and Vq) as shown in Figure 1-8a.
The natural or uncompensated power flow through a transmission line in a power system net-
work is, in general, not optimal. Any of the power flow control parameters (line voltage magnitude,
its phase angle, and line reactance) can be regulated with the use of the following equipment:

• Voltage-Regulating Transformer (VRT), shunt or parallel-connected switched reactor/capacitor,

also known as Shunt Reactor (SR)/Shunt Capacitor (SC), Static Var Compensator (SVC), or
STATic synchronous COMpensator (STATCOM) for voltage regulation as shown in Figure 1-9

•• PAR or Phase-Shifting Transformer (PST) for phase angle regulation as shown in Figure 1-10
Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) or Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC)
for series reactance regulation as shown in Figure 1-11.

The dynamic performance of a VRT is limited by the speed of operation of the mechanical Load
Tap Changers (LTCs), which respond in seconds; this level of response time is acceptable in most
 1.2 Traditional Power Flow Control Concepts 11

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Vsʹ Vs Vs
Vs Vs

Vs Vsʹ Vs

+
Switched Switched
Reactor Capacitor

Two-winding Autotransformer TSC + TCR STATCOM

Transformer = SVC

Figure 1-9 Transmission line Voltage Regulators: (a) Two-winding Transformer, (b) Autotransformer,
(c) Switched Reactor, (d) Switched Capacitor, (e) TSC + TCR = SVC, and (f ) STATCOM.

(a) (b)

VsʹsA
A
A
Vs Vsʹ

VsʹsA
Vs Vsʹ
C B
C B

Phase Angle Regulator (asymmetric) Phase Angle Regulator (symmetric)

Figure 1-10 Transmission line voltage Phase Angle Regulators: (a) asymmetric and (b) symmetric.

(a) (b)

Vq

Vs Vsʹ
Vs Vsʹ
+

Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor Static Synchronous Series Compensator

Figure 1-11 Transmission line Reactance Regulators: (a) Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) and (b)
Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC).
12 1 Smart Controllers

utility applications. However, if a faster response is desired, the mechanical LTCs can be upgraded
with power electronics-based LTCs, called Thyristor-Controlled (TC) LTCs as discussed in
Chapter 2. More on LTCs can be found in the book, titled “On-Load Tap-Changers For Power
Transformers: Operation, Principles, Applications and Selection,” by A. Krämer, Maschinenfabrik
Reinhausen, 2000. The power electronics-based solutions can be divided into two categories, based
on the type of semiconductor switches: naturally commutated switch, such as a thyristor and
forced-commutated switch, such as Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT). Each of these solu-
tions is based on engineering trade-offs.
When discussing dynamic and transient events, mechanical LTCs react in ≈ 3–5 s (3,000–5,000
ms); TC LTCs react in < 1 s (1,000 ms) and IGBT-based converters react in < 0.010 s (10 ms). These
different technologies are referred to as slow, medium speed, and fast, respectively. Note that as the
response time of a particular solution increases from slow using mechanical LTCs to medium speed
using TC LTCs to fast using IGBTs, there is a corresponding increase in the solution’s life-cycle costs
(installation, operation, and maintenance), complexity, and impracticability of relocation. Other
important features to consider are reliability, efficiency, component non-obsolescence, and
interoperability.
For more than a century, the transmission line voltage magnitude has been regulated with trans-
formers and tap changers. They are referred to, in this book, as the VRT in the form of a two-
winding transformer with galvanically isolated primary and secondary windings, called a
Shunt–Shunt configuration, and an autotransformer with an electrical connection between the pri-
mary and secondary windings, called a Shunt–Series configuration. In both types of transformers,
the line voltage is applied to the primary windings. In the two-winding transformer, the full line
voltage is induced in the secondary windings, whereas, in the autotransformer, only a fraction of
the line voltage is induced in the secondary windings that are connected to the primary windings to
produce the full line voltage. In both cases, the magnitude of the line voltage is regulated. The sec-
ondary voltage is varied with the use of LTCs. An LTC can step up/down the voltage without inter-
ruption of the load current. Both primary and secondary windings in the two-winding transformer
carry the full transmitted power. Both primary and secondary windings in the autotransformer
carry only a fraction of the full transmitted power. Therefore, if the galvanic isolation is not needed,
the rating of the transformer can be significantly reduced with a Shunt–Series configuration as com-
pared to a Shunt–Shunt configuration. Regardless of which configuration is used, the voltages at the
input (primary) and output (secondary) terminals of both a two-winding transformer and an auto-
transformer are identical as discussed in Chapter 4, Section 4.1.
The primary reason for voltage regulation is due to the exchange of reactive power at the Point of
Connection (POC) to the utility. However, a transformer neither generates nor absorbs reactive
power. If a transformer delivers reactive power at one side (primary or secondary), it absorbs
the same amount of reactive power on the other side (secondary or primary). Therefore, in the proc-
ess of increasing voltage on the secondary side, it reduces voltage on the primary side. The opposite
is true as well when, in the process of decreasing voltage on the secondary side, it increases voltage
on the primary side. Figure 1-12 shows that a compensating voltage of ±15% of the natural primary
voltage (Vsn) of 0.988 pu results in a secondary voltage (Vs ) in the range of 0.872 to 1.095 pu. In the
process, the primary voltage (Vs) varies in the range of 1.022 to 0.945 pu. Therefore, a desired 15%
change in voltage at the secondary terminal may result in a net 10.7% increase due to the reduction
of voltage at the primary terminal and a net 11.6% decrease due to the increase of voltage at the
primary terminal as discussed in Chapter 4, Section 4.1.
The indirect way to regulate the magnitude of the line voltage is to connect a reactor or a capacitor
in shunt with the line. A shunt-connected reactor absorbs reactive power from the line and lowers
 1.2 Traditional Power Flow Control Concepts 13

1.10

1.05 Vsʹ
Vs
Voltage (pu)

1.00 Vsn (0.988 pu)

0.95

0.90
Vsʹs (pu)
0.85
− 0.15 − 0.10 − 0.05 0 0.05 0.10 0.15

Figure 1-12 Ranges of voltages (Vs and Vs ) at the primary and secondary sides of a Voltage-Regulating
Transformer.

the line voltage, whereas a shunt-connected capacitor raises the line voltage with its generated reac-
tive power as discussed in Chapter 2. With a series-connected switch, such as back-to-back thyr-
istors (triac), whose duty cycle can be varied, the shunt reactor can be made to operate as a
variable reactor, which is called a Thyristor-Controlled Reactor (TCR). A Thyristor-Switched
Capacitor (TSC) connects fixed capacitors in a step-like manner in shunt with the line through
triacs. Therefore, a combination of the variable reactor and a parallel capacitor acts as a variable
compensating reactor or capacitor, which is called SVC.
Voltage regulation can also be achieved by the field control of a synchronous motor (Synchronous
Condenser or SynCon) that generates or absorbs var as in the cases of a shunt-connected capacitor
or a shunt-connected reactor. Voltage regulation can also be achieved when the back emf of the
SynCon is replaced with a power electronics-based Voltage-Sourced Converter (VSC), which is
called STATCOM as discussed in Chapter 2, Section 2.3.1.2. More discussion on this topic is given
in “Introduction to FACTS Controllers: Theory, Modeling, and Applications,” by Sen and Sen,
IEEE Press and John Wiley & Sons, 2009, Chapter 8, Section 8.1.
The power flow in a transmission line has traditionally been regulated with the use of a PAR. The
line voltage is applied to the primary windings and the induced secondary voltage, called a com-
pensating voltage that is varied with the use of LTCs is connected in series with the line. This com-
pensating voltage is in quadrature with the phase-to-neutral voltage and as a result, the phase angle
of the line voltage is regulated as discussed in Chapters 2 and 4. The PAR is configured in two forms
– PAR asymmetric (asym) and symmetric (sym). In the process of varying the phase angle of the line
voltage, a PAR (asym) also increases the magnitude of the line voltage. In a PAR (sym), while the
phase angle is varied, the magnitude of the line voltage stays unchanged. When a high power flow
enhancement is desired, the application of a PAR (sym) becomes limited, because of the need for a
large amount of reactive power flow through the line. This large amount of reactive power flow
creates significant additional losses, because of a large line current. Also, a larger-than-necessary
rating of the PAR results when a large increase in active power flow is desired as discussed in
Chapter 2, Section 2.5.2. Also as discussed in Chapter 2, Section 2.2.2.6, a PAR emulates an imped-
ance in series with the line; however, this emulated impedance is not an independently controlled
resistance and reactance; therefore, a PAR cannot control the active and reactive power flows in the
line independently, whereas an IR offers an independent control of active and reactive power flows
in the line as desired.
If the variable capacitor/reactor is connected in series with the line, the effective line reactance
between the two ends of the line is regulated by the additional variable capacitor/reactor, which is
called TCSC. The functionality of a TCSC can be realized with a series-compensating voltage as in
14 1 Smart Controllers

the case of a SSSC. The SSSC maintains the compensating voltage almost in quadrature with the
prevailing line current. A leading voltage emulates a reactor; a lagging voltage emulates a capacitor.
A TCSC or SSSC modifies the magnitude and phase angle of the line voltage, which are the com-
bined functionalities of a VR and a PAR as shown in Figure 2-28. Since, the series reactance com-
pensation technique does not change the effective line resistance, it cannot control the active and
reactive power flows in the line independently as shown in Figure 1-30.
In a lightly loaded line, the reactive power absorbed by the series reactance of the line may be
much less in comparison to the reactive power generated by the line-to-ground, shunt capacitance
of the line. The resulting voltage increase in the line may reach or exceed the allowable limits for
other loads that are connected to the grid. In a heavily loaded transmission line, the reactive power
needed by the series reactance of the line may be much more in comparison to the reactive power
generated by the shunt capacitance of the line. The resulting voltage along the line may decrease to
a point that is below an acceptable limit when the full performance of the load is not possible. If the
voltage along the transmission line is increased to be regulated at its nominal value by using a VR,
the active power flow increases over the natural flow as discussed in Chapter 2, Section 2.6.1
(Shunt-Compensating Reactance). If the phase angle between the voltages at the two ends of
the transmission line is increased by using a PAR, the active power flow also increases. The unin-
tended consequence of increasing active power flow by voltage regulation or phase angle regulation
is that the reactive power flow in the line is also affected. When the line reactance is regulated, both
the active and reactive power flows in the transmission line are varied simultaneously.
If the reactive power along the line is reduced, the freed-up capacity of the line can be used to
increase the revenue-generating active power flow. As a result, the connected-generators will be
required to supply less reactive power. Furthermore, the efficiencies of the generators and step-
up transformers under a reduced reactive power condition will also increase. Since the loss in
the line decreases due to less reactive power flow, the grid becomes more efficient. Therefore, it
is desirable to compensate the lines to operate under independent, not simultaneous, control of
the active and reactive power flows so that the line can facilitate the delivery of active power with
the greatest value. The active and reactive power flows in a line can be regulated independently
with a UPFC or an ST that controls the effective impedance of the line between its two ends, which
is functionally equivalent to regulating both the magnitude and phase angle of the line voltage
simultaneously.

1.3 Modern Power Flow Control Concepts

In the early 1990s, there was a renewed interest to experiment with novel power electronics VSCs-
based PFCs due to the availability of high-power, forced-commutated, semiconductor switches,
such as 4500 V, 4000 A-rated gate-turn-off (GTO) thyristors. A new definition, namely Flexible
Alternating Current Transmission Systems (FACTS), was proposed as “alternating current trans-
mission systems incorporating power electronic-based and other static controllers to enhance con-
trollability and increased power transfer capability.” The purpose of the FACTS solution was to
completely overhaul and improve the power delivery techniques that were developed, since the
introduction of free flow of electricity in the late 19th century. Under this program, Westinghouse
installed a ±100-MVA-rated STATCON (STATic CONdenser as discussed in the literature) at the
Tennessee Valley Authority’s (TVA) Sullivan substation in Tennessee, USA. This new equipment
was fundamentally different from the conventional thyristor-controlled SVC. This equipment was
 1.3 Modern Power Flow Control Concepts 15

PRIMARY VOLTAGE (A-PHASE) PRIMARY VOLTAGE (A-PHASE)

STATCON OUTPUT CURRENT (A-PHASE) STATCON OUTPUT CURRENT (A-PHASE)

INDUCTIVE INDUCTIVE
CAPACITIVE CAPACITIVE

STATCON INSTANTANEOUS REACTIVE CURRENT STATCON INSTANTANEOUS REACTIVE CURRENT

Figure 1-13 Response time of the first commercial STATCON for 100 Mvar capacitive step (left) and 100 Mvar
inductive step (right) (field performance) (Westinghouse).

called STATCON because its steady-state output characteristics are similar to those of the rotating
synchronous condenser. This was the world’s first commercial installation of a STATCON, which
was later renamed as STATCOM. This project was based on a previously demonstrated project that
was documented in a report, titled 1 MVAR Advanced Static VAR Generator Development Program,
ESEERCO Report, EP 84-30, April 1987. The TVA-STATCOM demonstrated (i) realization of a
±100 MVA, 161 kV-rated VSC, based on a harmonic-neutralization technique that did not require
the use of any filter at the output of the VSC, (ii) viability of GTO-based VSCs at high power for
transmission applications and (iii) fast control response of a VSC-based compensator as shown
in Figure 1-13. This STATCOM was built using MSDOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System), which
became obsolete before its installation in 1995 due to the arrival of MS Windows operating system
in 1993. The STATCOM was retired from service due to component obsolescence. This demon-
strates the consequential risks associated with the new power electronics technologies in regard
to the life expectancy under utility conventional standards. Rapid advances in semiconductor tech-
nology and computer operating systems do not align with the utility business model and quickly
outpace the utility adoption standards. This is a prime example of technology obsolescence that
should be considered when making a technical evaluation.
The capability of providing a 100-Mvar step change in 2 ms by a VSC-based STATCOM,
using forced-commutated GTOs, was a major improvement in response time than what was
obtained in a naturally commutated, thyristor-based SVC. The SVC uses thyristors, which have
a natural transport delay of half of a power cycle, meaning when a thyristor turns on in a
positive half cycle, it turns off naturally in the next negative half cycle following the zero-
crossing of the voltage. Figure 1-14 shows a two-month voltage profile without an SVC (left)
and with an SVC (right). This is a significant improvement over no compensation. The expe-
rience of the last five decades has shown that the response time of several cycles using an SVC
is quite adequate in most utility applications. This is primarily why the higher cost of the VSC
technology with component obsolescence issues have prevented its widespread use/adoption
in utility applications.
16 1 Smart Controllers

255 255

249 249

243 243

237 237

231 231

225 225
01/01/2009 00:00:00 02/01/2009 00:00:00 03/01/2009 00:00:00 01/01/2010 00:00:00 02/01/2010 00:00:00 03/01/2010 00:00:00

Figure 1-14 Voltage profile without an SVC (left) and with an SVC (right) (field performance) (Barot
et al. 2014).

However, the fast response from a VSC may be just the right solution to address various issues in
addition to var compensation, such as

•• Unbalanced voltage
Harmonic voltage and current

•• Voltage spikes
Voltage flicker.

One such application is shown in Figure 1-15 where a voltage source (Vsource) supplies power to
an electric arc furnace load through a network whose impedance is represented as Thèvenin imped-
ance (ZTh). The bus voltage (Vplant) at the input of the plant is stepped down twice through, first,
the Main Transformer and, then the Arc Furnace Transformer.

Main Arc Furnace

Transformer Transformer
I

ZTh
Vsource Vplant

Arc Furnace

Figure 1-15 A single-line diagram of an electric arc furnace.

 1.3 Modern Power Flow Control Concepts 17

i
A
vplant
B

Figure 1-16 Instantaneous plant input bus voltage (vplant) and plant current (i), drawn by a typical electric arc
furnace (field performance) (Sen 2015).

A typical instantaneous plant input bus voltage (vplant) and current (i), drawn by an electric arc
furnace in three phases (A, B, and C) without any compensation, are shown in Figure 1-16. During
the operation of the arc furnace, the random nature of the load current (i.e. electric arc) creates
proportionally rapid and random voltage changes across ZTh. When this random voltage across
ZTh is subtracted from the regulated source voltage (Vsource), a varying voltage, known as voltage
flicker, is created at the input voltage bus of the plant. However, the fast-acting STATCOM is capa-
ble of providing a unique solution to reduce this voltage flicker by supplying the fluctuating active
power (Figure 1-19) and reactive power (Figure 1-18) needs of the rapidly-changing load of the elec-
tric arc furnace. Since a typical load is more inductive than capacitive in nature, the compensation
scheme is designed to be more capacitive than inductive in nature. Since STATCOM operates both
in capacitive and inductive modes in near-equal ranges, a STATCOM, combined with an optional
Fixed Capacitor (FC) may be an appropriate solution in this application. In 1998, Westinghouse
installed a +140/–20-MVA-rated power electronics VSC-based shunt compensator, consisting of
a ±80-MVA-rated STATCOM and a +60-MVA-rated FC at a steel plant as shown in Figure 1-17.
The voltage (Vcomp) at the compensation bus is regulated to maintain the voltage flicker at an
acceptable level. The control philosophy in this project is given by the following equations:
Putil = Pfurn + Pcomp 1-6

Main Arc Furnace

Transformer Putil Pfurn Qfurn Transformer
I

Pcomp Qcomp
ZTh
Vsource Vplant

Vcomp
Fixed
Capacitor Arc Furnace

STATCOM

Figure 1-17 Use of a STATCOM, combined with a Fixed Capacitor (FC) as an arc furnace compensator.
18 1 Smart Controllers

q
0
qfurn

qcomp

Figure 1-18 Instantaneous reactive power drawn by the furnace and supplied by the compensator (STATCOM
and FC) (field performance) (Sen 2015).

where

Putil is the active power supplied by the utility

Pfurn is the active power used by the arc furnace
Pcomp is the active power exchanged by the compensator

and
Qfurn = Qcomp 1-7

where

Qfurn is the reactive power used by the arc furnace

Qcomp is the reactive power exchanged by the compensator.

As shown in Figure 1-18, the compensation scheme supplies nearly all the instantaneous reactive
power (q) drawn by the furnace.
This preferred solution for a utility application is to use a larger-than-usual-sized DC capacitor,
which provides a sink and a source of fluctuating active power for the load, thereby leveling off the
active power drawn from the utility source. The instantaneous active power (p) drawn by the com-
pensator, which is composed of a STATCOM and a FC, and the furnace and supplied by the utility
are shown in Figure 1-19. The negative active power drawn by the compensator indicates that a part
of the furnace power is supplied by the compensator. If the size of the DC capacitor was further
increased to support a larger amount of fluctuating active power, the active power drawn from
the utility could be made equivalent to a fixed resistive load.
A comparison of voltage flicker (termed as Level) without and with a compensation, provided by
the STATCOM and the FC, is shown in Figure 1-20. The flicker measurements without and with a

p
pfurn
putil
0
pcomp

Figure 1-19 Instantaneous active power drawn by a compensator (STATCOM and FC) and a furnace and
supplied by a utility (field performance) (Sen 2015).
 1.3 Modern Power Flow Control Concepts 19

Frequency
Level MW Harmonic
1 100 90
90
80
.75 67
70

60
.5 50 45
40
30
.25 25
20
10
0 0 0
10 : 48 11 : 00 11 : 11 11 : 22

Without Compensation Compensation with STATCOM

Figure 1-20 Flicker measurements without and with a compensation provided by a STATCOM (field
performance) (Sen 2015).

compensation show that the STATCOM was designed correctly to reduce the flicker to a desired
level of below 0.25% at 75 MW of load. Therefore, it was not commercially needed to increase
the size of the DC capacitor any further. Even though this is the most useful application of a
VSC-based STATCOM, it was also retired from service due to component obsolescence within a
few years after commissioning and a less perfect, but adequate solution – naturally commutated,
thyristor-based SVC was installed in its place.
The first generation of FACTS Controllers consisted of GTO-based VSCs. Since the commission-
ing of the world’s first commercial STATCON at TVA in 1995, nine GTO-based VSCs were built.
During the same time, several IGBT-based VSCs were also built. During the past two decades, the
IGBT technology has advanced by several generations. So, what about the GTO technology? Unfor-
tunately, it is no longer manufactured. While the IGBT is the industry workhorse at the present
time, the future trend is to develop wide bandgap-type Silicon Carbide (SiC)- and Gallium Nitride
(GaN)-based switches due to the several attractive attributes: higher-temperature operation, smal-
ler turn-on and turn-off times that result in a lower switching loss, smaller gate-drive circuit, smal-
ler snubber circuit, lower cooling requirement, and so on. So how can one source spare parts for the
GTO-based FACTS Controllers? That is not an easy question to answer. Most of the installations
with GTO-based VSCs were dismantled after a short life span, which was unforeseen at the incep-
tion of FACTS development. Based on the facts about FACTS Controllers of the last three decades,
component obsolescence is the primary reason for a 10–15 years of life span of power electronics-
based VSCs.
In this context, one might ask why not use the latest high-power electronics switches to replace
the aging outdated switches? The answer is simple – it is impossible. Even though there is no avail-
able switch, which can be considered as a perfect switch, meaning zero forward voltage across the
switch during conduction and zero transition time from on-to-off and vice versa, the snubber cir-
cuit, gate-drive circuit, and cooling requirement vary from a VSC that is made with one type of
switch to another VSC that is made with a different type of switch. This fact alone forces the aging
VSCs to retire when spare parts are unavailable.
Moreover, the control cabinet becomes completely outdated in a decade or so, requiring an
upgrade. There is no initiative to keep any commercially used, legacy power electronics system alive
after it passes its natural longevity. These facts need to be taken into account to calculate the true
cost of power electronics VSC-based FACTS Controllers. In fact, the same is true for any power
electronics-based system, including an IBR.
20 1 Smart Controllers

Distribution Fault
Line

Transmission
Line Per Unit Voltage

Per Unit Voltage

Per Unit Voltage

1 1 1
0.5 0.5
0.5
0 + 0 = 0
− 0.5 − 0.5 − 0.5
−1 −1 −1

Source Side Voltage Compensating Voltage Load Side Voltage

Bypass Switch

Distribution Source Load

Line

DC–DC +
Converter −
Rectifier DC–AC
Converter

Figure 1-21 Single-line diagram of a Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR).

Even with the abovementioned challenges about the power electronics VSC-based solutions,
there are applications where inverters are just the right solutions. One such application is the
Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR). The purpose of a DVR, as its name suggests, is to restore the
voltage of a critical load if a sag or swell occurs on any phase of the critical load, such as plants
where good voltage regulation is essential to avoid a shutdown of production. DVR is a flexible volt-
age compensator that is needed for sensitive loads that requires a good voltage quality. IEEE 1159
defines a voltage sag as “the decrease in the rms voltage level to 10% – 90% (1–90% for EN 50160
standard) of nominal, at the power frequency for durations of ½ cycle to one (1) minute.” Note that
the equivalent terminology from the IEC is “dip.”
Figure 1-21 shows a single-line diagram of a DVR that feeds a critical load, which is located on a
power distribution line that is one of several lines supplied by a transmission line through a step-
down transformer. The heart of a DVR is a DC–AC converter (also called an inverter or VSC), which
is normally bypassed with a thyristor-based bypass-switch. The DC capacitor is trickle-charged
through a stepdown transformer, a rectifier, and a DC–DC converter.
During a voltage sag or swell due to a short-circuit fault, lightning or capacitor bank switching on
an adjacent distribution line, the bypass-switch opens and a voltage that is generated by the VSC is
placed in series with the load through a coupling transformer to restore the load’s nominal voltage
while the conventional system protection equipment clears the fault.
Since a DVR is installed upstream of a sensitive load, it senses the sagged or swelled voltage on its
input terminals. The DVR control system is such that it continually compares the input voltage
waveform with an internal reference voltage signal and determines the proper voltage that must
be added or subtracted to restore the nominal voltage at the load terminals. Figure 1-22 shows a
sag correction by a DVR during a field test. The sag occurred in one phase, which was corrected
within a few ms.
A DVR is generally designed to store a fixed amount of energy that can be used for voltage com-
pensation during a designated amount of time, for example, 30 fundamental frequency cycles
 1.3 Modern Power Flow Control Concepts 21

1.5

0.5
Per Unit Voltage

− 0.5

−1

− 1.5

Source Side Voltage Load Side Voltage

Figure 1-22 Sag correction by a DVR (field performance) (Sen 2015).

during a voltage sag or swell. This designated amount of time may be adequate to protect a sensitive
load, such as a semiconductor manufacturing plant from a voltage sag or swell. However, in some
applications where the input voltage to a critical load requires a continuous regulation within a
specified range, the guaranteed voltage support for 30 fundamental cycles may be a limitation. This
deficiency can be mitigated by a more general controller, which was designed in the 1980s and
called an Active Power Line Conditioner (APLC). This electronic circuit topology was patented
by Westinghouse in 1987 (U.S. patent number 4,651,265, titled “Active Power Conditioner Sys-
tem”). The APLC introduced the concept of a common DC link between two forced-commutated
switch-based VSCs, which are connected back-to-back at their common DC link. One VSC is con-
nected in shunt and another is connected in series with the line that supplies a load. These VSCs
exchange active power (Plink) between the shunt- and series-connected VSCs for continuous regu-
lation of line voltage in distribution-level applications as shown in Figure 1-23a.
The APLC extends the concept of an autotransformer, which is also a Shunt–Series configuration,
meaning one unit is connected in shunt and the other unit is connected in series with the line. The
APLC configuration, shown in Figure 1-23a, is identical to a stepdown autotransformer that sup-
plies power to a load on the low-voltage side. The major difference between an APLC and an auto-
transformer is that the Shunt and the Series Units in an autotransformer exchange active power as
well as reactive power. However, in an APLC, only active power is exchanged between the Shunt
and the Series Units, since reactive power cannot flow through the common DC link capacitor. The
same Shunt–Series VSCs concept was used later in the 1990s in the design of the Unified Power
Flow Controller (UPFC) for regulation of line power in transmission-level applications as shown
in Figure 1-23b.
The lessons learned from the installations of the first-generation FACTS controllers, such as ±160
MVA-rated UPFC at American Electric Power (AEP), ±100 MVA-rated CSC at New York Power
Authority (NYPA), and ±80 MVA-rated UPFC at Korea Electric Power Corporation (KEPCO), are
that FACTS controllers have limited applications due to their high life-time costs, which include
installation, operation, and maintenance (specialized equipment and trained labor). The main
22 1 Smart Controllers

(a) (b)
Vinjection Vinjection

Series Series
Unit Unit
Plink Plink
Vsource Vload Vsource Vsourceʹ
Shunt Shunt
Unit Unit

Active Power Line Conditioner Unified Power Flow Controller

Figure 1-23 (a) Basic circuits for Active Power Line Conditioner and (b) Unified Power Flow Controller.

feature of very fast (millisecond-range) response time, offered by the power electronics inverter-
based FACTS controllers is not needed in most utility applications. In search for the right PFC
at an affordable price, the Shunt–Series configuration is used to create the Sen Transformer, which
can provide a solution to meet the majority of power flow control needs for the utilities worldwide.

1.4 Cost of a Solution

The costs presented in this section are Rough Order Magnitude (ROM) that is based on authors’
past three decades of experience on various technologies. This section provides an illustration/
methodology for economic appraisal of different technologies that offer similar outcomes.

1.4.1 Defining a Cost-Effective Solution

The voltage/power flow compensation in the transmission/distribution network results in a higher
asset utilization. The types of solutions may vary from using transformer and LTCs to power elec-
tronics inverters. Each of these solutions is based on engineering trade-offs. In particular, as the
response times of various solutions increase from slow (3–5 s) to medium speed (<1 s) to fast
(<0.010 s), there is a corresponding increase in the solution’s life-cycle costs (installation, operation,
and maintenance), complexity, and impracticability of relocation. Other important features to con-
sider are reliability, robustness, efficiency, component non-obsolescence, and interoperability.
It is recognized that the superior response capability of a power electronics inverter-based solu-
tion may be beneficial in applications where voltage flicker is caused by an electric arc furnace load
and dynamic voltage restoration is required for critical loads. The final selection of a solution, how-
ever, depends on knowing the functional requirements and analyzing the cost and benefit of each
available solution that means the most features at the least total cost. In the case of a simple voltage
regulation at a utility bus, an SC may be an adequate solution, whereas for an arc furnace load, the
power electronics inverter may be the best solution.
Consider the three cases (Case 1: “do nothing;” Case 2: “do something;” and Case 3: “go above-
and-beyond”) of solutions for voltage regulation.
 1.4 Cost of a Solution 23

Cost
Most Cost-
Effective
3.0 Solution Total
Cost
2.0
Solution for Case 3
Solution for Cost#2
1.0 Case 2
Cost#1
0.0 Features
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Solution for
Case 1

Figure 1-24 Cost versus features in various solutions (Case 1: “do nothing;” Case 2: “do something;” and Case
3: “go above and beyond.”)

Case 1 represents a “do nothing” approach where the solution cost (i.e. cost #1) is zero; but the
lost opportunity cost (i.e. cost #2), which is the cost of not providing a solution, such as penalty for
causing a voltage flicker may be the highest as shown in Figure 1-24.
Case 2 represents a “do something” approach where the solution cost (cost #1) increases as the
number of features in the solution increases. For example, a shunt-connected reactor or capacitor
with a breaker may seem to be the simplest solution where the solution cost (cost #1) is greater than
zero; however, the lost opportunity cost (cost #2) that accounts for the (1) penalty for not providing
var support and (2) penalty for creating voltage flicker may be less than that in Case 1.
Case 3 represents a “go above-and-beyond” approach where the solution cost (cost #1) increases
further as the number of features in the solution increases. When various other solutions options,
such as SynCon, SVC, STATCOM, and so on with faster response times are considered, the solution
cost (cost #1) goes up further; however, the rate of decrease in lost opportunity cost (cost #2) may be
less than the rate of increase of the solution cost (cost #1). So, the optimum cost is where the total
cost is the minimum. This is the intersection of the regions where Case 2 ends and Case 3 starts.
Better solutions provide primarily better regulation of voltage, thus create less flicker and less
penalty. However, in the case of a STATCOM, the voltage is so well regulated that a secondary ben-
efit emerges; the wear-and-tear on the electrodes in an electric arc furnace application becomes
more uniform than in any other solution; this results in less frequent replacement of the electrodes,
which reduces the overall operating cost of the plant. When all the costs, benefits, and penalties are
taken into account, there may be a case where the cost of the added features of a particular solution
outweighs the benefits. In between, there lies the cost-effective solution that provides the most fea-
tures at the least total cost.
Consider the solution cost (C1) is a combination of a fixed cost (FC1) and a variable cost (m1x),
which is given by
C 1 = m1 x + FC 1 1-8
where m1 is the slope 1 and assumed to be 0.4, x is the number of features, and FC1 is the fixed cost 1
and assumed to be 0.
Consider the opportunity cost (C2) is a combination of a fixed cost (FC2) and two variable costs
(m2x and 2−wx), which is given by
C 2 = m2 x + FC 2 + 2 − wx 1-9
where m2 is the slope 2 and assumed to be –0.2, x is the number of features, FC2 is the fixed cost 2
and assumed to be 1.3, and w is the weighting factor and assumed to be 1.
24 1 Smart Controllers

Therefore, the total cost (C) is given by

C = C1 + C2 1-10
where C1 and C2 are given in Equations (1-8) and (1-9), respectively. All the parameters may be
assigned suitable values to represent cost versus features of a solution realistically.

1.4.2 Payback Time

Consider a transmission line with an ATC of 500 MW during the peak load of 200 hours per month.
A $10 M solution utilizes 50% of the ATC and its payback time is 10 months. What is the cost of
power delivery in $/hour/MW?
If an ST or a UPFC is used, what would be the payback time in each case? Assume the costs of a
100 MVA-rated ST and a 160 MVA-rated UPFC are $10 M and $80 M, respectively. It is calculated in
Chapter 3 that a 30 MVA-rated ST or UPFC enhances the power flow in a particular line
about 60 MW.
Solution Cost = $10 M
Power flow enhancement = 0 5 × ATC = 0 5 × 500 = 250 MW
250 MW × 200 hours month × Cost of power delivery × 10 months = $10 M
Cost of power delivery = $20 MWh
ST Data:
100 MVA rating Cost = $10 M
Power flow enhancement using an ST of 30 MVA rating = 60 MW
60 MW × 200 hours month × $20 MWh × payback time = $10 M × 30 100
Payback time for an ST = 12 5 months
UPFC Data:
160 MVA rating Cost = $80 M
Power flow enhancement using a UPFC of 30 MVA rating = 60 MW
60 MW × 200 hours month × $20 MWh × payback time = $80 M × 30 160
Payback time for a UPFC = 62 5 months
For a 60 MW of power flow enhancement, both the ST and the UPFC will generate a yearly rev-
enue of 60 × 200 × 20 × 12 = $2 88 M.
Note that the base case is related to a solution of voltage regulation where the power flow in the
line is enhanced by 250 MW. Since the voltage regulation in the line cannot be increased beyond the
statutory limitations, the 100% of the ATC cannot be realized using the voltage regulation solution.
However, the full ATC can be achieved by using an impedance regulation method, offered by an ST
or a UPFC. If the slow response time in 3–5 s is acceptable, an ST is a preferred solution over a
UPFC, since the fast response time in <0.010 s from a power electronics inverter is not required
in most utility applications and the payback time of the ST is 20% of the cost of a UPFC.

1.4.3 Economic Analysis

A comparison of the sizes and footprints of the world’s first UPFC and an equivalent ST is shown in
Figure 1-25. The UPFC applications estimate the project cost to be twice the equipment cost. Con-
servatively, the assumed project cost of the ST is also estimated to be twice the equipment cost, even
 1.4 Cost of a Solution 25

Big Sandy Line

Series
Transformer
Coolant System
Shunt & Series
Heat Exchangers
Intermediate
Transformers
Spare Shunt
Transformer
UPFC Building
(Inverters & Controls)

Main Shunt
Transformer
10ʹ
100ʹ

Figure 1-25 World’s first UPFC at the AEP Inez substation (left) versus a comparably rated ST (right).

though the footprint of the ST is much smaller than that of the UPFC. The Operation & Mainte-
nance (O&M) costs, O&MUPFC, for UPFC are easily an order of magnitude higher than the (O&M)
costs, O&MST, of the ST. Since there is very little published data on actual annual operating costs of
GTO switches and required maintenance, the O&M costs are ignored for this analysis.
The life-cycle cost of a given type of solution (ST or UPFC) is the present value, determined from
all cost categories for each design option over a time cycle that is equivalent for all alternatives.
Appropriate discount rate for interest is applied. When comparing the ST and the UPFC, one should
estimate the life of power electronics inverter-based UPFC as 15 years and that of the transformer/
LTCs-based ST to be 45 years, although 50 years is a typical life span of power transformers. With
alternatives that have unequal lives, it is customary to compare the alternatives over a period of
time equal to the Least Common Multiple (LCM) of their lives using the best estimate for future
renewal of shorter life alternative life cycle costs. In the case of the ST versus the UPFC, it is esti-
mated that the UPFC costs for years 16–30 and years 31–45 to be same as the costs from years 1–15.
The equivalent future amount (F) at time, t = n, of any present amount (P) at time, t = 0, are
related by
n
F=P 1+i = P F P, i , n 1-11
where i is the discount rate or interest rate per period and n is the number of compounding periods.
The notation, (F/P, i%, n), is interpreted as “Find F, given P, using an interest of i% over n years.”
The factor, (1+i)n, referred to as single payment compound amount, converts P to F.
The uniform series compound amount converts an annual amount (A) to future amount (F) and
is related by
1 + i n −1
F=A = A F A, i , n 1-12
i
Therefore, the uniform series present worth that converts an annual amount (A) to present
amount (P) is related by
1 + i n −1
P=A = A P A, i , n = A F A, i , n F P, i , n 1-13
i 1+i n
26 1 Smart Controllers

Using Equation (1-13), (P/A, 10%, 45) = 9.8628 and (P/A, 10%, 15) = 7.6061. Therefore, (A/P,
10%, 45) = 1/9.8628 = 0.10139 and (A/P, 10%, 15) = 1/7.6061 = 0.13147.
Consider the baseline designs of an ST and a UPFC of 100 MVA rating, each of which costs
$10 M and $50 M, respectively. Therefore, the first cost of the project for the ST is $20 M and
for the UPFC is 100 M.
The Annual Cost of UPFC for 15 years with a first-year installed cost of $100 M
= $100 M × A P, 10 , 15 + $X for Annual O&M Costs of UPFC
= $100 M × 0 13147 + $X for Annual O&M Costs of UPFC
= $13 147 M + $X for Annual O&M Costs of UPFC
= the Annual Cost of UPFC for 45 years, since a second UPFC will be operational during
16–30 years and a third UPFC will be operational during 31–45 years.

The Annual Cost of ST for 45 years with a first-year installed cost of $20 M
= $20 M × A P, 10 , 45 + 0 1 × $X for Annual O&M Costs of ST
= $20 M × 0 10139 + 0 1 × $X for Annual O&M Costs of ST
= $2 0278 M + 0 1 × $X for Annual O&M Costs of ST
Annual Savings per year for using an ST, instead of a UPFC
= $13 147 M for Annual Cost of UPFC − $2 0278 M for Annual Cost of ST
= $11 1192 M
Equivalent Present Value of UPFC for 45-year period (ignoring O&M costs)
= $13 147 M for Annual Cost of UPFC × P A, 10 , 45
= $13 147 M for Annual Cost of UPFC × 9 8628
= $129 66 M
Present Value of Savings of ST over UPFC = $129 66 M − $20 M = $109 66 M
The Economic Analysis of ST versus UPFC over a 45-year time period is shown in Table 1-1.

1.5 Independent Active and Reactive PFCs

The independent control of active and reactive power flows requires the simultaneous control of the
magnitude and phase angle of the transmission line voltage, which can be achieved by a shunt-
compensating voltage, using a Shunt–Shunt Compensator as shown in Figure 1-26. This concept
dates back to the time when rectifiers and inverters were introduced to convert AC power from one
voltage and frequency level to another with active power (Plink) transfer through a DC link. The
most frequently-used topology is an AC–DC rectifier followed by a DC–AC inverter for variable
speed motor drives and, if combined with a local energy storage, an Uninterruptible Power Supply
(UPS). To improve the power quality at the rectifier’s AC terminal and to accomplish a bidirectional
power flow, two DC–AC inverters are connected back-to-back via their DC links as shown in
Figure 1-26. This configuration in electric utility applications is known as Back-To-Back STATic
synchronous COMpensator (BTB-STATCOM).
 1.5 Independent Active and Reactive PFCs 27

Table 1-1 Economic Analysis of ST versus UPFC over a 45-year time period.

Compensators UPFC ST

Base Equipment size 100 MVA 100 MVA

Life 15 years 45 years
Equipment First Cost $50 M $10 M
Project First Cost $100 M $20 M
Annual Operation & Maintenance (O&M) Costs $X $0.1 X
Discount Rate 10% 10%
Equivalent Present project Cost over 45-year life $129.66 M $20 M
Equivalent Present Project Cost over 45-year life ratio 6.483 1
Equivalent Annual Cost over 45-year life $13.147 M $2.0278 M
Equivalent Annual Cost over 45-year life ratio 6.483 1
Annual Savings of ST over UPFC $11.1192M
Present Value of Savings of ST over UPFC $109.66 M

Shunt Plink Shunt

Vs X1TIE X2TIE Vsʹ Vs Unit 1 Unit 2 Vsʹ

E1 E2 +
Shunt Shunt
Unit 1 Plink Unit 2

Shunt-Shunt Compensator Back-To-Back STATCOM

Figure 1-26 Point-to-point transfer of power with local reactive power compensation using a Shunt–Shunt
Compensator-based BTB-STATCOM.

Assuming that the sending-end voltage (Vs = Vs ∠ δs), receiving-end voltage (Vr = Vr ∠ δr), and
the line reactance (X) remain unchanged, the compensated active and reactive power flows (Pr and
Qr) at the receiving end are
Pr = a sin δ 2-74
and
Vr
Qr = a cos δ − 2-75
Vs
where the magnitude of the voltage (Vs ) at the modified sending end is Vs and the corresponding
phase angle is δs ,
Vs Vr
a = 2-61
X
28 1 Smart Controllers

and the modified power angle is given by

δ = δs − δr 2-62
Combining Equations (2-74) and (2-75) and using Equation (2-61), it can be found that for given
active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end, a PFC with a Shunt–Shunt con-
figuration applies a voltage Vs = V s ∠ δ at the modified sending end, such that
2
X V 2r
Vs = P2r + Qr + 2-81
Vr X

and
Pr
δ = tan − 1 V 2r
2-82a
Qr + X

Therefore, a simultaneous regulation of the magnitude (Vs ) and the modified power angle (δ ) of
the line voltage is needed for an independent control of active and reactive power flows in the line.
The transfer of power flow from one line to another can be achieved with the use of a BTB-
STATCOM that consists of at least two VSCs, each of which is connected in shunt (parallel) with
the transmission line through a coupling transformer. All the VSCs are connected at their common
DC link. The shunt-compensating voltage is of variable magnitude and phase angle, and it is also at
any phase angle with the prevailing line current. Accordingly, it exchanges active and reactive
powers with the line. The exchanged active power by one VSC flows bidirectionally through the
common DC link to another VSC. Each shunt-connected VSC can also provide an independent
shunt reactive power compensation at its AC terminal and, thereby, regulates the voltage at the
POC. Each shunt-connected VSC is rated for the full line voltage and carries the full line current
and, therefore, is rated for its full transmitted power. As an example, in order to increase the power
flow in a line from its natural flow of 800 MVA to 1000 MVA, the rating of each of the two units of
the Shunt–Shunt Compensator would be 1000 MVA. In some special cases for point-to-point trans-
fer of power between two isolated networks with different voltages, phase angles, or frequencies,
the use of the Shunt–Shunt Compensator may be the preferred solution.
The Shunt–Shunt Compensator may also be implemented, using a common electromechanical or
magnetic link in which case, the compensating voltage is generated from either an electrical
machine or a transformer with LTCs. In the case of a magnetic link, both active and reactive powers
flow through the link. The point-to-point transfer of power from one line to another with different
voltages, phase angles, or frequencies can be accomplished with the use of shunt–shunt-connected
electrical machines. The Sen Transformer can also generate a shunt-compensating voltage for the
interconnection of two nearby grids with different voltages and phase angles, but the frequencies of
the two grids must be the same.
The Shunt–Shunt Compensator is capable of controlling the modified power angle (the phase
angle between the modified sending-end voltage and the receiving-end voltage of the transmission
line) in the range of 0 ≤ δ ≤ 360 . The range of maximum transfer of power along a lossless trans-
mission line (with a quality factor Q = X/R = ∞) between the modified sending and receiving ends
takes place at δ = 90 as shown in Figure 1-27. At the same time, the actual δ is significantly lower
and depends on the line length, system characteristics, and load flows. A transmission line with
the natural (uncompensated) power angle (δ) in the range of 15 to 20 may have a possible range
of compensation of an additional 5 to 10 as discussed in Chapter 2, Section 2.2.2. As an example,
using a series-compensating voltage of 0.2 pu, a compensation range (ψ max) of ±11.54 with an
 1.5 Independent Active and Reactive PFCs 29

Qr Shunt–
Shunt Shunt–
Series

Pr
0
1 2
ar
Lower Prn , Qrn
Voltage
− 0.5 Limit
11.54°
11.54° Upper
−1 Voltage
Limit
δ = 30° δʹ = 60°

− 1.5
s
sʹ = V
aʹ @V
δʹ = 90°
−2

Figure 1-27 Ranges of Qr versus Pr at the receiving end of the transmission line for the range of modified
power angle δ = δs − δr from 0º to 90º when Vs = Vr = 1 pu, X = 0.5 pu, and R = 0 (X/R = ∞) using Shunt–Shunt
and Shunt–Series configurations, respectively.

uncompensated power angle (δ) of 30 is shown in the shaded area in Figure 1-27. Therefore, the
Shunt–Shunt Compensator is severely restricted to operate within the first quadrant when used as a
PFC. Then the question arises: “Is it possible to design a new PFC that can control the same amount
of transmitted power that is controlled by the Shunt–Shunt Compensator and operate within the
allowable range of power angles, while the power rating of this new PFC is a fraction of the con-
ventional Shunt–Shunt Compensator?” For the same example of increasing the power flow in the
line from its natural flow of 800 MVA to 1000 MVA, the rating of each of the two units of the Shunt–
Series Compensator might be only 200 MVA, resulting in a saving of 80% of the power rating, com-
pared to a Shunt–Shunt Compensator.
In an alternate approach to the Shunt–Shunt compensation, the same active and reactive power
flows (Pr and Qr) can be obtained using a PFC with a Shunt–Series configuration that applies a
series-compensating voltage (Vs s = V s s ∠ δs + β ), such that

Vs s = Vs − V s or V s s ∠ δs + β = V s ∠ δs + ψ − V s ∠ δs 2-94b

or when δs = 0 ,

Vs s ∠ β = Vs ∠ ψ − Vs ∠ 0

where the phase-shift angle,

ψ = δ −δ 2-51b

or
ψ = δs − δr − δs − δr = δs − δs 2-51c
30 1 Smart Controllers

The magnitude (Vs s) and the relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) are

Vs s = V 2s + V 2s − 2V s V s cos ψ 2-100

and

V s sin ψ
β = tan −1 2-101
V s cos ψ − V s

For a Shunt–Shunt Compensator, the relationship between the active and reactive power flows
(Pr and Qr) at the receiving end is shown by a quarter circle, the radius (a ) of which is varied within
the upper and lower limits by the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) as shown in Figure 1-27. The
relationship is given by the following equation:
2
V 2r
P2r + Qr + =a2 2-79
X

where
Vs Vr
a = 2-61
X
V 2r
Equation (2-79) represents the locus of a circle, centered at 0, − X with a radius of a .
For a Shunt–Series Compensator, the relationship between active and reactive power flows (Pr
and Qr) at the receiving end is shown by the small circle in Figure 1-27 and is given by the following
equation:
2 2
Pr − Prn + Qr − Qrn = a2r 2-136

where Prn and Qrn are the natural active and reactive power flows at the receiving end of the line and
VrVs s
ar = 2-132
X
Equation (2-136) represents the locus of a circle, centered at [Prn, Qrn], with a radius of ar that is
given in Equation (2-132).
An ideal PFC controls the values of the power flow control parameters (line voltage magnitude,
its phase angle, and line reactance) to regulate the magnitude and the phase angle of the line voltage
simultaneously by adding a series-compensating voltage to the original voltage with the use of a
Shunt–Series Compensator as shown in Figure 1-28. The compensating voltage is variable in mag-
nitude and phase angle with respect to the line voltage. The series-connected VSC is rated for a
fraction of the line voltage, but carries the full line current. The shunt-connected VSC is rated
for the full line voltage, but carries only a fraction of the line current. Therefore, each VSC carries
only a fraction of the full transmitted power. In an actual installation, both shunt- and series-
connected VSCs are designed to be of the same voltage and current ratings, which reduces the
inventory of spare parts. Therefore, their different interface voltages with the line are accomplished
with selection of proper turns-ratios of the respective coupling transformers. For example, in the
world’ first UPFC at the AEP Inez substation, the two VSCs were designed identically to be rated at
±160 MVA and 37 kV phase-to-phase voltage. However, the shunt VSC was connected to a 138 kV-
line through a coupling transformer and the series VSC was designed to inject 13.33 kV (~16% of the
phase voltage) in series with the line through a coupling transformer.
 1.5 Independent Active and Reactive PFCs 31

Vsʹs
Vsʹs
Series Shunt Plink Series
Vs XTIE Unit Vsʹ Vs Unit Unit Vsʹ

E Plink
Shunt
Unit
Shunt–Series Compensator Unified Power Flow Controller

Figure 1-28 Independent active and reactive power flow controller with local reactive power compensation
using a Shunt–Series Compensator-based UPFC.

The Shunt–Series Compensator connects a compensating voltage in series with the line at any
relative phase angle in the range of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 with respect to the line voltage at the POC.
Figure 1-27 shows that a series-compensating voltage of 0.2 pu modifies the power angle by
11.54 , which may be near the allowable limit. The most important and unique feature of the
Shunt–Series configuration is that for a given amount of transmission line power, the series-
connected VSC has a large leverage between its own rating and the controlled transmission line
power. The series-compensating voltage needs to be rated for only a fractional amount of transmit-
ted power, whereas the shunt-connected VSC in the Shunt–Shunt configuration has no such lev-
erage and it needs to be rated for the full amount of transmitted power. Because of this uniqueness,
the Shunt–Series configuration is a preferred topology for a PFC. However, in some special cases for
point-to-point transfer of power between two isolated networks with POC voltages (Vs and Vs ) as
shown in Figure 1-26 or interconnection of two transmission lines with different voltages or phase
angles (or frequencies), Shunt–Shunt configuration may be the preferred solution. One such sys-
tem, called the North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) Interconnections, consists
of Eastern Interconnection, Western Interconnection, and Electric Reliability Council of Texas
(ERCOT) Interconnection, which are three separate systems of 60 Hz frequency that are asynchro-
nous to each other. Another such system exists in Japan, connecting a 50 Hz frequency system in
the North and the East with a 60 Hz frequency system in the South and the West, that is asynchro-
nous to each other.
The UPFC consists of two VSCs with a common DC link capacitor. The two VSCs are connected
to the same transmission line through two coupling transformers: one is connected in shunt and the
other is connected in series with the line. The series-compensating voltage is of variable magnitude
and phase angle and it is also at any phase angle with the prevailing line current. Therefore, it
exchanges active and reactive powers with the line. The exchanged active power (Plink) flows bidir-
ectionally through the common DC link to and from the same line under compensation. Both
shunt- and series-connected VSCs can also provide independent reactive power compensation at
their respective AC terminals. The compensating voltage, being at any phase angle with the pre-
vailing line current, emulates a four-quadrant, series-compensating impedance (Zse = Rse − jXse)
that consists of a resistance (Rse = +R or −R) and a reactance (Xse = XC or − XL) in series with
the line. Therefore, the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) acts as an IR. A positive resistance
(+R) absorbs active power from the line; a negative resistance (−R) delivers active power to the
line. The quadrature component of the compensating voltage with respect to the line current emu-
lates a capacitive reactance if the compensating voltage lags the prevailing line current or an induc-
tive reactance if the compensating voltage leads the prevailing line current. A capacitive reactance
32 1 Smart Controllers

(XC) decreases the effective line reactance between its two ends and, in the process, increases the
power flow in the line; an inductive reactance (XL) increases the effective line reactance between its
two ends and decreases the power flow in the line; since the power flow in the line is inversely
proportional to the effective line impedance, which is assumed to be inductive.
As a special case, when the DC link capacitors of the two VSCs are not connected together, each
of the shunt-connected VSC (STATCOM) and the series-connected VSC (SSSC) provides only a
reactive power compensation that is independent of each other. Since there is no exchange of active
power between the STATCOM and the SSSC, they act as RRs (Xsh or Xse = XC or − XL).
In 1998, Westinghouse installed a ±160 MVA, 138 kV-rated FACTS Controller, namely UPFC, at
the AEP’s Inez substation in Kentucky, USA. This UPFC demonstrated for the first time that an
impedance could be emulated by a series-compensating voltage whose phase is at any angle with
respect to the prevailing line current. As a result, the magnitude and phase angle of the line voltage
at the modified sending end could be regulated to the desired values by the UPFC, which is an IR;
active and reactive power flows in a transmission line could be regulated independently while
maintaining a fixed line voltage at the POC. While maintaining a unity power factor load, the active
power flow in the line at the modified sending end is varied at different levels, such as 145 MW,
65 MW, 240 MW, and 145 MW, respectively, as shown in Figure 1-29. The active power flow in
a line is reduced by making the effective line impedance higher than its natural value and increased
by making the effective line impedance lower than its natural value while maintaining the reactive
power flow to zero. Note that the utility application allowed the response time to be adjusted in
seconds, even though the power electronics-based VSC is capable of providing faster responses
in ms.
As a special case, the IR can be reconfigured to operate as a RR by connecting the SSSC only. The
reactance emulation technique changes the active and reactive power flows simultaneously, mean-
ing both powers either increase or decrease as shown in Figure 1-30; therefore, the line cannot be
optimized for the highest amount of active power flow that generates the most revenue at the lowest
amount of reactive power flow by using a RR alone.
It was demonstrated in the TVA-STATCON project (shown in Figure 1-13) that the line voltage
can be regulated with a response time in ms; however, the fast response in ms cannot be utilized in
power flow control in the AEP UPFC project in order to assure continued operation under various
contingencies (i.e. all the possible variations in the number of lines connected together as a network
at different times of a day, week, month or a year). Nevertheless, the cost of a FACTS controller is

400
350 Active Power (MW)
300
Reactive Power (Mvar)
250
200
150
100
50
0
− 50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
time (s)

Figure 1-29 Independent power flow control by impedance regulation (field performance) (Sen and
Keri 2003).
 1.5 Independent Active and Reactive PFCs 33

400
350 Active Power (MW)
300 Reactive Power (Mvar)
250
200
150
100
50
0
− 50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
time (s)

Figure 1-30 Simultaneous power flow control by reactance regulation (field performance) (Sen and
Keri 2003).

about the same, whether it is used in slow-response or fast-response applications. This was the
motivation to develop the Sen Transformer that meets the functional requirements to provide inde-
pendent control of active and reactive power flows with responses in seconds and at a fractional
amount of the cost of a VSC-based FACTS controller.
In 1998, a patent was granted to General Electric Company, which proposed to implement the
independent control of active and reactive power flows such that the compensating voltage was
generated using electrical machines (U.S. patent number 5,841,267, titled “Power Flow Control
with Rotary Transformers”).
The Sens (Kalyan and Mey Ling) proposed the idea of independent control of active and reactive
power flows, using an IR, called the Sen Transformer, in a radically low-cost way by using rede-
signed transformer/LTC technology. The reason is that the transformer/LTC technology has been
proven to be efficient, simple, and reliable in utility applications for decades. This implementation
of an IR is completely different from the original Westinghouse and the GE concepts. The Sens were
awarded five U.S. patents (four patents in 2002, all titled “Versatile Power Flow Transformers for
Compensating Power Flow in a Transmission Line” and numbered 6,335,613, 6,384,581, 6,396,248,
and 6,420,856, and one patent in 2005, titled “Multiline Power Flow Transformer for Compensating
Power Flow Among Transmission Lines,” and numbered 6,841,976). The Sen Transformer is fun-
damentally different from the conventional transformer, in a sense that it modifies both the mag-
nitude and the phase angle of the line voltage while the conventional transformer only modifies the
magnitude of the line voltage. Using a Sen Transformer, the active and reactive power flows in the
line can be regulated independently as desired.
The Sen Transformer, shown in Figure 1-31, uses a Shunt Unit (Exciter Unit) and a Series Unit
(Compensating-Voltage Unit) and creates a series-compensating voltage (Vs s) that is variable in
magnitude and phase angle to modify the sending-end voltage (Vs) of the line to the modified send-
ing-end voltage (Vs ) and, in turn, controls both the magnitude and phase angle simultaneously; as
a result, the active and reactive power flows in the line are controlled independently as desired. The
compensating voltage of the Series Unit can be made to look like the effect of a positive resistance or
a negative resistance and a capacitive reactance or an inductive reactance in each phase. The series-
compensating voltage (Vs s) is at any phase angle with the prevailing line current (I) through the
line reactance (X). Therefore, it exchanges active and reactive powers with the line, which is
34 1 Smart Controllers

Shunt Series Pr , Qr
Unit Vsʹs Unit
I
Vs
X
Vsʹ Vr

Plink

Qlink
Sen Transformer

Figure 1-31 Sen Transformer (ST).

equivalent to emulating a four-quadrant, series-compensating impedance (Zse = Rse − jXse) that

consists of a resistance (Rse = +R or − R) and a reactance (Xse = XC or − XL) in series with the line.
Therefore, the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) acts as an IR. The ratio of the compensating volt-
age (Vs s) and the prevailing line current (I) is a measure of a virtual four-quadrant emulated imped-
ance. Note that these exchanged powers pass through the magnetic link as (Plink and Qlink).
The LTCs are preferably mechanical with vacuum or oil-immersed taps. These taps can respond
in seconds, which is usually fast enough for utility power flow control needs. If a faster response is
needed, the taps can be based on power electronics thyristors, which once turned on in a positive
half-cycle of the voltage across it, commutate naturally in the negative half-cycle of the voltage.
These taps can respond in a few power cycles, which is a 50-fold decrease in response time. Note
that the thyristor technology also faces component obsolescence, albeit with a life cycle of 25–30
years, which is a decade or more longer than the life cycle of the VSC-based FACTS Controllers.
The response time can be further reduced to < 0.010 s if a power electronics inverter-based FACTS
controller is used. However, this type of fast response is almost never needed in utility applications.
Besides, as the response speed of the solution increases from slow (3–5 s) to medium speed (< 1 s) to
fast (< 0.010 s), there is a corresponding increase in the solution’s life-cycle costs (installation, oper-
ation, and maintenance), complexity, and impracticability of relocation and decrease in the relia-
bility significantly.
The VSC-based technology has the capability of providing fast (sub-cycle) dynamic response for a
given transmission line impedance, although in a PFC the dynamic response of at least a few cycles
of power supply frequency is necessary to operate safely under various contingencies. Most utility
applications in the AC system allow regulation of the power flow in the line(s) in a “slow” manner
as permitted by the speed of operation of the mechanical LTCs. If faster response is needed, the
mechanical LTCs can be replaced with faster TC LTCs. The ST, shown in Figure 1-31, provides
simultaneous voltage regulation at the POC and almost the same independent control of active
and reactive power flows as the UPFC, albeit at a reduced dynamic rate, which is acceptable in most
utility applications.
The STs with both types of LTCs (mechanical and TC) cover a wide range of requirements for
power flow control in electric transmission lines. If the LTCs are too coarse for an IR, the number
of taps on the winding may be increased. In comparison to a UPFC, which uses power electronics-
based VSCs, the ST uses reliable and proven transformer and LTC-based technology that results in
an order of magnitude less in operational/maintenance cost and equipment cost.
 1.5 Independent Active and Reactive PFCs 35

It is well established that the UPFC is the most versatile PFC that was ever developed. A detailed
comparative analysis of the ST and UPFC is given in Chapter 6, Section 6.3 (Comparison Among the
VRT, PAR, UPFC, and ST). The life-cycle costs (installation, operation, and maintenance) of the ST
are less than the competing FACTS Controller, such as UPFC for the most utility applications due
to the following reasons:

• For a one per unit (pu) power through the ST, the installed transformer rating may be as much as
two pu, whereas the “all electronic” UPFC requires more than a four pu-rated transformer and
more than eight pu of installed power electronics, which translates into a higher installation cost
for the UPFC.

• The ST rides through the fault current, but the UPFC requires a protection scheme with an addi-
tional electronic bypass-switch, which translates into a higher installation cost for the UPFC.

• The power loss in the ST is less than 1% of its rated power whereas the power loss in the two
coupling transformers and two intermediate transformers of a UPFC are 1–2% of the power flow-
ing through the UPFC, which translates into a higher operating cost for the UPFC.

• There is no switching loss in the ST, whereas the switching and conduction losses in the two
inverters of the UPFC can be 2–6% of the power flowing through the UPFC, depending on their
configuration, which translates into a higher operating cost for the UPFC.

• The ST requires the use of LTCs whose contacts are immersed in the transformer oil. The main-
tenance expertise for ST is readily available in the industry. However, the power electronics
inverter-based UPFC consists of semiconductor switches with appropriate snubber circuits that
create power loss. To remove the heat generated from this loss, deionized water cooling and heat
exchangers are needed. The failed switches need to be replaced, requiring specialized expertise.
Therefore, the operational/maintenance cost of the UPFC is much higher than that of ST.

• The ST uses traditional but redesigned transformer and LTCs technology that has been proven to
be efficient, simple, reliable, and robust in utility applications for decades. The UPFC uses thou-
sands of electronic components that are constantly becoming obsolete. Therefore, the cost due to
component obsolescence in a UPFC is far greater than that in an ST.

• The footprint of an ST is a fraction of that of a UPFC. Therefore, the ST is relocatable as the system
needs change. The power electronics inverter-based UPFC is not practical to be relocated.

• The ST uses off-the-shelf transformer/LTC technology from any manufacturer and therefore, it is
interoperable. The ST can be manufactured and serviced anywhere in the world. In contrast,
there is no manufacturing standard established for the VSC-based FACTS Controllers. Since each
manufacturer establishes its own unique design, the VSC-based FACTS Controllers are not inter-
operable. Its maintenance depends on the expertise of a specific manufacturer.

Impedance Regulators, such as the UPFC and ST, are capable of injecting a compensating voltage
in series with the line in the entire range of 360 . However, in many instances, the capability of
connecting a compensating voltage in series with a line within its entire range of 360 is not needed.
The active power flow can be increased to the maximum possible level within the first 120 of the
360 -range of the relative phase angle. The active power flow can be decreased to the minimum
possible level within the next 120 of 360 -range of the relative phase angle. The cost of the ST
can be further reduced with its simpler design per the functional requirements to operate in a “lim-
ited angle” configuration, instead of the full 360 -range of operational configuration. There is no
such cost advantage in the design of a UPFC. Hence, the ST is adequate and economically attractive
to meet most of the utility’s present need for independent control of the active and reactive power
flows in the transmission lines.
36 1 Smart Controllers

In another unique operation, the ST with an autotransformer is the most cost-effective option
that allows interfacing of two transmission systems with different voltage levels and implementing
independent power flow control as shown in Figure 6-86.
The ST, in its basic design, uses three primary windings and nine secondary windings with either
nine single-phase LTCs or three three-phase LTCs that are in direct contact with the transmission
line. Therefore, the LTCs, in the basic design, are required to carry a high line current as well as
even a higher fault current. The readily available LTCs may be challenging for use in Extra High
Voltage (EHV) and Ultra High Voltage (UHV) applications. In these cases, the applications with
greater than 230-kV voltage level require a two-core design where the taps are not exposed to high
voltages as shown in Figure 6-72. A comparison of the sizes and footprints of the world’s first UPFC
and a comparably rated prototypic ST is shown in Figure 1-25.
The compensating voltage in an autotransformer is in-phase (0 ) or out-of-phase (180 ) with the
line voltage and, therefore, regulates the magnitude of the transmission line voltage. The compen-
sating voltage in the PAR is in quadrature (90 or –90 ) with the line voltage and, therefore, reg-
ulates the phase angle of the transmission line voltage. The ST creates a series-compensating
voltage that is variable in magnitude and phase angle and can control the transmission line voltage
in both magnitude and phase angle simultaneously in order to achieve independent control of
active and reactive power flows in the line. This compensating voltage may be thought of as
two separate orthogonal compensating voltages of an autotransformer and a PAR (asym). There-
fore, in the ST, the functions of the autotransformer and the PAR (asym) are combined in a single
unit that results in a reduced amount of hardware from what is required separately in an autotrans-
former and in a PAR as shown in Figure 1-32.
Both the ST and UPFC are suitable for independent control of active and reactive power flows in a
single transmission line in which they are installed. However, several transmission lines in close
proximity may be connected to a common voltage bus. Therefore, any change in the power flow in
one line will affect the power flows in the other lines as well. Thus, the excess power from one spe-
cific line cannot be transferred directly to another specific line. In a multiline transmission network,
it would be advantageous to be able to transfer power from an overloaded to an underloaded line
with minimum undesirable impact on the power flows in the other uncompensated lines.

V1 Vsʹ
V1s
Vsʹ1

Vs
C B

Phase Angle Regulator (asymmetric)

Autotransformer

Figure 1-32 Autotransformer/PAR (asym).

 1.5 Independent Active and Reactive PFCs 37

V2sʹs

V1sʹs V2sʹs
V1sʹ
V1sʹs
Vs
V1sʹ
Vs Plink V2sʹ
Series Series
Unit 1 Unit 2

Shunt Series Series

Unit Unit 1 Unit 2 V2sʹ
Back-To-Back SSSC Multiline Sen Transformer

Figure 1-33 Multiline power flow concepts.

The common DC-link concept can be extended for power exchange between transmission lines
with series–series-connected VSCs. The BTB-SSSC, also called interline power flow controller
(IPFC), shown in Figure 1-33, consists of at least two VSCs; each VSC is connected in series with
a transmission line. All the VSCs are connected at their common DC link. The BTB-SSSC trans-
fers active power from one or more transmission lines, referred to as “leader” lines, to the others,
referred to as “follower” lines, and provides an independent series reactive power compensation
in each line. A BTB-SSSC selectively controls the active and reactive power flows in each line in a
multiline transmission system and provides a power flow management for the transmission sys-
tem by decreasing the power flow in an overloaded line and increasing the power flow in an
underloaded line. The Multiline Sen Transformer, shown in Figure 1-33, provides the same
functionality.
In summary, mechanically or electronically switched compensators are used as PFCs, but each of
these compensators can control only one of the three power flow control parameters: line voltage
magnitude, its phase angle, and line reactance. Although the active power flow in the line is regu-
lated, the undesirable reactive power flow is also affected simultaneously, but the optimization of
power flow that generates the most revenue can be achieved through independent control of active
and reactive power flows in the transmission line. Therefore, the power industry’s present need
requires the use of PFCs that can independently control both active and reactive power flows in
a transmission line, decrease the power flow in an overloaded line, and increase it in an under-
loaded line, while at the same time keeping the system voltage within the allowable upper and
lower limits. The summary of choices for transmission line power flow control equipment is shown
in Figure 1-34 in chronological order of their introduction in the industry.

AC Transmission Line
Power Flow Controllers

Simultaneous Independent
P-Q control P-Q control
(necessary)
Voltage Phase angle Reactance
regulation regulation regulation

• Voltage Regulating Transformer • Phase Angle Regulator • Thyristor-Controlled • Unified Power Flow Controlller
• Switched Inductor/Capacitor Series Capacitor • Rotating Power Flow Transformer
• Static Var Compensator • Static Synchronous • Sen Transformer
• STATCOM Series Compensator

Figure 1-34 Choices for transmission line control equipment.

38 1 Smart Controllers

Table 1-2 Various features of all Shunt–Shunt and Shunt–Series configurations.

Features VSC EM Transformer/LTCs

Shunt–Shunt configuration
Independent P-Q flow control Yes Yes Yes
Different frequency system Yes Yes No
Different phase angle system Yes Yes Yes
Intermediate DC transmission Yes No No
Shunt–Series configuration
Independent P-Q flow control Yes Yes Yes
One frequency system Yes Yes Yes
Cost High Medium Low

The various features of all Shunt–Shunt and Shunt–Series configurations are summarized in
Table 1-2. The VSC-based solutions provide more features than the electrical machine (EM)-based
solutions, which provide more features than the transformer/LTC-based solutions. However, most
of the power flow control needs are in synchronous networks and the use of the Shunt–Series con-
figuration of the ST that uses transformer/LTC-based solutions is sufficient to meet the utilities’
power flow control needs in the most cost-effective way.
It is shown in Chapter 3, Section 3.4 that the active and reactive power flow control area is vir-
tually the same for the ST and UPFC. While the UPFC is a FACTS Controller that uses power elec-
tronics-based VSC, the ST, in its preferred form, uses only transformers and LTCs. The reference,
titled “Comparison of the ‘Sen’ Transformer with the Unified Power Flow Controller,” IEEE Trans.
on Power Delivery, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 1523−1533, Oct. 2003, states that “At the present time, two
major drawbacks of all VSC-based FACTS Controllers are their high installation and operating
costs.” Over the decades, the list of drawbacks has expanded to include component obsolescence,
impracticability of relocation, and lack of interoperability. Since the commissioning of the first
commercial VSC-based FACTS Controller more than two decades ago, a great deal has been
learned about the true needs of a utility for its everyday use and they are

•• high reliability, requiring the lowest number of components

low installation and operating costs

•• component non-obsolescence
interoperability (components usage from various suppliers), and

• easy relocation to adapt to changing power system’s needs

while providing an independent control of active and reactive power flows. In response to these
requirements, the novel impedance regulation method of a UPFC and the proven and reliable
transformer/LTC technology that is used in a PAR for almost a century are combined to create
the ST. This low-cost form of an IR can improve the fault level in otherwise weak networks, thereby
making it possible to have a widely connected grid-scale renewable generation in weaker and iso-
lated parts of the transmission networks as outlined in PES-TR-77, titled “Stability Definitions and
Characterization of Dynamic Behavior in Systems with High Penetration of Power Electronic Inter-
faced Technologies,” which is available at https://resourcecenter.ieee-pes.org/technical-publica-
tions/technical-reports/PES_TP_TR77_PSDP_stability_051320.html.
 1.6 SMART Power Flow Controller (SPFC) 39

1.6 SMART Power Flow Controller (SPFC)

Today’s power grid, shown in Figure 1-35, has integrated 100s of MW-range renewable generation.
The primary driving factor for integrating more clean, renewable energy sources to the grid is the
desire to reduce the use of carbon-based generation, which will lower GHG emissions. However, a
typical characteristic of renewable energy, i.e. solar photovoltaic and offshore or land-based wind, is
the intermittent nature and the resulting unsteady power flow to the load centers. To avoid result-
ing brown-outs and/or black-outs from this intermittency, the power flow in a transmission line
needs to be controlled by using a SMART PFC (SPFC) that provides the needed dynamic response.
So, traditional steady-state PFCs, such as series-connected reactor and capacitor need to be updated
with an improved dynamic response. Additionally, there is an increased need for a bidirectional
power flow when the renewable generation is unavailable.
Free flow of electricity may cause some transmission lines to be overloaded or underloaded. The
congestions due to overloaded lines exist throughout the transmission network. The congestion
points, referred to as bottlenecks, prevent desirable clean energy to reach desired load centers.
When a line is congested, the present practice is to curtail renewable generation in front of the
emerging bottleneck and turn on local, possibly, nongreen generation behind the bottleneck to
meet the demand for electricity.
Successful transition to clean energy depends on the ability to generate and distribute renewable
energy through the transmission and distribution networks. The intermittency of energy sources,
need for bidirectional flows, remote locations of solar and wind projects, and so on, are challenging
grid planners and operators to integrate more renewable energy into the grid. Even before the
meaningful penetration of renewables is reached, forecasters are factoring renewable curtailment
as a major strategy to balance supply and demand.
An SPFC, such as an IR with a proper dynamic response capability, can greatly aid in fulfilling
these new requirements. The SPFC creates a variable virtual impedance that can be connected in
series with the line, to maintain steady power flows to the load centers. The SPFC can limit the
power flow in congested lines to be within their ATC so that the renewable generation does not
need to be curtailed.
As discussed in great detail in Chapter 2, any PFC that connects a compensating voltage in
series with the line is actually an IR, except an SSSC, which is a RR. The PAR acts as an IR in
an indirect way with no capability to select the compensating resistance (Rse) and reactance

Distribution

Load
Transmission

Generation
Transformer Generation Transformer Generation

Figure 1-35 Today’s grid with traditional generation and integrated renewable generation.
40 1 Smart Controllers

(Xse) independently as discussed in Chapter 2, Section 2.2.2.6. Therefore, a true IR that emulates
a four-quadrant, series-compensating impedance (Zse = Rse − jXse) that consists of a resistance
(Rse = +R or − R) and a reactance (Xse = XC or − XL) in series with the line is really needed.
Additionally, increasing the installation of roof-top solar as generation and its integration into a
low voltage distribution network alters the traditional feeder voltage profile in the distribution
networks, which can be mitigated, using an IR.
Advances in power electronics have made it possible to develop the UPFC, which is an IR. The
VSC-based UPFC is capable of providing responses in the range of ms as shown in Figure 1-13 in the
demonstration of the first commercial STATCOM at TVA Sullivan substation in 1995. However, the
experiences from the last three decades show that the needed response time is in seconds in most
utility applications as shown in Figures 1-29 and 1-30 in the demonstration of world’s first UPFC at
AEP Inez substation. Nevertheless, the cost of a UPFC is about the same, whether it is used in slow-
response or fast-response applications. Therefore, it is desirable to explore the alternate designs of
an IR that meet the functional requirements to provide independent control of active and reactive
power flows with responses in seconds and at a fractional amount of the cost of VSC-based FACTS
Controllers. This was the motivation to develop an SPFC whose objectives are as follows:

S – specific (design a power flow controller that meets utilities’ needs)

M – measurable (high reliability, high efficiency, cost-effectiveness, component non-obsolescence,
and ease of relocation)
A – attainable (realistic expectation about the outcome)
R – relevant (efficient power grid)
T – time-bound (delivery milestones).

The SPFC can control a bidirectional and independent active and reactive power flows dynam-
ically as shown in Figure 1-36.

1.6.1 Example of an SPFC

In a particular application, the functional requirement of an SPFC may be written as follows:
The SPFC shall provide voltage regulation, phase angle regulation, positive and negative resistance
regulation, capacitive and inductive reactance regulation, four-quadrant impedance regulation, and

Controlled Path
SMART
Power
Flow Distribution
Controller

Load
Transmission

Generation Generation
Transformer Generation Transformer

Figure 1-36 Interconnected transmission system, integrated with a SMART Power Flow Controller (SPFC).
 1.6 SMART Power Flow Controller (SPFC) 41

independent regulation of active and reactive power flows in a line by connecting in series with the
line a compensating voltage that has the following characteristics:

a) variable in magnitude within its design limit

b) variable in phase angle with respect to the line voltage or the prevailing line current
c) response time in the range of operation in less than 30 seconds
d) availability of 99.9999% of the time.

1.6.2 Justification
The natural power flow in an AC transmission line depends on (i) line voltage magnitude, (ii) its
phase angle, and (iii) line impedance. The power flow in a line may be controlled by regulating any
of these three parameters to optimize the voltage profile and the power flow in the line while main-
taining the voltage stability and minimum power loss in the line.

1.6.3 Additional Information

The desired features of an SPFC are as follows:

•• High reliability with the lowest number of components used

Impedance control feature using a Shunt–Series configuration

•• Lowest installation cost

Lowest operating cost with minimum maintenance and losses

•• Practically relocatable when the system needs change

Free from component obsolescence for at least three decades, and

• Interoperability so that components from various suppliers can be used, resulting in a global
manufacturing standard, ease of maintenance, and ultimately lower cost to consumers.

To meet the above-mentioned functional requirements, thyristor-based SVC and transformer/

LTCs-based ST may be a suitable solution as shown in Figure 1-37. Since the proposed solution
is based on functional requirements and the lowest cost, it is considered to be an SPFC.

Figure 1-37 Voltage regulation with an SVC

Shunt Series
and independent power flow regulation with
an ST. Unit Vsʹs Unit

Vs
Vsʹ

Plink

Qlink
Sen Transformer

TSC + TCR
= SVC
42 1 Smart Controllers

1.7 Discussion

Various compensators for utility applications are summarized in Table 1-3. The features, advan-
tages, and benefits of various solutions are listed in Table 1-4. The objective of using any of these
solutions is to increase utility asset utilization.
It is recognized that the superior response capability of a power electronics inverter-based solu-
tion may be beneficial in applications where a voltage flicker, caused by an electric arc furnace load,
needs to be reduced and dynamic voltage stability is required for critical loads. The final selection of
a solution, however, depends on knowing the functional requirements and analyzing the cost and
benefit of each available solution to determine the cost-effective solution that provides the most
features at the least total cost. In the case of a simple voltage regulation at a utility bus, a SC
may be an adequate solution, whereas for an arc furnace type of constantly variable load, the power
electronics VSC-based STATCOM may be the best solution.
With the introduction of the first commercial STATCOM at TVA in 1995, it was anticipated that
the power electronics VSC-based voltage regulation technique would be the new wave of the future.
Instead, rotating machinery-based SynCons are being installed to provide some inertia to the power
grid, since the grid is now becoming heavily loaded with IBRs that convert renewable wind and
solar energy into usable AC electricity. Note that the IBRs do not have any mechanical inertia that
is available in rotating machinery-based conventional power grid. In the meantime, many of the

Table 1-3 Various compensators for utility applications.

Compensators Commercial names

Non-power electronics-based Transformer and LTCs-based Voltage-Regulating Transformer (VRT) and

technology Phase Angle Regulator (PAR), reactors/capacitors, Synchronous
Condenser (SynCon), motor/generator, and Sen Transformer (ST)
Power electronics thyristor- Static Var Compensator (SVC) and Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor
based technology (TCSC)
Power electronics VSC-based STATic synchronous COMpensator (STATCOM), Static Synchronous
technology Series Compensator (SSSC), and Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)

Table 1-4 Features, advantages, and benefits of various solutions.

Solutions Feature(s) Advantage Benefit

Shunt Reactor/Shunt Capacitor, Voltage regulation Meets operating Higher

VRT, SynCon, TCR, TSC, SVC, voltage requirement asset
STATCOM of the load utilization

PAR Phase angle regulation Power flow

magnitude and
Series Reactor/Series Capacitor, Reactance regulation direction control
TCSC, SSSC

ST, UPFC Voltage regulation, phase

angle regulation, and
impedance regulation
 1.7 Discussion 43

nine inverters from the first-generation FACTS Controllers were decommissioned prematurely due
to component obsolescence and without much payback.
The power industry’s pressing need for the most economical ways to transfer bulk power along a
desired path may relieve grid congestion in some markets during peak hours and integrate renew-
able energy from wind and solar sources. Apart from building new transmission lines that may take
a decade or longer, there may be quicker and inexpensive options to utilize the existing transmis-
sion system infrastructure and harness the dormant capacity of the underutilized lines. This can
only be possible through a dynamic line impedance management, which results in independent
control of active and reactive power flows in the transmission lines. Independent control of active
and reactive power flows leads to

• Reduction in reactive power flow, resulting in a reduction of losses in generators, transformers,

and transmission lines, which increases the overall efficiency of the grid, thus lowering GHG
emissions and reducing global warming

•• Freeing up the generators, transformers, and transmission lines to carry more active power
Power flow through the desired transmission paths that have high impedances, low power flow,
and low line utilization

• Avoidance of grid congestion by redirecting excess power flow from an overloaded line to under-
loaded lines, instead of tripping the overloaded line and creating possible blackouts when power
flow is needed the most, thus improving grid reliability and resiliency, and

• Delayed construction of new, expensive, high-voltage electric transmission lines.

The SPFC is proposed to enhance the controllability of the power flow in the power grid on the
basis of functional requirements and cost-effective solutions. The SPFC is derived from utilizing the
best features of all the technical concepts that are developed in the power flow control area until
now. In the simplest term, a SMART Controller is what one procures is based on what one needs.
Utilities are recommended to choose a solution that meets their need in terms of reliability, cost-
effectiveness, component non-obsolescence, efficiency, ease of relocation, and interoperability.
The Sen Transformer technology meets the immediate need of the utility in terms of maximizing
the revenue-generating active power flow while providing the highest efficiency. The ST uses trans-
formers and mechanical LTCs and offers high reliability, high efficiency, low cost, component non-
obsolescence, high power density, small footprint, and ease of relocation. The ST allows the utilities
to avoid the initial purchase of an expensive PFC, along with the equally high cost of replacing a
power electronics inverter-based system as it becomes obsolete. In addition to being a smaller, more
dynamic, and customizable system that is less costly to maintain, the ST can be relocated to adapt to
changing power system needs. Since ST uses existing transformer/LTCs-based technology, it offers
a high level of interoperability, enabling components from various suppliers to be used for its man-
ufacturing, operation, and maintenance. This also ensures a baseline global manufacturing stand-
ard, which increases the confidence of the consumer about the end product.
The power electronics inverter-based technology has the capability of providing fast (sub-cycle)
dynamic response for a given transmission line impedance, although in a PFC, the dynamic
response of at least a few line cycles is necessary to operate safely under various contingencies. Most
utility applications allow regulation of the power flow in the line(s) in a “slow” manner as permitted
by the speed of operation of the mechanical LTCs. Applications that require faster response times
can make use of TC LTCs, instead of mechanical LTCs as shown in Figure 2-51. The STs with both
types of LTCs (mechanical and TC) cover a wide range of requirements for power flow control in
electric transmission lines. If the LTCs are too coarse for an IR, the number of taps on the winding
may be increased.
44 1 Smart Controllers

The ST can be customized to operate in a limited-angle range that is suitable for a particular appli-
cation. This reduces the number of secondary windings from nine to six and the number of three-
phase LTCs from three to two. Consequently, the cost of an ST can be reduced due to its simpler
design, whereas there is no such option for the reduction of cost in a power electronics inverter-
based FACTS controller. The inverter is always designed to operate in the entire 360 -range of
series-injection of a compensating voltage whether a particular application needs it or not.
Compared to the UPFC, the ST has inherent advantages: less costly, component non-obsoles-
cence, portable, and reduced and easy maintenance along with many other features. The value
proposition to the customer is that in comparison to a FACTS controller, a 5:1 reduction in
equipment cost and a 10:1 reduction in operational/maintenance cost of an ST are expected.
The ST provides 21st-century power flow control solutions with an impedance regulation using
20th-century power hardware, such as transformer/LTCs, which are proven to be reliable to the
utilities worldwide and reduce the likelihood of obsolescence.
Modeling, also referred to as the simulation of an actual installation, is essential prior to the real-
ization of a concept in the form of a full-scale implementation. Modeling is the key to understand
the subject of an SPFC in the most cost-effective way. Various modeling techniques, which were
successfully used during the development of the first generation of FACTS Controllers and numer-
ous additional power system applications, are discussed throughout the book. It is important to note
that a model is just an approximation of the actual equipment. A model, in its simplest form, can be
of a first-order approximation to provide a Rough-Order Magnitude data of interest. A design-query
can be answered by increasing the level of details in a model.
 45

Power Flow Control Concepts

This chapter builds on the material that was covered in Chapter 1 where the need for Power Flow
Controllers (PFCs) was reviewed. The PFCs included basic technologies, such as transformers,
capacitors, and reactors, and modern-day Voltage-Sourced Converters (VSCs) that provide the
regulations of the line voltage magnitude, its phase angle, and line reactance. Also covered were
various transmission line regulators, including numerous combinations of VSCs in Shunt–Shunt
and Shunt–Series configurations. The application of a compensating voltage that is variable in
magnitude and phase angle, using an Impedance Regulator (IR) such as VSC-based Unified Power
Flow Controller (UPFC), Electrical Machine (EM)-based Rotating Power Flow Transformer
(RPFT), and transformer and Load Tap Changers (LTCs)-based Sen Transformer (ST), allows an
independent control of active and reactive power flows in the line.
In those situations where several transmission lines are connected to a common bus and making
a change in the power flow in one line could affect the power flows in other lines, the concept of a
Series–Series configuration was discussed to transfer power from one specific line to another
specific line without altering the power flows in the remaining lines. This concept may utilize
series-connected VSCs, each of which is connected at their common DC link, as an Interline
Power Flow Controller (IPFC). An alternate solution is a Multiline Sen Transformer (MST). The
development of a SMART Power Flow Controller (SPFC) is also covered.
With the basic understanding of how PFCs were developed over the decades, Chapter 2 derives
equations that will allow the reader to study uncompensated or compensated active and reactive
power flows in a transmission line. The coverage of impedance emulation techniques gives the
readers a clear understanding of various PFCs that create virtual reactors and capacitors, using
VSCs, electrical machines, and transformer/LTCs-based technologies. The characteristic equations
of various PFCs and numerous examples, showing how to use them to calculate a rough-order
magnitude (ROM) power rating of a particular solution, enable the reader to understand
the differences between various PFCs. Single-line applications include Voltage Regulator
(VR) – STATic synchronous COMpensator (STATCOM), Static Var Compensator (SVC),
Synchronous Condenser (SynCon), and shunt-connected capacitor/reactor; Phase Angle Regulator
(PAR) – symmetric and asymmetric; Reactance Regulator (RR) – Static Synchronous Series
Compensator (SSSC), Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) and series-connected
capacitor/reactor; and IR – UPFC and ST. Parallel-line applications include Back-To-Back (BTB)
operations of PFCs, such as BTB-STATCOM, BTB-SSSC, and MST.
Lastly, a comparison of installation and operational costs of various PFCs is presented in the form
of Reactive Power Index (RPI), Loss Index (LI), and Apparent Power Rating (APR). The unique

Power Flow Control Solutions for a Modern Grid using SMART Power Flow Controllers, First Edition.
Kalyan K. Sen and Mey Ling Sen.
© 2022 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/sen/powerflowcontrol
46 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

I Figure 2-1 Representation of a power system network,

consisting of a voltage source (Vs), line impedance (Z),
and load impedance (Zload).
Vs Z
Iload
Vr
Zload

concept of the Sen Index for comparing the costs of various PFCs is introduced to define the rela-
tionship between the increased cost of power delivery per unit incremental power delivered.
Consider the interconnected transmission system, connecting sources and loads as shown in
Figure 1-1, in its simplest form as shown in Figure 2-1 where the sending-end voltage (Vs) is
supplying power to a load impedance (Zload) through a line with an impedance (Z), which is
composed of a resistance (R) and an inductive reactance (X). Then, the line current (I) is given by
Vs
I= (2-1)
Z + Zload
The load voltage (Vr) at the receiving end of the line is given by
Vr = Zload I (2-2)
Substituting I from Equation (2-1) into Equation (2-2), the voltage divider equation can be
written as
Zload
Vr = Vs (2-3)
Z + Zload
From Equation (2-3), it can be written that the magnitude of the load voltage is given by
Zload
Vr = Vs (2-4a)
Zload + Z
or
1
Vr = Vs (2-4b)
Z
1+ Zload

Considering a resistive load (Rload) and a highly inductive high-voltage transmission line with a
reactance (X) as shown in Figure 2-2a, Equation (2-4a) becomes
Rload Rload
Vr = Vs or Vr = Vs (2-5)
Rload + jX R2load + X 2

From Ohm’s law, the voltage across the line reactance (X) is given by
V X = XI (2-6)
and the voltage across the load resistance (Rload) is given by
V r = Rload I load (2-7)
 2 Power Flow Control Concepts 47

(a) (b)
Ps , Qs Pr , Qr
VX
I
VX
90° I
X Iload
Ps P Pr
Vs Vr
Vs Vr 𝛿
Qs Q Qr
Rload

Figure 2-2 (a) One-generator/one-line power system network and (b) phasor diagram.

where
I = I load (2-8)
The load power that is the power consumed at the receiving end of the line is given by
Pr = V r I load (2-9)
Equations (2-7) and (2-9) can be combined as
Vr V 2r
Pr = V r I load = V r = (2-10a)
Rload Rload
or using Equation (2-5)
2
V 2r Vr V 2s
Pr = = Rload = Rload (2-10b)
Rload Rload R2load + X2
The line reactive power that is the reactive power absorbed by the line is given by
Qline = V X I (2-11a)
or using Equation (2-6)
Qline = I 2 X (2-11b)
or using Equations (2-8), (2-7), and (2-5)
2
Vr V 2s
Qline = X= X (2-11c)
Rload R2load + X 2

In this case of a radial transmission system, the generator is not only supplying active power to
the load at unity power factor, it is also delivering reactive power to the line. Figure 2-3 shows the
variations of load voltage (Vr) and load power (Pr) as a function of load resistance (Rload).
At very low load resistance, the load voltage is low and so is the load power. At very high load
resistance, the load current is low and so is the load power. In the middle range of load resistance, a
desired amount of power can be delivered to the load; however, the load voltage is always lower
than the nominal one per unit (pu) voltage. The condition for maximum power flow can be derived
from Equation (2-10b) as

d V 2s 2Rload
Pr = 0 or 0= − V 2s Rload or Rload = X
dRload R2load + X2 Rload + X 2
2 2

(2-12)
48 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Pr , Vr
(pu)
2

Pr Vr
1

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 Rload (pu)

Figure 2-3 Variations of load voltage (Vr) and load power (Pr) as a function of load resistance (Rload) when
V s = 1 pu and X = 0 5 pu.

(a) (b)
P s , Qs Pr , Qr
VX I Ish
I Ish
90°
VX
X Iload Iload
Ps P Pr
Vs Vr
Vs Vr 𝛿
Qs Q Qr –jXsh
Rload

Figure 2-4 (a) One-generator/one-line power system network with a shunt voltage compensation and
(b) phasor diagram.

The phasor diagram for a load resistance of Rload = 0 5 pu, shown in Figure 2-2b, indicates that
the load voltage may be too low to be useful, even though this operating point delivers the
maximum power to the load. Since most loads require their terminal voltages to be within some
percentage of the nominal value per their design specifications, there needs to be a solution
to restore the load voltage to its nominal value. The shunt-connected solution, shown in
Figure 2-4a, restores the load voltage to its nominal value. Since this solution compensates the
voltage deficiency, it is called a voltage compensator. The shunt-compensating reactance
(−jXsh) can be capacitive ( − jX C = 1 jωC ) or inductive (jX L = jωL ); it is defined such that
Xsh > 0 represents −jXsh to be capacitive and Xsh < 0 represents −jXsh to be inductive.
A parallel combination of load resistance (Rload) and shunt-compensating reactance (−jXsh) is
equivalent to
− jRload X sh − jRload X sh Rload + jX sh Rload X 2sh R2load X sh
Zload = Rload − jX sh = = = 2 2 −j 2
Rload − jX sh Rload − jX sh Rload + jX sh Rload + X sh Rload + X 2sh
(2-13)
When combined with the line reactance, the total impedance in the circuit is given by

Rload X 2sh R2load X sh

Zload + Z = −j + jX (2-14)
Rload + X 2sh
2
Rload + X 2sh
2
 2 Power Flow Control Concepts 49

Similar to Equation (2-12), the condition for a maximum power transfer is

Rload X 2sh R2load X sh

= − +X or Rload X 2sh = X R2load + X 2sh − R2load X sh or
R2load + X 2sh R2load + X 2sh
Rload − X X 2sh + R2load X sh − R2load X = 0
(2-15)
or
2
− R2load ± R2load + 4 Rload − X R2load X
X sh = (2-16)
2 Rload − X
For a given Rload and X, Xsh can be determined from Equation (2-16) for a maximum power trans-
fer to the load.
For Rload = X, it is evident from Equation (2-15) that
X sh = X (2-17)
From Equation (2-4a), the magnitude of the load voltage is given by

Rload X 2sh R2load X sh

− j
R2load + X 2sh R2load + X 2sh Rload X 2sh − jR2load X sh
Vr = 2 Vs or Vr = Vs
Rload X sh R2load X sh Rload X 2sh − jR2load X sh + jX R2load + X 2sh
− j + jX
R2load + X 2sh R2load + X 2sh

or
Rload X sh X sh − jRload
Vr = Vs or
Rload X 2sh + j X R2load + X 2sh − R2load X sh
(2-18)
Rload X sh R2load + X 2sh
Vr = Vs
2 2
Rload X 2sh + X R2load + X 2sh − R2load X sh

Since the load current (Iload) is resistive and the compensator current (Ish) is reactive, the line
current is defined by

I= I 2load + I 2sh (2-19)

From Ohm’s law, the load voltage is given by

V r = X sh I sh (2-20a)
or the compensator current is given by
Vr
I sh = (2-20b)
X sh
Using Equations (2-20a) and (2-20b), the compensator reactive power that is the reactive power
absorbed by the shunt compensator is given by

V 2r
Qsh = − V r I sh = − I 2sh X sh = − (2-21)
X sh
50 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Pr , Vr
(pu) Pr
2

Vr
1

−2 −1 0 1 2 Xsh (pu)
Inductive Capacitive

Figure 2-5 Variations of load voltage (Vr) and load power (Pr) as a function of compensating reactance (Xsh)
when V s = 1 pu, X = 0 5 pu, and Rload = 0 5 pu.

If Xsh > 0, Qsh represents a generated reactive power and if Xsh < 0, Qsh represents an absorbed
reactive power.
Figure 2-5 shows the variations of load voltage (Vr) and load power (Pr) as a function of
shunt-compensating reactance (Xsh). Note that Xsh > 0 means the shunt-compensating reac-
tance is capacitive and Xsh < 0 means the shunt-compensating reactance is inductive. When
inductively compensated, the load voltage is always less than its uncompensated value. How-
ever, for a particular capacitive compensation, the load voltage can be restored to its nominal
value as shown in Figure 2-4b. The uncompensated line current, which is in phase with the
resistive load voltage (shown in Figure 2-2b) now leads the load voltage because a portion of
the line current that flows through the capacitive shunt compensator leads the load voltage
by 90 .
The voltage regulation is essential to maintain the load voltage within its allowable limits at the
load terminal. The increase of voltage at the load terminal also increases the load power, which is
discussed in the next section. The load power (power transfer through the transmission line) is pro-
portional to the sine of power angle (δ), which is the phase angle between the voltages at the send-
ing and receiving ends of the line. As the power flow to the load increases so does the power angle
(δ) as shown in Figure 2-4, compared to Figure 2-2.
Equation (2-4b) can be rewritten for an inductive-load condition as

1 1
Vr = Vs or Vr = Vs (2-22)
jX X
1+ 1+
jX L XL

Considering the dominant parameter of a transmission line being an inductive reactance, adding
a shunt reactor results in lowering the line voltage, since the denominator of the above equation is
always greater than one.
A capacitive load results in increasing the line voltage, since the denominator of the following
equation is always less than one.

1 1
Vr = Vs or Vr = Vs (2-23)
jX X
1+ 1−
− jX C XC
 2 Power Flow Control Concepts 51

Equation (2-5) can be rearranged as

1
Vr = Vs (2-24)
2
X
1+
Rload

The denominator of Equation (2-24) is always greater than one, hence Vr < Vs. Therefore, a resis-
tive load results in lowering the line voltage. Adding a shunt-compensating resistance is not a pre-
ferred method for lowering the line voltage, since the shunt-compensating resistor absorbs active
power, thus increases system losses.
The preferred method for lowering the load voltage is to use a shunt-compensating inductive
reactance, which does not absorb any active power, but only reactive power. The preferred method
for increasing the load voltage is to use a shunt-compensating capacitive reactance, which also does
not absorb any active power, but generates reactive power.
During an early morning, the power consumption is low and as a result, the line carries a smaller
amount of current. The var needed by the series-inductive reactance of the line may be smaller than
the var generated by the line-to-ground, shunt-capacitive reactance. As a result, the line voltage
may reach beyond its allowable upper limit. Therefore, a shunt-inductive compensation may be
needed to absorb the extra var, generated by the line-to-ground, shunt-capacitive reactance and
to decrease the line voltage to keep it within its allowable limits.
During the course of the day, as the power consumption increases, the line carries a larger
amount of current. The var needed by the series-inductive reactance of the line may become larger
than the var generated by the line-to-ground, shunt-capacitive reactance. The voltage across the
line impedance increases, which lowers the voltage at any point along the line. The load voltage
may dip below its allowable lower limit. Therefore, a shunt-capacitive compensation may be
needed to supply extra var to the series-inductive reactance and to restore the line voltage within
its allowable limits.

Example 2-1

In Figures 2-2a and 2-2b, the magnitude (Vs) of the sending-end voltage and the line reactance (X)
are 1 pu and 0.5 pu, respectively. For maximum power transfer, (a) what is the load resistance
(Rload)? (b) what is the load voltage (Vr)? (c) what is the line current (I)? (d) what is the load power
(Pr)? and (e) what is the line reactive power (Qline)?
Answer 2-1

a) From Equation (2-12), Rload = X = 0 5 pu.

Rload 05×1 1
b) From Equation (2-5), V r = Vs = = pu.
2 2 2
R2load + X 2 05 +05

Vr 1 2
c) From Equations (2-8) and (2-7), I = I load = = = 2 pu.
Rload 1 2
1
d) From Equations (2-9) and (2-8), the load power, Pr = V r I load = V r I = 2 = 1 pu.
2
e) From Equation (2-11b), the line reactive power, Qline = I 2 X = 2 × 0 5 = 1 pu.
52 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Example 2-2

In Figures 2-4a and 2-4b, (a) what type and how much of shunt compensation (Xsh) is needed for
maximum amount of power transfer to the resistive load Rload = 0 5 pu , assuming the line
reactance, X = 0 5 pu? (b) what is the load voltage (Vr)? (c) what is the line current (Iload)? (d) what
is the load power (Pr)? (e) what is the line reactive power (Qline)? and (f ) what is the rating of the
shunt compensator (Qsh)?
Answer 2-2

a) From Equation (2-17), X sh = X = 0 5 pu (capacitive).

b) From Equation (2-18),

Rload X sh R2load + X 2sh

Vr =
2 2
Rload X 2sh + X R2load + X 2sh − R2load X sh

0 5 × 0 5 0 52 + 0 52 × 1
Vs = = 1 pu
2 2
0 5 × 0 52 + 0 5 0 52 + 0 52 − 0 52 × 0 5

Vr 1
c) From Equation (2-7), I load = = = 2 pu.
Rload 1 2
V 2r 1
d) From Equation (2-10a), Pr = = = 2 pu.
Rload 1 2
Vr 1
e) From Equation (2-20b), I sh = = = 2 pu (capacitive).
X sh 1 2
From Equation (2-19), I = I 2load + I 2sh = 22 + 22 = 2 2 pu.
From Equation (2-11b), the line reactive power, Qline = I 2 X = 8 × 0 5 = 4 pu.
V2 1
f) From Equation (2-21), Qsh = − r = − = − 2 pu.
X sh 1 2

Additional Discussion
Since, the line is considered to be lossless, Ps = Pr = 2 pu. The apparent power (Ss) at the sending
end, V s I = 1 × 2 2 = 2 2 pu. Therefore, the reactive power at the sending end is
Qs = S2s − P2s = 8 − 4 = 2 pu.
Note that the reactive power (Qline = 4 pu) absorbed by the transmission line is supplied half and
half by the sending-end generator and the receiving-end compensator.
− jRload X sh Rload X 2sh R2load X sh
From Equation (2-13), Zload = Rload − jX sh = = 2 2 −j 2 =
Rload − jX sh Rload + X sh Rload + X 2sh
0 25 − j0 25 pu.
Rload X 2sh R2load X sh
From Equation (2-14), Zload + Z = 2 2 −j 2 + jX = 0 25 + j0 25 pu.
Rload + X sh Rload + X 2sh
Figure 2-5 confirms that the chosen circuit parameters provide maximum power transfer from
the source to the load.
 2 Power Flow Control Concepts 53

Example 2-3

Consider a near no-load line, the magnitude (Vs) of the sending-end voltage (Vs) in Figure 2-1 is
0.99 pu and Z = jX = j 0 045 pu; (a) what is the magnitude (Vr) of the receiving-end voltage (Vr)
when Zload = jX L where X L = 0 945 pu? (b) what is the voltage magnitude (Vr) when Zload =
− jX C where X C = 1 035 pu? (c) what is the rating of the shunt compensator?
Answer 2-3

1 1
a) From Equation (2-22), V r = V = × 0 99 = 0 945 pu.
X s 0 045
1+ 1+
XL 0 945
1 1
b) From Equation (2-23), V r = V = × 0 99 = 1 035 pu.
X s 0 045
1− 1−
XC 1 035
V2 0 9452
c) When the shunt compensator is inductive, its rating is r = = 0 945 pu.
XL 0 945
2 2
V 1 035
When the shunt compensator is capacitive, its rating is r = = 1 035 pu.
XC 1 035

Considering a resistive load (Rload) and a very low X/R ratio, i.e. a highly resistive low voltage dis-
tribution line with a resistance (R), Equation (2-4b) becomes

1 1
Vr = Vs or Vr = Vs (2-25)
R R
1+ 1+
Rload Rload

For a positive load resistor, the voltage at the Point of Connection (POC) to the utility decreases,
since the denominator of the Equation (2-25) is always more than one. In Equation (2-10a), Pr > 0
when the load resistor, Rload > 0.
Considering the modern-day photovoltaic solar installations in distribution system being a neg-
ative load, typically with unity power factor, i.e. a negative load resistor that feeds electrical energy
to the grid. Recall in Equation (2-10a), Pr < 0 when the load resistor, Rload < 0. For a negative load
resistor, the voltage at the POC increases, since the denominator of the Equation (2-25) is always
less than one. This rise in voltage may become too large to cause voltage requirement violations to
consumers who are close to the generation source on a distribution feeder.
The generation on the distribution circuit can also cause flicker. A flicker occurs when the voltage
repeatedly changes by more than the allowable limit. This can happen when clouds pass over a
solar farm or the wind changes its speed at the wind farm. The sudden change in voltage can cause
lighting to change intensity and Uninterruptable Power Supply (UPS) systems to turn on and off.
According to American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard C84.1, the voltage at the
electric utility service, referred to as Service Voltage, which is usually the voltage at the meter socket
or entrance switch is allowed to vary +5 to −5% for systems that are operating at 600 V and below.
For systems that are operating above 600 V, this range is +5 to −2.5%.
The voltage at the user load, referred to as utilization voltage, which is generally considered to be
the voltage at the terminals of the device or appliance or the voltage at the convenience outlet to
54 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Psn , Qsn Prn , Qrn

VXn
In In

In
Vs X Vr
90°
VXn
V1 Vm V2

Vs Iqs Vs Vr Iqr Vr
In In
𝛿
Ids 𝛿r 𝛿s Idr

Figure 2-6 Two-generator/one-line power system network and the related phasor diagrams.

which these terminals are connected is allowed to vary +5 to −10% while providing full perfor-
mance of the load.
Next, consider an interconnected transmission system with sources at both the sending and
receiving ends of the line. A two-generator/one-line power system network with a sending-end volt-
age Vs = V s ∠δs and a receiving-end voltage Vr = V r ∠δr , connected by a line reactance (X) and
the related phasor diagrams are shown in Figure 2-6. The magnitudes of the voltages at the sending
and receiving ends are Vs and Vr, respectively, and their corresponding phase angles are δs and δr,
respectively.
Considering the natural voltage (VXn) across the line reactance (X) to be the difference between
the sending- and receiving-end voltages, it can be written from Figure 2-6 that
Vs = Vr + VXn or V s ∠δs = V r ∠δr + V Xn ∠θVXn (2-26a)
VXn = Vs − Vr or V Xn ∠θVXn = V s ∠δs − V r ∠δr (2-26b)
where VXn, the difference between the sending-end voltage (Vs) and receiving-end voltage (Vr), is
the natural voltage across the line reactance (X); θVXn is the phase angle of the voltage (VXn) across
the line reactance (X).
Equation (2-26a) can be rewritten as
V s ∠δs = V r ∠ δs − δ + V Xn ∠ δs + θVXns using Equation 2-27 (2-26c)
where θVXns is the phase angle of the voltage (VXn) across the line reactance (X) with respect to the
sending-end voltage, or
V Xn ∠ δs + θVXns = V s ∠δs − V r ∠ δs − δ (2-26d)
and
V s ∠ δr + δ = V r ∠δr + V Xn ∠ δr + θVXnr using Equation 2-27 (2-26e)
where θVXnr is the phase angle of the voltage (VXn) across the line reactance (X) with respect to the
receiving-end voltage, or
V Xn ∠ δr + θVXnr = V s ∠ δr + δ − V r ∠δr (2-26f)
 2 Power Flow Control Concepts 55

where

δ = δs − δr (2-27)

Since the line reactance (X) is inductive, the resulting natural line current (In) lags the voltage
(VXn) by 90 . The voltage changes its magnitude and phase angle at any point along a line due to the
voltage across the line reactance (X). This voltage across the line reactance (X) is caused by the flow
of current in the line. However, the voltage at the POC with a load must be maintained within the
regulatory limits. The intermediate line voltages (i.e. V1, V2, etc.) are smaller in magnitude than
the sending- and receiving-end voltages (Vs and Vr). The smallest voltage (Vm) is at the midpoint
of the transmission line in this illustration.
The direct or active and quadrature or reactive components of the line current (I) at the sending
end are Ids and Iqs and the same at the receiving end are Idr and Iqr. Since the line current (I) lags
the sending-end voltage (Vs) and leads the receiving-end voltage (Vr), the line receives reactive
power from the source at the sending end and also from the load at the receiving end. The power
factor at the midpoint of the line is unity.
Considering the sending-end voltage phasor as reference (i.e. δs = 0 ), the natural voltage (VXn)
from Equation (2-26d) can be redefined as

V Xn ∠θVXns = V s ∠0 − V r ∠ − δ (2-28)

Equation (2-28) can be rewritten as

V Xn cos θVXns + jV Xn sin θVXns = V s − V r cos δ + jV r sin δ

Equating the real and imaginary parts of both sides of the above equation, it can be writ-
ten that

V Xn cos θVXns = V s − V r cos δ (2-29a)

and
V Xn sin θVXns = V r sin δ (2-29b)

Therefore, the magnitude of the natural voltage (VXn) across the line reactance is derived from
Equations (2-29a) and (2-29b) using the identity (cos2θVXns + sin2θVXns = 1) as

2 2
V Xn = V 2Xn cos2 θVXns + sin2 θVXns = V Xn cos θVXns + V Xn sin θVXns

or
2 2
V Xn = V s − V r cos δ + V r sin δ

or

V Xn = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r cos2 δ + sin2 δ

or

V Xn = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r (2-30)

using the identity cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1.

56 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

The phase angle of the natural voltage (VXn) across the line reactance with respect to the sending-
end voltage (Vs) is derived from Equations (2-29a) and (2-29b) as
sin θVXns V Xn sin θVXns
θVXns = tan − 1 tan θV Xns = tan − 1 = tan − 1
cos θVXns V Xn cos θVXns
or
V r sin δ
θVXns = tan − 1 (2-31)
V s − V r cos δ
The natural line current (In) is defined as
VXn V Xn ∠θVXn V Xn ∠ δs + θVXns
In = or I n ∠θIn = or I n ∠ δs + θIns =
jX jX jX
where θIns is the phase angle of the natural line current with respect to the sending-end voltage.
Considering the sending-end voltage phasor as reference (i.e. δs = 0 ), it can be written from the
above equation that
V Xn ∠θVXns
I n ∠θIns = (2-32a)
jX
or
V Xn
I n ∠θIns = ∠ θVXns − 90 (2-32b)
X
where the magnitude of the natural line current (In) is given by
V Xn
In = (2-33)
X
and the phase angle of the natural line current (In) with respect to the sending-end voltage (Vs) is
given by
θIns = θVXns − 90 (2-34)
where θVXns is given in Equation (2-31).
Alternately, from Equation (2-32a), it can be written that
V Xn cos θVXns + jV Xn sin θVXns
I n cos θIns + jI n sin θIns = or
jX
V Xn sin θVXns V Xn cos θVXns
I n cos θIns + jI n sin θIns = −j or
X X
V r sin δ V s − V r cos δ
I n cos θIns + jI n sin θIns = −j using Equations 2-29a and 2-29b
X X
Equating the real and imaginary parts of both sides of the above equation, it can be written that
V r sin δ
I n cos θIns = (2-35a)
X
and
V s − V r cos δ
I n sin θIns = − (2-35b)
X
 2 Power Flow Control Concepts 57

Therefore, the magnitude of the natural line current (In) is derived from Equations (2-35a) and
(2-35b) using the identity cos2 θIns + sin2 θIns = 1 as

2 2
In = I 2n cos2 θIns + sin2 θIns = I n cos θIns + I n sin θIns or
1
In = V r sin δ 2 + V s − V r cos δ 2 or
X
1
In = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r cos2 δ + sin2 δ or
X
1
In = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r using the identity cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1, or
X
V Xn
In = (2-33)
X
using Equation (2-30).
The phase angle of the natural line current (In) with respect to the sending-end voltage is derived
from Equations (2-35a) and (2-35b) as
sin θIns I n sin θIns
θIns = tan − 1 tan θIns = tan − 1 = tan − 1
cos θIns I n cos θIns
or

V r cos δ − V s
θIns = tan − 1 (2-36)
V r sin δ

By inspection of Figure 2-7, it can be written that

sin B sin C sin π − B − C sin B + C

= = =
V1 Vs bV Xn bV Xn

where b = multiplier of V Xn from 0 to 1, or

sin B sin B
V1 = Vs = bV Xn (2-37a)
sin C sin B + C

VXn
In In

In
Vs X Vr
90°
B C VXn
V1 Vm V2

Vs Vr

Figure 2-7 Two-generator/one-line power system network and the related phasor diagrams.
58 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

or
V s sin B + C = bV Xn sin C or
V s sin B cos C = bV Xn − V s cos B sin C or
V s sin B V s sin B
tan C = = (2-37b)
bV Xn − V s cos B bV Xn − V s 1 − sin2 B
Also from Figure 2-7, it can be written that
sin B sin δ
= or
Vr V Xn
Vr
sin B = sin δ (2-37c)
V Xn
Substituting Equation (2-37c) into Equation (2-37b), it can be written that

V s sin B V s VVXnr sin δ V s V r sin δ

tan C = = =
bV Xn − V s 1 − sin B 2
V 2r bV 2Xn − Vs V 2Xn − V 2r sin2 δ
bV Xn − V s 1− V 2Xn
sin2 δ

or
V s V r sin δ
tan C =
bV 2Xn − V s V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r − V 2r sin2 δ
V s V r sin δ V s V r sin δ
= =
bV 2Xn − V s V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r cos2 δ bV 2Xn − V s V s − V r cos δ 2

using Equation (2-30), or

V s V r sin δ
tan C = (2-37d)
bV 2Xn − V s V s − V r cos δ

Substituting Equations (2-37c) and (2-37d) into Equation (2-37a), it can be written that
2
sin B sin B V s V r sin δ 1 + tan 2 C V s V r sin δ 1
V1 = Vs = 1 + tan 2 CV s = = +1
sin C tan C V Xn tan C V Xn tan C

or
2
V s V r sin δ bV 2Xn − V s V s − V r cos δ
V1 = 1+ (2-37e)
V Xn V s V r sin δ

In general, the voltage at any point along the line can be defined from Equation (2-37e) as
2
V s V r sin δ bV 2Xn − V s V s − V r cos δ
Vx = 1+ (2-38)
V Xn V s V r sin δ

where x = s, 1, m, 2, r, and so on as shown in Figure 2-7. Note that for b = 0 in Equation (2-38),
V x = V s and for b = 1, V x = V r .
 2 Power Flow Control Concepts 59

Example 2-4

In Figure 2-6, the magnitudes (Vs and Vr) of the sending- and receiving-end voltages are one pu
each, the power angle, δ = δs − δr = 30 , and the line reactance, X = 0 5 pu; (a) what is the natural
voltage (VXn) across the line reactance (X)? (b) what is the resulting current (In)? (c) plot the voltage
magnitude along the line.
Answer 2-4
Electrical system data is given in Table 2-1.

a) From Equation (2-30), the magnitude of natural voltage is given by

V Xn = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r = 12 − 2 × 1 × 1 × cos 30 + 12 = 0 517638 pu

V Xn 0 517638
b) From Equation (2-33), the natural line current, I n = = = 1 035276 pu. In lags
X 05
VXn by 90 as shown in Figure 2-7.
c) Using Equation (2-38), the plot of the magnitude of voltage along the line is shown in Figure 2-8.

Note that these examples are worked out with 15 decimal digits for a greater accuracy, although
the answers are shown with six decimal digits.

Table 2-1 Electrical system data.

Parameters Values

Sending-end voltage (Vs) at reference phase angle 1∠0 pu

Receiving-end voltage (Vr) and power angle (−δ) 1∠−30 pu
Line reactance (X) 0.5 pu

V
1
Vs Vr

Vm

0.5

b
0
0 0.5 1

Figure 2-8 Voltage profile along a line when V s = V r = 1 pu and δ = 90 .

60 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

2.1 Power Flow Equations for a Natural or Uncompensated Line

The natural or uncompensated active and reactive power flows (Psn and Qsn) at the sending end and
(Prn and Qrn) at the receiving end of the line are derived as follows. The natural active power flow at
the sending end is given by

Psn = V s I n cos δs − θIn or

Psn = V s I n cos δs − δs + θIns where θIns is the phase angle of the natural line current with
respect to the sending-end voltage, or

Psn = V s I n cos − θIns or

Psn = V s I n cos θIns (2-39)
Equation (2-39) can be rewritten using Equation (2-35a) as

V r sin δ
Psn = V s I n cos θIns = V s or
X
Psn = a × sin δ (2-40)
where
V sV r
a= (2-41)
X
The natural reactive power flow at the sending end is given by
Qsn = V s I n sin δs − θIn or
Qsn = V s I n sin δse − δs + θIns where θIns is the phase angle of the natural line current with
respect to the sending-end voltage, or
Qsn = V s I n sin − θIns or
Qsn = − V s I n sin θIns (2-42)
Equation (2-42) can be rewritten using Equation (2-35b) as
− V s − V r cos δ
Qsn = − V s I n sin θIns = − V s or
X
Vs
Qsn = a − cos δ (2-43)
Vr
where a is given in Equation (2-41).
Using Equation (2-41), Equations (2-40) and (2-43) can be combined as
− Psn
tan δ = V 2s
(2-44)
Qsn − X

The natural active power flow at the receiving end is given by

Prn = V r I n cos δr − θIn or
Prn = V r I n cos δs − δ − δs + θIns using Equation 2-27
 2.1 Power Flow Equations for a Natural or Uncompensated Line 61

where θIns is the phase angle of the natural line current with respect to the sending-end voltage, or
Prn = V r I n cos − δ − θIns or
Prn = V r I n cos δ + θIns or
Prn = V r cos δI n cos θIns − V r sin δI n sin θIns (2-45)
Equation (2-45) can be rewritten using Equations (2-35a) and (2-35b) as
V r sin δ − V s − V r cos δ
Prn = V r cos δ − V r sin δ or
X X
Vr
Prn = V r sin δ cos δ − − V s − V r cos δ sin δ or
X
Vr
Prn = V s sin δ or
X
Prn = a × sin δ (2-46)
where a is given in Equation (2-41).
The natural reactive power flow at the receiving end is given by
Qrn = V r I n sin δr − θIn or
Qrn = V r I n sin δs − δ − δs + θIns using Equation 2-27
where θIns is the phase angle of the natural line current with respect to the sending-end voltage, or
Qrn = V r I n sin − δ − θIns or
Qrn = − V r I n sin δ + θIns or
Qrn = − V r sin δI n cos θIns − V r cos δI n sin θIns (2-47)
Equation (2-47) can be rewritten using Equations (2-35a) and (2-35b) as
V r sin δ − V s − Vr cos δ
Qrn = − V r sin δ − V r cos δ or
X X
Vr
Qrn = − V r sin δ sin δ + V s − V r cos δ cos δ or
X
Vr
Qrn = V s cos δ − V r or
X
Vr
Qrn = a cos δ − (2-48)
Vs
where a is given in Equation (2-41).
Using Equation (2-41), Equations (2-46) and (2-48) can be combined as

Prn
tan δ = (2-49)
V 2r
Qrn +
X
where
δ = δs − δr (2-27)
The equations for the natural active and reactive power flows (Psn and Qsn) at the sending end and
(Prn and Qrn) at the receiving end are given in Table 2-2.
62 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Table 2-2 Equations for natural active and reactive power flows (Psn and Qsn) at the sending end and
(Prn and Qrn) at the receiving end.

Vs V sV r
Psn = a × sin δ (2-40) Qsn = a − cos δ (2-43) a= (2-41) δ = δs − δr (2-27)
Vr X
Vr V sV r
Prn = a × sin δ (2-46) Qrn = a cos δ − (2-48) a= (2-41) δ = δs − δr (2-27)
Vs X

Power flow is a function of three parameters: (1) magnitudes of line voltages at the sending and
receiving ends, (2) phase angle between the line voltages at the sending and receiving ends, and
(3) line reactance. Regulating one parameter only changes both active power and reactive power
flows simultaneously; therefore, the line is not optimized for maximum active power flow with min-
imum reactive power flow. To achieve independent active and reactive power flows, two para-
meters need to be regulated simultaneously, which is discussed later in the chapter.
An additional reactor or capacitor, connected in series with the line, regulates the effective
line reactance between its sending and receiving ends and the consequence is the simultaneous
regulation of the active and reactive power flows in the line. The reactance regulation can be
achieved with a combination of voltage regulation and phase angle regulation as explained in
Section 2.2.2.5.2 (Reactance Regulator). Therefore, two primary parameters for regulating the
active and reactive power flows in the line are (1) magnitude and (2) phase angle of the line voltage.
When one or more power flow control parameters (voltage magnitude, its phase angle, and/or line
reactance) are regulated, the line is considered to be “compensated.”

Example 2-5

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. What are the active and reactive power
flows (Psn and Qsn) at the sending end, (Pmn and Qmn) at the midpoint, and (Prn and Qrn) at the
receiving end of the line?
Answer 2-5
V sV r 1×1
From Equation (2-41): a = = = 2.
X 05
From Equation (2-40): Psn = a × sin δ and (2-46): Prn = a × sin δ = 2 × sin 30 , the natural
transmitted active power, Psn = Prn = 1 pu.
Vs 1
From Equation (2-43), the reactive power is Qsn = a − cos δ = 2 − cos 30 = 0 267649
Vr 1
pu at the sending (source) end.
Vr 1
From Equation (2-48), the reactive power is Qrn = a cos δ − = 1 cos 30 − =
Vs 1
− 0 267949 pu at the receiving (load) end.
In the line shown in Figure 2-6, the natural active power flow is the same at the sending end
(Psn = V s I ds ), at the midpoint (Pmn = V m I n ), and at the receiving end (Prn = V r I dr ); it is one pu.
However, the natural reactive power flow (Qsn = V s I qs ) at the sending end is 0.267949 pu (induc-
tive); at the midpoint, it is Qmn = 0; the natural reactive power flow (Qrn = V r I qr ) at the receiving
end is 0.267949 pu (capacitive).
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 63

Additional Discussion
At the sending end, the direct component of current is I ds = Psn V s = 1 1 = 1 pu; the quadrature
component of current is I qs = Qsn V s = 0 267949 1 = 0 267949 pu lagging; therefore, the natural
line current is I n = I 2ds + I 2qs = 12 + 0 2679492 = 1 035276 pu.
At the receiving end, the direct component of current is I dr = Prn V r = 1 1 = 1 pu; the quadra-
ture component of current is I qr = Qrn V r = 0 267949 1 = 0 267949 pu leading; therefore, the nat-
ural line current is I n = I 2dr + I 2qr = 12 + 0 2679492 = 1 035276 pu.
The voltage at the midpoint (b = 0 5) can be calculated by using Equation (2-38) as
2
V s V r sin δ bV 2Xn − V s V s − V r cos δ
Vm = 1+
V Xn V s V r sin δ
2
1×1×05 0 5 × 0 5176382 − 1 × 1 − 1 × 0 866025
= 1+ = 0 965926 pu
0 517638 1×1×05

where from Equation (2-30): V Xn = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r , the magnitude of the natural voltage
across the line reactance (X) is V Xn = 0 517638 pu.
The direct component of current is I md = Pmn V m = 1 0 965926 = 1 035276 pu = I n ; the quad-
rature component of current is I mq = I 2n − I 2md = 0.
Therefore, there is only active, but no reactive power flow at the midpoint of the line. In this
example of a two-bus network, the reactive power absorbed by the “left half” of the line is supplied
by the sending-end voltage source (generator) and that absorbed by the “right half” of the line is
supplied by the receiving-end voltage source (load) that can be thought of as a back emf of a motor.

2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line

Consider the line is compensated at its sending end. Assuming that there are no changes in the line
reactance (X) and the receiving-end voltage Vr = V r ∠δr , the power flow in the line can be regu-
lated by controlling the magnitude and phase angle of the sending-end voltage so that it becomes
the modified sending-end voltage Vs = V s ∠δs . Controlling one parameter (voltage magnitude or
its phase angle) using a PFC affects both the active and reactive power flows in the line simulta-
neously. The key to regulate the active and reactive power flows independently so that they become
a particular pair of values is to control the sending-end voltage to a specific magnitude (Vs ) and
phase angle (δs ). There are two ways to accomplish this objective.

1) The modified sending-end voltage Vs = V s ∠δs can be obtained by using a shunt compensa-
tor, which is a voltage (E = E∠ δs + α ) behind a tie-reactance (XTIE) as shown in Figure 2-9a.
Since the compensating voltage is connected in shunt with the line, it is controlled as a current
source. When multiple shunt compensators are connected to a common POC, each one is con-
trolled as a current source whose magnitude is the voltage across the tie reactor, which is the
difference between Vs and E, divided by the tie-reactance (jXTIE). Note that when a shunt com-
pensator is used, the modified sending-end voltage (Vs′) is the shunt-compensating voltage.
2) The modified sending-end voltage Vs = V s ∠δs can be obtained by using a series compensator,
which adds a series-compensating voltage (Vs s = V s s ∠ δs + β ) to the original sending-end
64 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

(a) (b)
Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr Ps , Qs Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr
Psh Vs′s
VX VX
Qsh I I

X X
XTIE Pse
Qse
E Vs′ Vr Vs Vs′ Vr

Figure 2-9 Two methods of controlling the line voltage: (a) with a shunt-compensating voltage and (b) with a
series-compensating voltage.

voltage Vs = V s ∠δs as shown in Figure 2-9b. Since the compensating voltage is connected in
series, it is controlled as a voltage source.

Regardless of whether the compensating voltage is shunt-connected or series-connected, it is at

any phase angle with respect to the current flowing through it and, therefore, it exchanges both
active and reactive powers with the line at its terminal.
The additional symbols shown in the figure are
Vs is the modified sending-end voltage with a magnitude (Vs ) and a phase angle (δs ) or (δs + ψ),
Vs s is the series-compensating voltage with a magnitude (Vs s) and a phase angle (δs + β),
E is the shunt-connected voltage with a magnitude (E) and a phase angle (δs + α),
XTIE is the tie-reactance between the shunt-connected voltage (E) and the modified sending-end
voltage (Vs ),
I is the line current with a magnitude (I) and a phase angle (θI),
Ps is the active power flow at the sending end,
Qs is the reactive power flow at the sending end,
Ps is the active power flow at the modified sending end,
Qs is the reactive power flow at the modified sending end,
Pr is the active power flow at the receiving end,
Qr is the reactive power flow at the receiving end,
Psh is the exchanged active power by the shunt-compensating unit,
Qsh is the exchanged reactive power by the shunt-compensating unit,
Pse is the exchanged active power by the series-compensating unit, and
Qse is the exchanged reactive power by the series-compensating unit.
In order to implement a shunt-compensating voltage with a specific magnitude and phase angle,
it is necessary to provide a bidirectional path for the exchanged power of the shunt-compensating
voltage with the line. To deliver or absorb the active power to and from the line, a source or a sink is
required. To deliver or absorb the reactive power to and from the line, a capacitive or an inductive
reactance is required. Figure 2-10 shows a point-to-point power transfer method with a Shunt–
Shunt Compensator. The exchanged active powers (P1sh and P2sh) by the shunt-connected voltages
(E1 = E1 ∠ δs + α1 and E2 = E2 ∠ δs + α2 ) with their respective AC lines are maintained in bal-
ance. The losses in the compensators are usually supplied from the unit that delivers active power.
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 65

(a) (b)
Vs′
VX
Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr
P2sh
Ps , Qs VX
Q2sh I

X Vr
Vs X1TIE X2TIE Vs′ Vr
P1sh
Q1sh Vs
E1 E2
Shunt Plink Shunt 𝛿′
Unit 1 Qlink Unit 2
Shunt–Shunt Compensator
ψ
𝛿
𝛿r 𝛿s 𝛿s′

Figure 2-10 Scheme for implementing a shunt-compensating voltage.

The exchanged active power by one shunt-connected compensator with the line flows bidirection-
ally to the other shunt-connected compensator through the link, which can be electromechanical,
DC or AC, or magnetic in nature. However, the exchanged reactive powers (Q1sh and Q2sh) by the
shunt-connected voltages (E1 = E1 ∠ δs + α1 and E2 = E2 ∠ δs + α2 ) with their respective AC
lines are dependent on each other only in the case of a magnetic link as discussed next.
In order to implement a series-compensating voltage (Vs s = V s s ∠ δs + β ) with a specific mag-
nitude (Vs s) and operating in its entire controllable range of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 , it is also necessary to
provide a bidirectional path for the exchanged power of the series-compensating voltage with
the line. To deliver or absorb the active power to and from the line, a source or a sink is required.
To deliver or absorb the reactive power to and from the line, a capacitive or an inductive reactance is
required. Figure 2-11 shows a power flow control method with a Shunt–Series Compensator. The
exchanged active power (Pse) by the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) with the line flows bidirec-
tionally to the shunt-connected voltage (E = E∠ δs + α ) through the link, which can be electro-
mechanical, DC or AC, or magnetic in nature. The exchanged reactive power (Qse) by the series-
compensating voltage (Vs s) with the line flows bidirectionally to the shunt-connected voltage

(a) (b)
Vs′ β
Vs′s VX
Psrc , Qsrc Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr
Ps , Qs Vs′s VX
I

Series X Vr
Vs XTIE Unit Vs′ Vr
Psh
Qsh Pse Vs
E
Plink Qse
Shunt 𝛿′
Unit Qlink
Shunt–Series Compensator ψ
𝛿
𝛿r 𝛿s 𝛿s′

Figure 2-11 Scheme for implementing a series-compensating voltage.

66 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

(E = E∠ δs + α ) only in the case of a magnetic link as discussed next. A series-compensating volt-

age (Vs s) can modify the line voltage to a specific magnitude and phase angle, which results in an
independent control of active and reactive power flows in the line. Note that the active and reactive
power flows (Psrc and Qsrc) at the source are different than the active and reactive power flows (Ps
and Qs) at the sending end of the line. Their differences (Psh and Qsh) are the active and reactive
power flows through the shunt-connected voltage (E).
This basic principle of a shunt- and series-compensating voltage can be implemented with the use
of (1) electrical machines, (2) VSCs, and (3) transformer/LTCs-based technologies. The exchanged
active power by the compensating Series Unit with the line passes through an electromechanical
link, a DC or AC link, or a magnetic link, respectively. However, the exchanged reactive power by
the respective Shunt and Series Units with the line are related only when they pass through the
magnetic link as in the case of an ST. Moreover, when only the shunt- or series-reactance compen-
sation is used, the exchanged active power with the line is limited to the losses in the compensat-
ing units.

1) Electric machine-based Shunt–Shunt and Shunt-Series Compensators are shown in Figure 2-12.
The tie-reactance (XTIE) may represent the internal reactance of the machine.

(a) (b)
I
Psrc , Qsrc Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr
P2sh
Ps , Q s VX
Q2sh I

X VX Vr
Vs X1TIE X2TIE Vs′ Vr
P1sh Vs′
Vs
Q1sh
E1 E2
Shunt Plink Shunt 𝛿′
Unit 1 Unit 2
ψ
Shunt–Shunt Compensator
𝛿
𝛿r 𝛿s 𝛿s′

(c) (d)
I
Vs′s
Psrc , Qsrc Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr
Ps , Qs Vs′s VX β
I

Series X VX Vr
Vs XTIE Unit Vs′ Vr
Psh Vs′
Vs
Qsh Pse
E
Qse
Shunt Plink
𝛿′
Unit
Shunt–Series Compensator ψ

𝛿
𝛿r 𝛿s 𝛿s′

Figure 2-12 Electrical machine-based solutions for power flow controllers using (a) Shunt–Shunt
Compensator and (b) its related phasor diagram; (c) Shunt–Series Compensator and (d) its related phasor
diagram.
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 67

(a) (b)
I
Psrc , Qsrc Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr
P2sh
Ps , Q s VX
Q2sh I
P1sh Shunt Shunt X VX Vr
Plink
Vs Q1sh Unit 1 Unit 2 Vs′ Vr Vs
Vs′

𝛿′

ψ
Back-To-Back STATCOM
𝛿
𝛿r 𝛿s 𝛿s′
(c) (d)
I
Psrc , Qsrc Vs′s
Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr
Ps , Q s VX β
Vs′s I

Psh Shunt X VX Vr
Plink Series
Vs Qsh Unit Unit Vs′ Vr Vs
Vs′

Pse
𝛿′
Qse
Unified Power Flow Controller ψ
𝛿
𝛿r 𝛿s 𝛿s′

Figure 2-13 VSC-based solutions for power flow controllers using (a) Shunt–Shunt Compensator and
(b) its related phasor diagram; (c) Shunt–Series Compensator and (d) its related phasor diagram.

2) VSC-based Shunt–Shunt and Shunt–Series Compensators are shown in Figure 2-13. The
tie-reactance (XTIE) may function as either the reactance of the magnetic circuit or the filter
reactance at the output of the inverter. An energy storage may serve as a source or a sink as well.
3) Transformer/LTCs-based Shunt–Shunt and Shunt–Series Compensators are shown in Figure
2-14. The tie-reactance (XTIE) may represent the transformer leakage reactance.

2.2.1 Shunt-Compensating Voltage

A shunt-compensating voltage can modify the sending-end voltage of the line. In some special cases
for point-to-point transfer of power between two isolated networks or interconnection of two trans-
mission lines with different voltages or phase angles (or frequencies), this scheme may be the pre-
ferred choice.
Referring to Figure 2-14b or Figure 2-14d, it can be written that
Vs = Vr + VX or V s ∠δs = V r ∠δr + V X ∠θVX (2-50a)
or
VX = Vs − Vr or V X ∠θVX = V s ∠δs − V r ∠δr (2-50b)
where VX, the difference between the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) and receiving-end voltage
(Vr), is the voltage (VX) across the line reactance (X) and θVX is the phase angle of the voltage (VX).
68 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

(a) (b)
Psrc , Qsrc I

Ps , Q s Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr
P2sh
VX
Vs′ Q2sh I
Shunt
Vs Unit 1 Vr
X VX
Vs′ Vr
Vs
P1sh Vs′
Q1sh
Plink 𝛿′
Shunt
Qlink Unit 2
ψ
Sen Transformer (Shunt−Shunt)
𝛿
𝛿r 𝛿s 𝛿s′
(c) (d)

Psrc , Qsrc I
Vs′s
Ps , Q s Series Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr
Unit VX β
Vs′s I
Shunt
Vs Unit VX
X Vr
Vs′ Vr
Vs
Psh Vs′
Qsh
Plink Pse 𝛿′
Qlink Qse
ψ
Sen Transformer (Shunt−Series)
𝛿
𝛿r 𝛿s 𝛿s′

Figure 2-14 Transformer/LTCs-based solutions for power flow controllers using (a) Shunt–Shunt
Compensator and (b) its related phasor diagram; (c) Shunt–Series Compensator and (d) its related phasor
diagram.

It can also be written that

δ =δ+ψ (2-51a)
or
ψ = δ −δ (2-51b)
or
ψ = δs − δr − δs − δr = δs − δs (2-51c)
or
δs = δs + ψ (2-51d)
Using Equations (2-51d) and (2-27), the Equation (2-50a) can be rewritten as
V s ∠ δs + ψ = V r ∠ δs − δ + V X ∠ δs + θVXs or
V X ∠ δs + θVXs = V s ∠ δs + ψ − V r ∠ δs − δ (2-52a)
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 69

where θVXs is the phase angle of the voltage (VX) across the line reactance (X) with respect to the
sending-end voltage and
V s ∠ δr + δ = V r ∠δr + V X ∠ δr + θVXr or
V X ∠ δr + θVXr = V s ∠ δr + δ − V r ∠δr (2-52b)
where θVXr is the phase angle of the voltage (VX) across the line reactance (X) with respect to the
receiving-end voltage.
Considering the sending-end voltage phasor as reference (i.e. δs = 0 ), it can be written from
Equation (2-52a) that
V X ∠θVXs = V s ∠ψ − V r ∠ − δ
or
V X cos θVXs + jV X sin θVXs = V s cos ψ − V r cos δ + jV s sin ψ + jV r sin δ
Equating the real and imaginary parts of both sides of the above equation, it can be written that
V X cos θVXs = V s cos ψ − V r cos δ (2-53a)
and
V X sin θVXs = V s sin ψ + V r sin δ (2-53b)
Therefore, the magnitude of the voltage (VX) across the line reactance is derived from Equa-
tions (2-53a) and (2-53b) using the identity cos2 θVXs + sin2 θVXs = 1 as

2 2
VX = V 2X cos2 θVXs + sin2 θVXs = V X cos θVXs + V X sin θVXs

or

2 2
VX = V s cos ψ − V r cos δ + V s sin ψ + V r sin δ

or

VX = V 2s cos2 ψ + sin2 ψ − 2V s V r cos δ + ψ + V 2r cos2 δ + sin2 δ

or

VX = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + ψ + V 2r (2-54a)

using the identities cos2 ψ + sin2 ψ = 1 and cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1 , or

VX = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r (2-54b)

using Equation (2-51a).

The phase angle of the voltage (VX) across the line reactance with respect to the sending-end
voltage is derived from Equations (2-53a) and (2-53b) as
sin θVXs V X sin θVXs
θVXs = tan − 1 tan θVXs = tan − 1 = tan − 1
cos θVXs V X cos θVXs
70 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

or
V s sin ψ + V r sin δ
θVXs = tan − 1 (2-55)
V s cos ψ − V r cos δ
The line current (I) is defined as
VX V X ∠θVX V X ∠ δs + θVXs
I= or I∠θI = or I∠ δs + θIs =
jX jX jX
where θIs is the phase angle of the line current (I) with respect to the sending-end voltage (Vs).
Considering the sending-end voltage phasor as reference (i.e. δs = 0 ), it can be written from the
above equation that
V X ∠θVXs
I∠θIs = (2-56a)
jX
or
VX
I∠θIs = ∠ θVXs − 90 (2-56b)
X
where the magnitude of the prevailing line current (I) is given by
VX
I= (2-57)
X
and the phase angle of the line current (I) with respect to the sending-end voltage (Vs) is given by
θIs = θVXs − 90 (2-58)
where θVXs is given in Equation (2-55).

2.2.1.1 Power Flow at the Modified Sending End with a Shunt-Compensating Voltage
When the line is compensated, the active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs ) at the
modified sending end are expressed by substituting Vs with Vs , δ with δ , and a with a in Equa-
tions (2-40), (2-43), and (2-41) as
Ps = a sin δ (2-59)
and
Vs
Qs = a − cos δ (2-60)
Vr
where
Vs Vr
a = (2-61)
X
and the modified power angle is given by
δ = δs − δr (2-62)
Using Equations (2-59) and (2-60), the apparent power (Ss ) at the modified sending end can be
defined as

Ss = P2s + Q2s (2-63)

 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 71

Using Equation (2-61), Equations (2-59) and (2-60) can be combined as

2
V 2s
P2s + Qs − = a2 (2-64)
X
and
Ps
tan δ = (2-65)
V 2s
− Qs
X
V 2s
Equation (2-64) represents the locus of a circle, centered at 0,
with a radius of a .
X
The magnitude (Vs ) of the shunt-compensating voltage is expressed by combining Equations
(2-61) and (2-64) as follows:
2
V 2s V 2r 2Qs
− + V 2s + P2s + Q2s = 0
X X2 X
or
2
V 2s − V2r + 2X Qs V 2s + X 2 P2s + Q2s = 0 (2-66)

Solving the above quadratic equation results in

2
V 2r + 2XQs ± V 2r + 2XQs − 4X 2 P2s + Q2s
V 2s =
2
or
2
V 2r V 2r
V 2s = + XQs ± + XQs − X 2 P2s + Q2s
2 2

or
2
V 2r V 2r
Vs = + + XQs + + XQs − X 2 P2s + Q2s (2-67a)
2 2

or
2
V 2r V 2r
Vs = + + XQs − + XQs − X 2 P2s + Q2s (2-67b)
2 2

or
2
V 2r V 2r
Vs = − + XQs + + XQs − X 2 P2s + Q2s (2-67c)
2 2

or
2
V 2r V 2r
Vs = − + XQs − + XQs − X 2 P2s + Q2s (2-67d)
2 2
72 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

The modified power angle (δ ) of the shunt-compensating voltage (Vs ) is derived from Equa-
tion (2-65) as
Ps
δ = tan − 1 (2-68)
V 2s
− Qs
X
For independent control of active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs ), the magnitude (Vs ) of the
modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) and the modified power angle (δ ) are determined
from Equations (2-67a) and (2-68), respectively. For a desired amount of power flow, Equation
(2-67a) results in a larger Vs and smaller δ whereas Equation (2-67b) results in a smaller Vs
and larger δ . Equations (2-67c) and (2-67d) result in the same respective Vs as obtained in
Equations (2-67a) and (2-67b); however, the corresponding δ is 180 opposite. The final selection
of Vs is based on the best design considerations.
Therefore, using Equations (2-63) and (2-67a), the line current (I) is given by
Ss
I= (2-69)
Vs
Rearranging Equation (2-65), it can be written that

1 V2
Qs = − Ps + s ; (2-70a)
tan δ X
since for voltage regulation, only Vs changes and δ remains the same as δ, Equation (2-70a) can be
rewritten as
1 V2
Qs = − Ps + s (2-70b)
tan δ X
or substituting for tanδ from Equation (2-44), it can be written that
V 2s
Qsn − 2
Qs = X P + Vs (2-70c)
s
Psn X
From Equations (2-70b) and (2-70c), the Ps – Qs relationship is defined with a slope (ms ) and an
intercept (cs ) as
Qs = ms Ps + cs (2-71)
where
V 2s
1 Qsn −
ms = − = X (2-72)
tan δ Psn
and
V 2s
cs = (2-73)
X
In the case of a VR, the variations of reactive power (Qs ) and the magnitude (Vs ) of the voltage at
the modified sending end are shown in Figure 2-15 as functions of the active power (Ps ). When
Ps = 0 and Qs = 0, V s = 0; when Ps = Psn and Qs = Qsn, V s = V s. The practical operating region
of a VR is also shown. Note that the slope in the above equation may be constant for an electrical
system, given in Table 2-1; however, its intercept keeps changing as the voltage (Vs ) at the modified
sending end changes.
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 73

Figure 2-15 Qs and Vs versus Ps at the Qs′ ,Vs′

modified sending end of the line for voltage (pu)
regulation at power angle δ = 30 when 2
V s = V r = 1 pu, X = 0 5 pu, and R = 0 (X R = ∞ ),
using a Shunt–Shunt configuration.
Qs′

𝛿 = 30°
1
Vs′

Psn , Qsn
0
0.9 1 1.1 2 Ps′ (pu)
Practical Operating
Region of a VR

−1

−2
Example 2-6

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For V s = 1 2 pu and V s = 0 8 pu,
calculate ms and cs .
Answer 2-6
In Example 2-5, it was calculated that the natural transmitted active power, Psn = 1pu and the reac-
tive power, Qsn = 0 267949 pu at the source end. Therefore, from Equation (2-72),
1 V2 1 12
ms = Qsn − s = 0 267949 − = − 1 732051
Psn X 1 05
V 2s 1 22
For V s = 1 2 pu, using Equation (2-73), cs = = = 2 88.
X 05
2 2
V 08
For V s = 0 8 pu, using Equation (2-73), cs = s = = 1 28.
X 05

2.2.1.2 Power Flow at the Receiving End with a Shunt-Compensating Voltage

When the line is compensated, the active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end
are expressed by substituting Vs with Vs , δ with δ , and a with a in Equations (2-46) and (2-48) as
Pr = a sin δ (2-74)
74 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

and
Vr
Qr = a cos δ − (2-75)
Vs
Using Equations (2-74) and (2-75), the apparent power (Sr) at the receiving end is given by

Sr = P2r + Q2r (2-76)

Therefore, using Equation (2-76), the line current (I) is given by

Sr
I= (2-77)
Vr
The reactive power flow either at the modified sending end or at the receiving end can be deter-
mined by
Qs = Qr + Qline (2-78a)
or
Qr = Qs − Qline (2-78b)
where Qline can be determined using Equation (2-11b).
Using Equation (2-61), Equations (2-74) and (2-75) can be combined as
2
V 2r
P2r + Qr + = a2 (2-79)
X
and
Pr
tan δ = (2-80)
V 2r
Qr +
X
V 2r
Equation (2-79) represents the locus of a circle, centered at 0, − with a radius of a .
X
Using Equation (2-61), Equation (2-79) can be rearranged as

2
X V 2r
Vs = P2r + Qr + (2-81)
Vr X

From Equation (2-80), the modified power angle is given by

Pr
δ = tan − 1 , (2-82a)
V2
Qr + r
X
which can be rearranged to obtain the phase-shift angle as

Pr
ψ = tan − 1 −δ (2-82b)
V2
Qr + r
X
using Equation (2-51b).
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 75

For independent control of active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end, the
required magnitude (Vs ) of the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) and the modified power angle
(δ ) are determined from Equations (2-81) and (2-82a) or (2-82b), respectively. Because of the
prevailing line current being at any phase angle with the terminal voltage (Vs ), the shunt-
compensating voltage (Vs ) exchanges bidirectional active and reactive powers with the line. This
results in an emulation of a four-quadrant, shunt-compensating impedance Zsh = Rsh − jX sh that
consists of a resistance Rsh = + R or − R and a reactance X sh = X C or − X L in shunt with the line.
Therefore, the shunt-compensating voltage (Vs ) acts as an IR. To deliver or absorb the active power
to and from the line, the resistor acts as a source or a sink, depending on whether its sign is negative
or positive. The capacitor and the reactor delivers and absorbs reactive power to and from the line,
respectively. When only a shunt reactive compensation is used, the exchanged active power is just
the losses in the shunt compensator, which is the functionality of either a SynCon or a STATCOM.
Rearranging Equation (2-80), it can be written that

1 V2
Qr = Pr − r ; (2-83a)
tan δ X
since for voltage regulation, only Vs changes and δ remains the same as δ, Equation (2-83a) can be
rewritten as

1 V2
Qr = Pr − r (2-83b)
tan δ X
or substituting for tanδ from Equation (2-49), it can be written that

V 2r
Qrn + 2
Qr = X P − Vr (2-83c)
r
Prn X

From Equations (2-83b) and (2-83c), the Pr – Qr relationship is defined with a slope (mr) and an
intercept (cr) as

Qr = mr Pr + cr (2-84)

where
V 2r
1 Qrn +
mr = = X (2-85)
tan δ Prn
and
V 2r
cr = − (2-86)
X
In the case of a VR, the variation of reactive power (Qr) at the receiving end is shown in
Figure 2-16 as a function of the active power (Pr). When Pr = 0, Qr = − V 2r X ; when Pr = Prn ,
Qr = Qrn . The practical operating region of a VR is also shown.
The equations for active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs ) at the modified sending end and (Pr
and Qr) at the receiving end as a function of the magnitude (Vs ) and the modified power angle (δ ) of
the shunt-compensating voltage (Vs ) are given in Table 2-3.
The equations relating the active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs ) at the modified sending
end and (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end are given in Table 2-4.
76 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Qr Figure 2-16 Qr versus Pr at the receiving end of

(pu) the line for voltage regulation at power angle
2 δ = 30 when V s = V r = 1 pu, X = 0 5 pu, and
R = 0 (X R = ∞ ), using a Shunt–Shunt
configuration.

Practical Operating
Region of a VR

0
0.9 1 1.1 2 Pr (pu)

Prn , Qrn

−1
𝛿 = 30°

−2

Table 2-3 Equations for active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs ) at the modified sending end and
(Pr and Qr) at the receiving end as a function of the magnitude (Vs ) and the modified power angle (δ ) of
the shunt-compensating voltage (Vs ).

Vs Vs Vr
Ps = a sin δ (2-59) Qs = a − cos δ (2-60) a = (2-61) δ = δs − δr (2-62)
Vr X
Vr Vs Vr
Pr = a sin δ (2-74) Qr = a cos δ − (2-75) a = (2-61) δ = δs − δr (2-62)
Vs X

Table 2-4 Equations relating the active and reactive power flows (Ps
and Qs ) at the modified sending end and (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end.

2
V 2s Vs Vr
P2s + Qs − = a 2 (2-64) a = (2-61)
X X
2
V 2r Vs Vr
P2r + Qr + = a 2 (2-79) a = (2-61)
X X
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 77

Example 2-7

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For β = 0 or β = 180 , calculate
mr and cr.
Answer 2-7
In Example 2-5, it was calculated that the natural transmitted active power, Prn = 1pu and the reac-
tive power, Qrn = − 0 267949 pu at the load end. Therefore, from Equation (2-85),

1 V2 1 12
mr = Qrn + r = − 0 267949 + = 1 732051
Prn X 1 05

V 2r 12
From Equation (2-86), cr = − = − = − 2 pu.
X 05

Example 2-8

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For a given V s = 0 967715 pu and
δ = 41 515336 , calculate Ps and Qs .

Answer 2-8
Vs Vr 0 967715 × 1
From Equation (2-61), a = = = 1 935430.
X 05
From Equation (2-59), Ps = a sin δ = 1 935430 × sin 41 515336 = 1 282843 pu.
Vs 0 967715
From Equation (2-60), Qs = a − cos δ = 1 935430 − cos 41 515336 =
Vr 1
0 423737 pu.

Example 2-9

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For a given V s = 0 967715 pu and
δ = 41 515336 , calculate Pr and Qr.

Answer 2-9
Vs Vr 0 967715 × 1
From Equation (2-61), a = = = 1 935430.
X 05
From Equation (2-74), Pr = a × sin δ = 1 935430 × sin 41 515336 = 1 282843 pu.
Vr 1
From Equation (2-75), Qr = a cos δ − = 1 935430 cos 41 515336 − =
Vs 0 967715
− 0 550792 pu.

For desired active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs ) at the modified sending end and (Pr and
Qr) at the receiving end, the equations for the magnitude (Vs ) and the modified power angle (δ ) of
the shunt-compensating voltage (Vs ) are given in Table 2-5.
78 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Table 2-5 Equations for magnitude (Vs ) and modified power angle (δ ) of the shunt-compensating voltage
(Vs ) as a function of desired (Ps and Qs ) at the modified sending end and (Pr and Qr) the receiving end.

2
V 2r V 2r Ps
Vs = + + XQs + + XQs − X 2 P2s + Q2s (2-67a) δ = tan − 1 (2-68)
2 2 V 2s
− Qs
X
2
X V 2r Pr
Vs = P2r + Qr + (2-81) δ = tan − 1 (2-82a)
Vr X V2
Qr + r
X

Example 2-10

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For a given Ps = 1 282843 pu and
Qs = 0 423737 pu, calculate Vs and δ .

Answer 2-10

2
V 2r V 2r
From Equation (2-67a), Vs = + + XQs + + XQs − X 2 P2s + Q2s =
2 2
2
12 12
+ 0 5 × 0 423737 + + 0 5 × 0 423737 − 0 52 1 2828432 + 0 4237372 = 0 967715 pu
2 2
Ps 1 282843
From Equation (2-68), δ = tan − 1 = tan − 1 = 41 515336 .
V 2s 0 9677152
− Qs − 0 423737
X 05
These results confirm those obtained in Example 2-8.

Example 2-11

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1 For a given Pr = 1 282843 pu and
Qr = − 0 550792 pu, calculate Vs and δ .

Answer 2-11
2 2
X V 2r 05 12
From Equation (2-81), V s = P2r + Qr + = 1 2828432 + −0 550792 + =
Vr X 1 05
0 967715 pu.
Pr 1 282843
From Equation (2-82a), δ = tan − 1 = tan − 1 = 41 515336 .
V 2r 12
Qr + − 0 550792 +
X 05
These results confirm those obtained in Example 2-9. Using the information about the receiving-
end voltage (Vr) and active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) from the Supervisory Control And
Data Acquisition (SCADA) system, the line voltage (Vs′) and the power angle (δ′) can be calculated
for a known line reactance (X).
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 79

2.2.1.3 Exchanged Power by a Shunt-Compensating Voltage

Referring to Figure 2-9a, for any (Ps and Qs ), the active power (Psh) and reactive power (Qsh) of the
shunt compensator are defined as
Psh = − Ps (2-87a)
and
Qsh = − Qs (2-87b)

2.2.1.4 Representation of a Shunt-Compensating Voltage as a Shunt-Compensating Impedance

The active power (Psh) and reactive power (Qsh) of the shunt compensator are defined by

Psh = I 2 Rsh (2-88a)

and
Qsh = − I 2 X sh (2-88b)
where the line current (I) is defined in Equation (2-57).
Using Equations (2-87a), (2-87b), (2-88a), and (2-88b), the shunt-compensating resistance (Rsh)
and shunt-compensating reactance (Xsh) are given by
Psh
Rsh = (2-89a)
I2
or
Ps
Rsh = − (2-89b)
I2
and
Qsh
X sh = − (2-90a)
I2
or
Qs
X sh = (2-90b)
I2
The emulated shunt-compensating resistance (Rsh), reactance (Xsh), and impedance (Zsh) are
defined as
Zsh = Z sh ∠θZsh = Rsh − jX sh (2-91a)
or
− X sh
Z sh ∠θZsh = R2sh + X 2sh ∠ tan − 1 (2-91b)
Rsh
where
Z sh ∠θZsh = Z sh cos θZsh + jZ sh sin θZsh (2-92)
Equating the real and imaginary parts of the Equations (2-91a) and (2-92), it can be written that
Rsh = Z sh cos θZsh (2-93a)
and
X sh = − Z sh sin θZsh (2-93b)
80 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Note that Xsh > 0 means the shunt-compensating reactance is capacitive and Xsh < 0 means the
shunt-compensating reactance is inductive.

Example 2-12

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. Using a Shunt–Shunt configuration,
V s = 0 967715 pu, δ = 41 515336 , Ps = 1 282843 pu, and Qs = 0 423737. Calculate VX, I, Rsh,
and Xsh.
Answer 2-12
From Equation (2-54a),

VX = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + ψ + V 2r = 0 9677152 − 2 × 0 967715 × 1 × cos 41 515336 + 12

= 0 698043 pu
VX 0 698043
From Equation (2-57), I = = = 1 396086 pu.
X 05
Ps 1 282843
From Equation (2-89b), Rsh = − 2 = − = − 0 658186 pu. Note that the negative
I 1 3960862
shunt-compensating resistance delivers active power.
Q 0 423737
From Equation (2-90b), X sh = 2s = = 0 217406 pu. Note that the positive shunt-
I 1 3960862
compensating reactance delivers reactive power.

2.2.2 Series-Compensating Voltage as an Impedance Regulator, Voltage Regulator,

and Phase Angle Regulator (Asymmetric)
Consider a two-generator/one-line power system network with a compensating voltage
(Vs s = V s s ∠ δs + β ) as shown in Figure 2-17a. When the compensating voltage (Vs s) is added
in series with the line at the sending-end voltage (Vs), the modified sending-end voltage becomes
(Vs = Vs + Vs s). Figure 2-17b shows the phasor diagram that is related to a series-compensating
voltage with a fixed magnitude of 0.2 pu and its entire controllable range of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 . The dif-
ference voltage (Vs – Vr) provides the voltage (VX) across the line reactance (X). As the relative
phase angle (β) is varied over its entire controllable range of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 , the end of phasor (Vs s)
moves along a circle with its center located at the end of phasor (Vs). The rotation of phasor (Vs s)
with an angle (β) modulates both the magnitude and phase angle of the phasor (VX). In a special
operation, when β = 0 or 180 , the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) controls the magnitude (Vs )
of the line voltage (Vs ) as in the VR. In another special operation, when β = ± 90 , the series-
compensating voltage (Vs s) controls mainly the phase angle (ψ) of the line voltage (Vs ) as in
the asymmetric PAR, called a PAR (asym).
In general, the compensating voltage (Vs s) is also at any phase angle with the prevailing line
current (I). Therefore, it emulates in series with the line a positive resistance (+R) that absorbs
active power from the line or a negative resistance (−R) that delivers active power to the line,
and a capacitive reactance (XC) that decreases the effective reactance between the two ends of
the line, thus increases the power flow in the line or an inductive reactance (XL) that increases
the effective reactance between the two ends of the line, thus decreases the power flow in the line.
Therefore, the desired series-compensating voltage is actually an impedance emulator.
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 81

(a)
Psrc , Qsrc Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr
Ps , Qs Vs′s VX
I

X
Vs Pse Vs′ Vr
Qse

(b)
VR Line
I
Vs′s PAR
(asym)
β Line

VX Vr
Vs
Vs′

𝛿′

𝛿
𝛿r 𝛿s 𝛿s′

Figure 2-17 (a) Power transmission system with a series-compensating voltage (Vs s); (b) phasor diagram.

From Figure 2-17b, it can be written that

Vs = Vs + Vs s or V s ∠δs = V s ∠δs + V s s ∠ δs + β
or V s ∠ δs + ψ = V s ∠δs + V s s ∠ δs + β
(2-94a)
or
Vs s = Vs − V s or V s s ∠ δs + β = V s ∠δs − V s ∠δs
or V s s ∠ δs + β = V s ∠ δs + ψ − V s ∠δs
(2-94b)
where Vs s, the difference between the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) and the sending-end volt-
age (Vs), is the compensating voltage, β is the relative phase angle of the compensating voltage (Vs s)
with respect to the sending-end voltage (Vs), and ψ is the phase-shift angle of the modified sending
end voltage (Vs ) with respect to the sending-end voltage (Vs).
Alternatively, the above equations can be rewritten as
V s ∠ δr + δ = V s ∠ δr + δ + V s s ∠ δr + δ + β (2-95a)
or
V s s ∠ δr + δ + β = V s ∠ δr + δ − V s ∠ δr + δ (2-95b)
82 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Considering the sending-end voltage phasor as reference (i.e. δs = 0 ), it can be written from
Equation (2-94a) that
V s ∠ψ = V s ∠0 + V s s ∠β
or
V s cos ψ + jV s sin ψ = V s + V s s cos β + jV s s sin β
Equating the real and imaginary parts of both sides of the above equation, it can be written that
V s cos ψ = V s + V s s cos β (2-96a)
and
V s sin ψ = V s s sin β (2-96b)
Therefore, the magnitude of the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) is derived from Equa-
tions (2-96a) and (2-96b) using the identity (cos2ψ + sin2ψ = 1) as

2 2
Vs = V 2s cos2 ψ + sin2 ψ = V s cos ψ + V s sin ψ

or
2 2
Vs = V s + V s s cos β + V s s sin β

or
Vs = V 2s + V 2s s cos2 β + sin2 β + 2V s V s s cos β
or

Vs = V 2s + V 2s s + 2V s V s s cos β (2-97)

using the identity cos2 β + sin2 β = 1

The phase-shift angle of the compensating voltage (Vs ) with respect to the sending-end voltage is
derived from Equations (2-96a) and (2-96b) as
sin ψ V s sin ψ
ψ = tan − 1 tan ψ = tan − 1 = tan − 1
cos ψ V s cos ψ
or
V s s sin β
ψ = tan − 1 (2-98)
V s + V s s cos β
Considering the sending-end voltage phasor as reference (i.e. δs = 0 ), it can be written from
Equation (2-94b) that
V s s ∠β = V s ∠ψ − V s ∠0
or
V s s cos β + jV s s sin β = V s cos ψ − V s + jV s sin ψ
Equating the real and imaginary parts of both sides of the above equation, it can be written that
V s s cos β = V s cos ψ − V s (2-99a)
and
V s s sin β = V s sin ψ (2-99b)
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 83

Therefore, the magnitude of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) is derived from Equations
(2-99a) and (2-99b) using the identity cos2 β + sin2 β = 1 as

2 2
Vs s = V 2s s cos2 β + sin2 β = V s s cos β + V s s sin β

or
2 2
Vs s = V s cos ψ − V s + V s sin ψ

or

Vs s = V 2s cos2 ψ + sin2 ψ + V 2s − 2V s V s cos ψ

or

Vs s = V 2s + V 2s − 2V s V s cos ψ (2-100)

using the identity cos2 ψ + sin2 ψ = 1

The relative phase angle of the compensating voltage (Vs s) with respect to the sending-end volt-
age is derived from Equations (2-99a) and (2-99b) as
sin β V s s sin β
β = tan − 1 tan β = tan − 1 = tan − 1
cos β V s s cos β
or
V s sin ψ
β = tan − 1 (2-101)
V s cos ψ − V s
Alternately, considering the receiving-end voltage phasor as reference (i.e. δr = 0 ), it can be writ-
ten from Equation (2-95a) that
V s ∠δ = V s ∠δ + V s s ∠ δ + β
or
V s cos δ + jV s sin δ = V s cos δ + V s s cos δ + β + jV s sin δ + jV s s sin δ + β
Equating the real and imaginary parts of both sides of the above equation, it can be written that
V s cos δ = V s cos δ + V s s cos δ + β (2-102a)
and
V s sin δ = V s sin δ + V s s sin δ + β (2-102b)
Therefore, the magnitude of the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) is derived from Equations
(2-102a) and (2-102b) using the identity (cos2δ + sin2δ = 1) as
2 2
Vs = V 2s cos2 δ + sin2 δ = V s cos δ + V s sin δ
or
2 2
Vs = V s cos δ + V s s cos δ + β + V s sin δ + V s s sin δ + β

or
84 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Vs = V 2s cos2 δ + sin2 δ + V 2s s cos2 δ + β + sin2 δ + β + 2V s V s s cos β

or

Vs = V 2s + V 2s s + 2V s V s s cos β (2-103)

using the identities (cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1) and cos2 δ + β + sin2 δ + β = 1 .

The phase angle of the voltage (Vs ) at the modified sending end with respect to the receiving-end
voltage is derived from Equations (2-102a) and (2-102b) as
sin δ V s sin δ
δ = tan − 1 tan δ = tan − 1 = tan − 1
cos δ V s cos δ
or
V s sin δ + V s s sin δ + β
δ = tan − 1 (2-104)
V s cos δ + V s s cos δ + β
Considering the receiving-end voltage phasor as reference (i.e. δr = 0 ), it can be written from
Equation (2-95b) that
V s s ∠ δ + β = V s ∠δ − V s ∠δ
or
V s s cos δ + β + jV s s sin δ + β = V s cos δ − V s cos δ + jV s sin δ − jV s sin δ
Equating the real and imaginary parts of both sides of the above equation, it can be written that
V s s cos δ + β = V s cos δ − V s cos δ (2-105a)
and
V s s sin δ + β = V s sin δ − V s sin δ (2-105b)
Therefore, the magnitude (Vs s) and the relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating
voltage (Vs s) are derived from Equations (2-105a) and (2-105b) using the identity
cos2 δ + β + sin2 δ + β = 1 as

2 2
Vs s = V 2s s cos2 δ + β + sin2 δ + β = V s s cos δ + β + V s s sin δ + β

or
2 2
Vs s = V s cos δ − V s cos δ + V s sin δ − V s sin δ

or

Vs s = V 2s cos2 δ + sin2 δ + V 2s cos2 δ + sin2 δ − 2V s V s cos δ − δ

or

Vs s = V 2s + V 2s − 2V s V s cos δ − δ (2-106)

using the identities cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1 and cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1 .

The phase angle of the compensating voltage (Vs s) with respect to the receiving-end voltage (Vr)
is derived from Equations (2-105a) and (2-105b) as
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 85

(pu) Vs′ for Vs′s = 0.2 pu

1.2 Vs′ for Vs′s = 0

1.1
1.0
0.9 Vs′s
ψmax
0.8
10° ψ β
0 0
− 10° 180° 360°
−ψmax

Figure 2-18 Variations of the magnitude (Vs ) and phase-shift angle (ψ) of the modified sending-end voltage
as a function of the relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) with a fixed magnitude of
0.2 pu.

sin δ + β V s s sin δ + β
δ + β = tan − 1 tan δ + β = tan − 1 = tan − 1
cos δ + β V s s cos δ + β
V s sin δ − V s sin δ
= tan − 1
V s cos δ − V s cos δ
Therefore, the relative phase angle is given by
V s sin δ − V s sin δ
β = tan − 1 −δ (2-107)
V s cos δ − V s cos δ
In the transmission system considered above, the magnitude (Vs ) and phase-shift angle (ψ) of the
modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) are modulated between Vs + Vs s at β = 0 and Vs − Vs s at
β = 180 and between δs + ψ max and δs − ψ max , respectively, where V s s = 0 2 pu and ψ max =
11 54 as shown in Figure 2-18.
For a desired series-compensating voltage (Vs s = V s s ∠ δs + β ), the equations for magnitude
(Vs ), modified power angle (δ ), and phase-shift angle (ψ) of the shunt-compensating voltage
(Vs ) are given in Table 2-6.

Example 2-13

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For a given V s s = 0 2 pu and β = 105 ,
calculate Vs , ψ, and δ .
Answer 2-13

From Equation (2-97), Vs = V 2s + V 2s s + 2V s V s s cosβ = 12 + 0 22 + 2 × 1 × 0 2 × cos 105 =

0 967715 pu.

Table 2-6 Equations for magnitude (Vs ), modified power angle (δ ), and phase-shift angle (ψ) of the
modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) as a function of desired series-compensating voltage (Vs s) with
magnitude (Vs s) and relative phase angle (β).

V s sin δ + V s s sin δ + β
Vs = V 2s + V 2s s + 2V s V s s cos β (2-103) δ = tan − 1 (2-104)
V s cos δ + V s s cos δ + β
V s s sin β
Vs = V 2s + V 2s s + 2V s V s s cos β (2-97) ψ = tan − 1 (2-98)
V s + V s s cos β
86 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Table 2-7 Equations for magnitude (Vs s) and relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating
voltage (Vs s) as a function of desired modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) with magnitude (Vs ) and
modified power angle (δ ) or phase-shift angle (ψ).

V s sin δ − V s sin δ
Vs s = V 2s + V 2s − 2V s V s cos δ − δ (2-106) β = tan − 1 − δ (2-107)
V s cos δ − V s cos δ
V s sin ψ
Vs s = V 2s + V 2s − 2V s V s cos ψ (2-100) β = tan − 1 (2-101)
V s cos ψ − V s

V s s sin β 0 2 × sin 105

From Equation (2-98), ψ = tan − 1 = tan − 1 = 11 515336 .
V s + V s s cos β 1 + 0 2 × cos 105
From Equation (2-51a), δ = δ + ψ = 30 + 11 515336 = 41 515336 .
Alternately, from Equation (2-103), which is the same as Equation (2-97), Vs = 0.967715 pu.
V s sinδ+V s s sin δ+β 1× sin30 +0 2× sin 30 +105
From Equation (2-104), δ = tan−1 = tan−1
V s cosδ+V s s cos δ+β 1× cos30 +0 2× cos 30 +105
= 41 515336 .
From Equation (2-51b), ψ = δ − δ = 41 515336 − 30 = 11 515336 .

For independent control of active and reactive power flows either (Ps and Qs ) at the modified
sending end or (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end, the required magnitude (Vs ) and phase angle
(δs ) of the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) are determined either from Equations (2-67a) and
(2-68) or from Equations (2-81) and (2-82a), respectively. Once the modified sending-end voltage
(Vs ) is determined, the magnitude (Vs s) and the relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating
voltage (Vs s) can be determined following the equations given in Table 2-7.

Example 2-14

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For a given V s = 0 967715 pu, ψ =
11 515336 , and δ = 41 515336 , calculate Vs s and β.
Answer 2-14
From Equation (2-100),

Vs s = V 2s + V 2s − 2V s V s cos ψ = 0 9677152 + 12 − 2 × 0 967715 × 1 × cos 11 515336 = 0 2 pu

V s sin ψ 0 967715 × sin 11 515336

From Equation (2-101), β = tan− 1 = tan− 1 = 105 .
V s cos ψ − V s 0 967715 × cos 11 515336 − 1
Alternately, from Equation (2-106),

Vs s = V 2s + V 2s − 2V s V s cos δ − δ

= 0 9677152 + 12 − 2 × 0 967715 × 1 × cos 41 515336 − 30

= 0 2 pu

From Equation (2-107),

V s sin δ − V s sin δ 0 967715 × sin 41 515336 − 1 × sin 30
β = tan − 1 − δ = tan − 1 − 30 = 105
V s cos δ − V s cos δ 0 967715 × cos 41 515336 − 1 × cos 30
These results confirm those obtained in Example 2-13.
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 87

(a) (b)
Psrc , Qsrc Ps′, Qs′ P r , Qr
Ps , Q s Vs′s
VX
I VXn

X
Vs Vr

In
Pse
Vs Vs′ Vr
Qse 𝛿
90°

Vs′

(c) (d)

Vs′Vr
Pr = sin 𝛿
Vs′s X Vs′s
VX
VX I Vs′Vr Vr I
Vs 90° Qr = (cos 𝛿 − ) Vs 90°
X Vs′
Vs′ Vs′
𝛿 Vr 𝛿 Vr
𝛿s 𝛿s
𝛿r 𝛿r

Figure 2-19 (a) Two-generator/one-line power system network and its series-compensating voltage to
implement a VR and phasor diagrams for (b) an uncompensated line, (c) decreasing power flow in the line, and
(d) increasing power flow in the line.

Figure 2-19a shows a two-generator/one-line power system network with a series-compensating

voltage to implement a VR. Figure 2-19b shows the phasor diagram without any compensation.
Figure 2-19c shows that the line current (I) decreases as the magnitude of the voltage between
the modified sending end and receiving end across the line reactance (X) decreases from its uncom-
pensated value. The line current (I) increases when the magnitude of the voltage between the mod-
ified sending end and receiving end across the line reactance (X) increases from its uncompensated
value as shown in Figure 2-19d. The expressions for power flows at the receiving end of the line are
shown in Figure 2-19, considering that the modified sending-end voltage is Vs ∠ δs, i.e. the voltage
magnitude at the modified sending end changes while the power angle remains unchanged.
Figure 2-20a shows a two-generator/one-line power system network with a series-compensating
voltage to implement a PAR (asym). Figure 2-20b shows the phasor diagram without any compen-
sation. Figure 2-20c shows that the line current (I) decreases as the phase angle of the voltage
between the modified sending end and receiving end decreases from its uncompensated value.
The line current (I) increases when the phase angle of the voltage between the modified sending
end and receiving end increases from its uncompensated value as shown in Figure 2-20d. The
expressions for power flows at the receiving end of the line are shown in Figure 2-20, considering
that the modified sending-end voltage is Vs ∠ δs , i.e. both the voltage magnitude and the power
angle at the modified sending end change.
Next, the active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs) at the sending end, (Pr and Qr) at the receiv-
ing end, (Ps and Qs ) at the modified sending end, and the exchanged active and reactive powers (Pse
and Qse) by the series-compensating voltage with the line are studied.
88 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

(a) (b)
Psrc , Qsrc Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr
Ps , Q s Vs′s
VX
I VXn

X
Vs Vr
In
Pse
Vs Vs′ Vr
Qse 𝛿
90°

(c) (d)

β = +90°
β = −90° Vs′sA
Vs′sA
I

Vs′ VX Vs′Vr Vs′ VX

VsA I Pr = sin 𝛿′ VsA 90°
X 𝛿′
𝛿′
ψ ψ
Vr Vs′Vr Vr Vr
𝛿 𝛿
Qr = (cos 𝛿′ − )
X Vs′

VsC VsB VsC VsB

Figure 2-20 (a) Two-generator/one-line power system network and its series-compensating voltage to
implement a PAR (asym) and phasor diagrams for (b) an uncompensated line, (c) decreasing power flow in the
line, and (d) increasing power flow in the line.

From Equation (2-50b), it can be written that

VX = Vs − Vr or
VX = Vs + Vs s − Vr using Equation 2-94a or
V X ∠θVX = V s ∠δs + V s s ∠ δs + β − V r ∠δr or
V X ∠ δs + θVXs = V s ∠δs + V s s ∠ δs + β − V r ∠ δs − δ using Equation 2-27
where θVXs is the phase angle of the voltage across the line reactance with respect to the sending-end
voltage.
Considering the sending-end voltage phasor as reference (i.e. δs = 0 ), it can be written from the
above equation that
V X ∠θVXs = V s ∠0 + V s s ∠β − V r ∠ − δ or
V X cos θVXs + jV X sin θVXs = V s + V s s cos β − V r cos δ + jV s s sin β + jV r sin δ
Equating the real and imaginary parts of both sides of the above equation, it can be written that
V X cos θVXs = V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β (2-108a)
and
V X sin θVXs = V r sin δ + V s s sin β (2-108b)
Therefore, the magnitude of the voltage (VX) across the transmission line is derived from Equa-
tions (2-108a) and (2-108b) using the identity cos2 θVXs + sin2 θVXs = 1 as
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 89

2 2
VX = V 2X cos2 θVXs + sin2 θVXs = V X cos θVXs + V X sin θVXs

or
2 2
VX = V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β + V r sin δ + V s s sin β

or
VX = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r cos2 δ + sin2 δ + V 2s s cos2 β + sin2 β + 2V s V s s cos β − 2Vs s V r cos δ + β

using the identity [ cos δ cos β − sin δ sin β = cos δ + β ], or

VX = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r + V 2s s + 2V s V s s cos β − 2V s s V r cos δ + β (2-109)

using the identities ( cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1) and ( cos2 β + sin2 β = 1).

Using Equation (2-30), Equation (2-109) can be rewritten as

VX = V 2Xn + V s s V s s + 2 V s cos β − V r cos δ + β (2-110)

The phase angle of the voltage (VX) across the line reactance with respect to the sending-end
voltage is derived from Equations (2-108a) and (2-108b) as
sin θVXs V X sin θVXs
θVXs = tan − 1 tan θVXs = tan − 1 = tan − 1
cos θVXs V X cos θVXs
or
Vr sin δ + V s s sin β
θVXs = tan − 1 (2-111)
V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β
The line current (I) is defined as
VX V X ∠θVX V X ∠ δs + θVXs
I= or I∠θI = or I∠ δs + θIs =
jX jX jX
Considering the sending-end voltage phasor as reference (i.e. δs = 0 ), it can be written from the
above equation that
V X ∠θVXs
I∠θIs = (2-56a)
jX
or
VX
I∠θIs = ∠ θVXs − 90 (2-56b)
X
where the magnitude of the prevailing line current (I) is given by
VX
I= (2-57)
X
and the phase angle of the line current (I) with respect to the sending-end voltage (Vs) is given by
θIs = θVXs − 90 (2-58)
where θVXs is given in either Equation (2-55) or Equation (2-111).
Equations (2-57) and (2-110) can be combined as

V 2Xn + V s s V s s + 2 V s cos β − V r cos δ + β

I= (2-112)
X
90 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

or

V 2Xn V s s V s s + 2 V s cos β − V r cos δ + β

I= +
X2 X2

or
V s s V s s + 2 V s cos β − V r cos δ + β
I= I 2n + (2-113)
X2
using Equation (2-33).
Equation (2-56a) can be expanded as
V X ∠θVXs V X cos θVXs + jV X sin θVXs V X sin θVXs V X cos θVXs
I∠θIs = = = −j or
jX jX X X
V r sin δ + V s s sin β V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β
I cos θIs + jI sin θIs = −j
X X
using Equations (2-108a) and (2-108b).
Equating the real and imaginary parts of both sides of the above equation, it can be written that
V r sin δ + V s s sin β
I cos θIs = (2-114a)
X
and
V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β
I sin θIs = − (2-114b)
X
Therefore, the magnitude of the line current (I) is derived from Equations (2-114a) and (2-114b)
using the identity cos2 θIs + sin2 θIs = 1 as

2 2
I= I 2 cos2 θIs + sin2 θIs = I cos θIs + I sin θIs or

2 2
V r sin δ + V s s sin β + V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β
I=
X2

V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r cos2 δ + sin2 δ + V 2s s cos2 β + sin2 β + 2V s V s s cos β − 2V s s V r cos δ + β

I=
X2

using the identity [ cos δ cos β − sin δ sin β = cos δ + β ], or

1
I= V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r + V 2s s + 2V s V s s cos β − 2V s s V r cos δ + β
X
using the identities ( cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1) and ( cos2 β + sin2 β = 1), or
VX
I= (2-57)
X
using Equation (2-109).
The phase angle of the line current (I) with respect to the sending-end voltage (Vs) is given by
V r sin δ + V s s sin β V r cosδ − V s − V s s cos β
θIs = tan − 1 − 90 = tan − 1 (2-115)
V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β V r sin δ + V s s sin β
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 91

Table 2-8 Line current for a VR and a PAR (asym).

VR PAR (asym)

I V s s V s s ± 2 V s − V r cos δ V s s V s s ± 2V r sin δ
I 2n + I 2n +
X2 X2
V r cos δ − V s V s s V r cos δ − V s
θIs tan − 1 tan − 1
V r sin δ V r sin δ ± V s s

using Equations (2-58) and (2-111), or

sin θIs I sin θIs
θIs = tan − 1 tan θIs = tan − 1 = tan − 1
cos θIs I cos θIs
or
V r cos δ − V s − V s s cos β
θIs = tan − 1 (2-115)
V r sin δ + V s s sin β
using Equations (2-114a) and (2-114b).
The magnitude and phase angle for the line current (I) are derived in Equations (2-113) and
(2-115), respectively. They are shown in Table 2-8 for a VR and a PAR (asym), respectively.

Example 2-15

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For a given V s s = 0 2 pu and β = 105 ,
calculate VX and I.
Answer 2-15
In Example 2-3, it was calculated that the magnitude of the natural voltage, V Xn = 0 517638 pu.
Therefore, from Equation (2-110), V X = V 2Xn + V s s V s s + 2 V s cos β − V r cos δ + β

VX = 0 5176382 + 0 2 0 2 + 2 1 × cos 105 − 1 × cos 30 + 105 = 0 698043 pu

VX 0 698043
From Equation (2-57), I = = = 1 396086 pu.
X 05
Alternately, from Equation (2-112),

V 2Xn + V s s V s s + 2 V s cos β − V r cos δ + β

I=
X
0 517638 + 0 2 0 2 + 2 1 × cos 105 − 1 × cos 30 + 105
2
= = 1 396086 pu
0 52

In Example 2-4, it was calculated that the magnitude of the natural line current, I n = 1 035276
pu. Therefore, from Equation (2-113),

V s s V s s + 2 V s cos β − V r cos δ + β
I= I 2n +
X2
0 2 0 2 + 2 1 × cos 105 − 1 × cos 30 + 105
= 1 0352762 + = 1 396086 pu
0 52
92 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

2.2.2.1 Power Flow at the Sending End with a Series-Compensating Voltage

The active power flow at the sending end of the line when the line is series-compensated is given by
Ps = V s I cos δs − θI or
Ps = V s I cos δs − δs + θIs
where θIs is the phase angle of the line current (I) with respect to the sending-end voltage (Vs), or
Ps = V s I cos − θIs = V s I cos θIs or
Ps = V s I cos θIs (2-116)
Equation (2-116) can be rewritten using Equation (2-114a) as
V sV r V sV s s
Ps = sin δ + sin β (2-117)
X X
or
Ps = Psn + as sin β (2-118)
where Psn is given in Equation (2-40) and
V sV s s
as = (2-119)
X
The reactive power flow at the sending end of the line when the line is series-compensated is
given by
Qs = V s I sin δs − θI or
Qs = V s I sin δs − δs + θIs
where θIs is the phase angle of the line current (I) with respect to the sending-end voltage (Vs), or
Qs = V s I sin − θIs = − V s I sin θIs or
Qs = − V s I sin θIs (2-120)
Equation (2-120) can be rewritten using Equation (2-114b) as
V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β V sV r V s V sV s s
Qs = V s or Qs = − cos δ + cos β
X X Vr X
(2-121)
or
Qs = Qsn + as cos β (2-122)
where Qsn and as are given in Equations (2-43) and (2-119), respectively.
Equations (2-118) and (2-122) can be combined as
2 2
Ps − Psn + Qs − Qsn = a2s cos2 β + sin2 β

or
2 2
Ps − Psn + Qs − Qsn = a2s (2-123)

using the identity cos2 β + sin2 β = 1 and

Ps − Psn
tan β = (2-124)
Qs − Qsn
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 93

(a)
Ps for Vs′s = 0.2 pu
(pu) as
1
Psn as

0.5 Qs for Vs′s = 0.2 pu as

Qsn

180° 360°
0
(b) β
Qs (pu)
1 PAR
(asym) β = 0°
Line Psn , Qsn

0.5
Voltage as
Regulator β
Line
0
1 Ps (pu)
* *
Ps , Qs

Figure 2-21 (a) Variation of the sending-end active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs) as a function of the
relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) with a fixed magnitude of 0.2 pu; (b) sending-
end Qs versus Ps.

Equation (2-123) defines the relationship between Ps and Qs as a circle, centered at (Psn, Qsn) with
a radius of as. The active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs) at the sending end are plotted in
Figure 2-21a as functions of the relative phase angle (β). The active and reactive power flows at
the sending end of the line can be regulated within the range defined by the P-Q plot in
Figure 2-21b by controlling the magnitude (Vs s) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) within
its rated value and the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
Equations (2-119) and (2-123) can be rearranged as
X
Vs s = Ps − Psn 2 + Qs − Qsn 2 (2-125)
Vs
Equation (2-124) can be rearranged as
Ps − Psn
β = tan − 1 (2-126)
Qs − Qsn
For the desired active and reactive power flows (P∗s and Q∗s ) within the allowable range, the
required magnitude (Vs s) and the relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage
can be determined by substituting Ps = P∗s and Qs = Q∗s in Equations (2-125) and (2-126). The rel-
ative phase angle (β) is the angle between the VR line (i.e. β = 0 line) and the line that passes
through (Psn, Qsn) and (Ps∗, Qs∗).
For implementation of the VR, the relative phase angle is set to β = 0 or β = 180 in Equa-
tions (2-118) and (2-122). For β = 0 , the variations of Ps and Qs are given by
Ps = Psn + as sin 0 or Ps = Psn
and
Qs = Qsn + as cos 0 or Qs = Qsn + as
94 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

For β = 180 , the variations of Ps and Qs are given by

Ps = Psn + as sin 180 or Ps = Psn
and
Qs = Qsn + as cos 180 or Qs = Qsn − as

For β = 0 or β = 180 , the variations of Ps and Qs are then given by

Ps = Psn (2-127a)
and
Qs = Qsn ± as (2-127b)
or
Qs − Qsn X
Vs s = ± X or Vs s = Q − Qsn (2-127c)
Vs Vs s
using Equation (2-119). For a desired Qs, the required Vs s can be determined using Equa-
tion (2-127c).
For implementation of the PAR (asym), the relative phase angle is set to β = 90 or β = − 90 in
Equations (2-118) and (2-122). For β = 90 , the variations of Ps and Qs are given by
Ps = Psn + as sin 90 or Ps = Psn + as
and
Qs = Qsn + as cos 90 or Qs = Qsn
For β = − 90 , the variations of Ps and Qs are given by
Ps = Psn + as sin − 90 or Ps = Psn − as
and
Qs = Qsn + as cos − 90 or Qs = Qsn
For β = ± 90 , the variations of Ps and Qs are then given by
Ps = Psn ± as (2-128a)
or
Ps − Psn X
Vs s = ± X or Vs s = Ps − Psn (2-128b)
Vs Vs
using Equation (2-119) and
Qs = Qsn (2-128c)
For a desired Ps, the required Vs s can be determined using Equation (2-128b).
In the case of β = 0 or β = 180 , only the reactive power (Qs), and, in the case of β = ±90 , only
the active power (Ps) at the sending end vary with the magnitude (Vs′s) of the series-compensating
voltage (Vs′s).

Example 2-16

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. Using a VR, (a) for Ps = 1 4 pu, what is
Vs s? (b) for Ps = 0 6 pu, what is Vs s? Using a PAR (asym), (c) for Qs = 0 667949 pu, what is Vs s?
(d) for Qs = − 0 132051 pu, what is Vs s?
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 95

Answer 2-16
In Example 2-5, it was calculated that the natural transmitted active power, Psn = 1pu and the reac-
tive power, Qsn = 0 267949 pu at the source end. Therefore, from Equation (2-127c),

X 05
a) V s s = Q − Qsn = 0 667949 − 0 267949 = 0 2,
Vs s 1
X 05
b) V s s = Q − Qsn = − 0 132051 − 0 267949 = 0 2;
Vs s 1

from Equation (2-128b),

X 05
c) V s s = Ps − Psn = 1 4 − 1 = 0 2,
Vs 1
X 05
d) V s s = Ps − Psn = 0 6 − 1 = 0 2.
Vs 1

2.2.2.2 Power Flow at the Receiving End with a Series-Compensating Voltage

The active power flow at the receiving end of the line when the line is series-compensated is
given by
Pr = V r I cos δr − θI or
Pr = V r I cos δs − δ − δs + θIs using Equation (2-27) where θIs is the phase angle of the line
current (I) with respect to the sending-end voltage (Vs), or
Pr = V r I cos − δ − θIs = V r I cos δ + θIs or
Pr = V r cos δI cos θIs − V r sin δI sin θIs (2-129)
Equation (2-129) can be rewritten using Equations (2-114a) and (2-114b) as
V r sin δ + V s s sin β V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β
Pr = V r cos δ + V r sin δ
X X
V r V s sin δ V r V s s cos δ sin β V r V s s sin δ cos β
= + +
X X X
or
V sV r V rV s s
Pr = sin δ + sin δ + β (2-130)
X X
or
Pr = Prn + ar sin δ + β (2-131)
where Prn is given in Equation (2-46) and
V rV s s
ar = (2-132)
X
The reactive power flow at the receiving end of the line when the line is series-compensated is
given by
Qr = V r I sin δr − θI or
Qr = V r I sin δs − δ − δs + θIs using Equation (2-27)
where θIs is the phase angle of the line current (I) with respect to the sending-end voltage (Vs), or
96 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Qr = V r I sin − δ − θIs = − V r I sin δ + θIs or

Qr = − V r sin δ I cos θIs − V r cos δ I sin θIs (2-133)
Equation (2-133) can be rewritten using Equations (2-114a) and (2-114b) as
V r sin δ + V s s sin β V s − V r cos δ + V s s cosβ
Qr = − V r sin δ + V r cos δ or
X X
V 2r sin2 δ V r V s s sin δ sin β V s V r cos δ V 2r cos2 δ V r V s s cos δ cos β
Qr = − − + − + or
X X X X X
V sV r V2 V rV s s
Qr = cos δ − r + cos δ + β or
X X X
V sV r Vr V rV s s
Qr = cos δ − + cos δ + β (2-134)
X Vs X
or
Qr = Qrn + ar cos δ + β (2-135)
where Qrn and ar are given in Equations (2-48) and (2-132), respectively.
Equations (2-131) and (2-135) can be combined as
2 2
Pr − Prn + Qr − Qrn = a2r cos2 δ + β + sin2 δ + β

or
2 2
Pr − Prn + Qr − Qrn = a2r (2-136)
using the identity cos2 δ + β + sin2 δ + β = 1 and
Pr − Prn
tan δ + β = (2-137)
Qr − Qrn
Equation (2-136) defines the relationship between Pr and Qr as a circle, centered at (Prn, Qrn) with
a radius of ar. The active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end are plotted in
Figure 2-22a as functions of the relative phase angle (β). The active and reactive power flows at the
receiving end of the line can be regulated within the range defined by the P-Q plot in Figure 2-22b
by controlling the magnitude (Vs s) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) within its rated value
and the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
Equations (2-132) and (2-136) can be rearranged as
X 2 2
Vs s = Pr − Prn + Qr − Qrn (2-138)
Vr
Equation (2-137) can be rearranged as
Pr − Prn
β = tan − 1 −δ (2-139)
Qr − Qrn
For the desired active and reactive power flows (P∗r and Q∗r ) within the allowable range, the
required magnitude (Vs s) and the relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s)
can be determined by substituting Pr = P∗r and Qr = Q∗r in Equations (2-138) and (2-139). The rel-
ative phase angle (β) is the angle between the VR line (i.e. β = 0 line) and the line that passes
through (Prn, Qrn) and (P∗r , Q∗r ).
For implementation of the VR, the relative phase angle is set to β = 0 or β = 180 in Equations
(2-131) and (2-135). For β = 0 , the variations of Pr and Qr are given by

Pr = Prn + ar sin δ + 0 or Pr = Prn + ar sin δ

 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 97

(a)

ar Pr for Vs′s = 0.2 pu

(pu)
1
Prn
ar

0.5
β
0
ar
180° 360°

Qrn Qr for Vs′s = 0.2 pu

− 0.5 ar
(b)
β = 0°
Qr (pu) 𝛿

0
1 Pr (pu)
PAR ar
(asym)
Line
− 0.5 Voltage
Regulator β
Line Pr*, Q*r
− 1.0 Prn , Qrn

Figure 2-22 (a) Variation of the receiving-end active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) as a function of the
relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) with a fixed magnitude of 0.2 pu;
(b) receiving-end Qr versus Pr.

and
Qr = Qrn + ar cos δ + 0 or Qr = Qrn + ar cos δ

For β = 180 , the variations of Pr and Qr are given by

Pr = Prn + ar sin δ + 180 or Pr = Prn − ar sin δ

and
Qr = Qrn + ar cos δ + 180 or Qr = Qrn − ar cos δ

For β = 0 or β = 180 , the variations of Pr and Qr are then given by

Pr = Prn ± ar sin δ (2-140a)
or
Pr − Prn X
Vs s = ± X or Vs s = Pr − Prn (2-140b)
V r sin δ V r sin δ
using Equation (2-132) and
Qr = Qrn ± ar cos δ (2-140c)
or
Qr − Qrn X
Vs s = ± X or Vs s = Q − Qrn (2-140d)
V r cos δ V r cos δ r
98 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

using Equation (2-132). For a desired Pr, the required Vs s can be determined using Equation
(2-140b); for a desired Qr, the required Vs s can be determined using Equation (2-140d).

Example 2-17
Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. Using a VR, (a) for Pr = 1 2 pu, what is
Vs s? (b) for Pr = 0 8 pu, what is Vs s? (c) for Qr = 0 078461 pu, what is Vs s? (d) for Qr = − 0 614359
pu, what is Vs s?
Answer 2-17
In Example 2-5, it was calculated that the natural transmitted active power, Prn = 1pu and the reac-
tive power, Prn = − 0 267949 pu at the load end. Therefore, from Equation (2-140b),

X 05
a) V s s = Pr − Prn = 1 2 − 1 = 0 2,
V r sin δ 1 × sin 30
X 05
b) V s s = Pr − Prn = 0 8 − 1 = 0 2;
V r sin δ 1 × sin 30

from Equation (2-140d),

X 05
c) V s s = Q − Qrn = 0 078461 + 0 267949 = 0 2,
V r cos δ r 1 × cos 30
X 05
d) V s s = Q − Qrn = − 0 614359 + 0 267949 = 0 2.
V r cos δ r 1 × cos 30

Substituting β = 0 or β = 180 in Equation (2-137) or combining Equations (2-140a) and

(2-140c) leads to
Pr − Prn Pr − Prn
tan δ = or Qr = + Qrn (2-141a)
Qr − Qrn tan δ
or substituting for tanδ from Equation (2-49)

Pr − Prn V2 Pr V 2r
Qr = Qrn + r + Qrn or Qr = −1 Qrn + + Qrn
Prn X Prn X
or
Pr V2 V2
Qr = Qrn + r − r , (2-141b)
Prn X X
which is same as Equation (2-83c).
For implementation of the PAR (asym), the relative phase angle is set to β = 90 or β = − 90 in
Equations (2-131) and (2-135). For β = 90 , the variations of Pr and Qr are given by

Pr = Prn + ar sin δ + 90 or Pr = Prn + ar cos δ

and
Qr = Qrn + ar cos δ + 90 or Qr = Qrn − ar sin δ
For β = − 90 , the variations of Pr and Qr are given by

Pr = Prn + ar sin δ − 90 or Pr = Prn − ar cos δ

and
Qr = Qrn + ar cos δ − 90 or Qr = Qrn + ar sin δ
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 99

For β = ±90 , the variations of Pr and Qr are then given by

Pr = Prn ± ar cos δ (2-142a)
or
Pr − Prn X
Vs s = ± X or Vs s = Pr − Prn (2-142b)
V r cos δ V r cos δ

using Equation (2-132) and

Qr = Qrn ar sin δ (2-142c)

or
Qr − Qrn X
Vs s = X or Vs s = Q − Qrn (2-142d)
V r sin δ V r sin δ r

using Equation (2-132). For a desired Pr, the required Vs s can be determined using Equation
(2-142b); for a desired Qr, the required Vs s can be determined using Equation (2-142d).

Example 2-18
Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. Using a PAR (asym), (a) for Pr = 1 34641pu,
what is Vs s? (b) for Pr = 0 65359 pu, what is Vs s? (c) for Qr = − 0 467949 pu, what is Vs s? (d) for
Qr = − 0 067949 pu, what is Vs s?
Answer 2-18
In Example 2-5, it was calculated that the natural transmitted active power, Prn = 1pu and the reac-
tive power, Qrn = − 0 267949 pu at the load end. Therefore, from Equation (2-142b),
X 05
a) V s s = Pr − Prn = 1 34641 − 1 = 0 2,
V r cos δ 1 × cos 30
X 05
b) V s s = Pr − Prn = 0 65359 − 1 = 0 2;
V r cos δ 1 × cos 30

from Equation (2-142d),

X 05
c) V s s = Q − Qrn = − 0 467949 + 0 267949 = 0 2,
V r sin δ r 1 × sin 30
X 05
d) V s s = Q − Qrn = − 0 067949 + 0 267949 = 0 2.
V r sin δ r 1 × sin 30

Substituting β = 90 or β = − 90 in Equation (2-137) or combining Equations (2-142a) and

(2-142c) leads to
Pr − Prn
= − cot δ or Qr = − tan δ Pr − Prn + Qrn (2-143a)
Qr − Qrn

or substituting for tanδ from Equation (2-49)

Prn − Prn P2rn

Qr = − V 2r
Pr − Prn + Qrn or Qr = V 2r
Pr + V 2r
+ Qrn
Qrn + X Qrn + X Qrn + X
(2-143b)
100 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

The Pr – Qr relationship is defined with a slope (mr) and an intercept (cr) as

Qr = mr Pr + cr (2-144)
where
− Prn
mr = (2-145)
V2
Qrn + r
X
and

P2rn
cr = + Qrn (2-146)
V2
Qrn + r
X
Therefore, in the case of β = 0 , 180 or ±90 , both the active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr)
at the receiving end vary with the magnitude (Vs s) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs′s). For a
given Vs s, Pr and Qr are determined for β = 0 and 180 , using Equations (2-140a) and (2-84); the
same are determined for β = ±90 using Equations (2-142a) and (2-144).

Example 2-19

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For β = 90 or β = − 90 , calculate mr
and cr.
Answer 2-19
In Example 2-5, it was determined that the natural transmitted active power, Prn = 1 pu and the
reactive power, Qrn = − 0 267949 pu at the load end. Therefore, from Equation (2-145),
− Prn −1
mr = = = − 0 577350
V 2r 12
Qrn + − 0 267949 +
X 05
P2rn 12
From Equation (2-146), cr = + Qrn = − 0 267949 = 0 309401 pu.
V 2r 12
Qrn + − 0 267949 +
X 05
Additional Discussion
Note that the slope (mr) in Example 2-7 is 1.732051 and that in Example 2-19 is −0.577350; there-
fore, the product of these slopes is −1, meaning the Pr – Qr characteristic equations for the VR and
the PAR (asym) are perpendicular, which is shown in Figure 2-22.

2.2.2.3 Power Flow at the Modified Sending End with a Series-Compensating Voltage
The active power flow at the modified sending end of the line when the line is series-compensated is
given by
Ps = V s I cos δs − θI or
Ps = V s I cos δs + ψ − δs + θIs
where θIs is the phase angle of the line current (I) with respect to the sending-end voltage (Vs), or
Ps = V s I cos ψ − θIs or
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 101

Ps = V s cos ψ I cos θIs + V s sin ψI sin θIs (2-147)

Equation (2-147) can be rewritten using Equations (2-96a), (2-96b), (2-114a), and (2-114b) as
V r sin δ + V s s sin β V r cos δ − V s − V s s cos β
Ps = V s + V s s cos β + V s s sin β or
X X
V s V r sin δ V s s V r cos β sin δ V s s V r sin β cos δ
Ps = + + or
X X X
V sV r VrVs s
Ps = sin δ + sin δ + β (2-148)
X X
or
Ps = Psn + ar sin δ + β (2-149)
where Psn and ar are given in Equations (2-40) and (2-132), respectively.
The reactive power flow at the modified sending end of the line when the line is series-
compensated is given by
Qs = V s I sin δs − θI or
Qs = V s I sin δs + ψ − δs + θIs
where θIs is the phase angle of the line current (I) with respect to the sending-end voltage (Vs), or
Qs = V s I sin ψ − θIs or
Qs = V s sin ψ I cos θIs − V s cos ψI sin θIs (2-150)
Equation (2-150) can be rewritten using Equations (2-96a), (2-96b), (2-114a), and (2-114b) as
V r sin δ + V s s sin β V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β
Qs = V s s sin β + V s + V s s cos β or
X X
V r V s s sin β sin δ V 2 sin2 β V2 V s V s s cos β V s V r cos δ V r V s s cos β cos δ
Qs = + ss + s + − −
X X X X X X
V s V s s cos β V 2s s cos2 β
+ +
X X
or
V sV r V s V 2s s 2V s V s s VrVs s
Qs = − cos δ + + cos β − cos δ + β (2-151)
X Vr X X X
or
V 2s s
Qs = Qsn + + 2as cos β − ar cos δ + β (2-152)
X
where Qsn, as, and ar are given in Equations (2-43), (2-119), and (2-132), respectively.
Equations (2-149) and (2-152) can be combined as
2
2 V 2s s
Ps − Psn + Qs − Qsn − = 4a2s cos2 β − 4as ar cos β cos δ + β + a2r (2-153a)
X
or
2
2 2 V 2s s
Ps − Psn + Qs − Qsn = a2r sin2 δ + β + + 2as cos β − ar cos δ + β (2-153b)
X
102 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

or substituting for as and ar from Equations (2-119) and (2-132),

2 2
2 2 V s sV r V 2s s V s sV s V s sV r
Ps − Psn + Qs − Qsn = sin2 δ + β + +2 cos β − cos δ + β
X X X X
or
2 2 V 2s s 2 2 V 2s s 2
Ps − Psn + Qs − Qsn = 2 V r sin δ + β + V s s + 2V s cos β − V r cos δ + β
X X2
or
Ps − Psn 2 + Qs − Qsn 2 =
V 2s s 2
V s s + 2V s s 2V s cos β − V r cos δ + β + 4V 2s cos2 β − 4V s V r cos β cos δ + β + V 2r
X2
or
V 4s s + 2 2V s cos β − V r cos δ + β V 3s s +
2 2
4V 2s cos2 β − 4V s V r cos β cos δ + β + V 2r V 2s s − Ps − Psn + Qs − Qsn X2 = 0
(2-154)
and
Ps − Psn V r sin δ + β
=
V 2s s 2V s cos β − V r cos δ + β
Qs − Qsn −
X
or
V 2s s
Ps − Psn 2V s cos β − V r cos δ + β = Qs − Qsn − V r sin δ + β
X
or
V 2s s
Ps − Psn 2V s cos β − V r cos δ cos β − sin δ sin β = Qs − Qsn − V r sin δ cos β + cos δ sin β
X

or
V 2s s
Ps − Psn V r sin δ sin β − Qs − Qsn − V r cos δ sin β
X
V 2s s
= − Ps − Psn 2V s cos β − V r cos δ cos β + Qs − Qsn − V r sin δ cos β
X
or
V 2s s
Ps − Psn V r sin δ − Qs − Qsn − V r cos δ sin β =
X
V2
− Ps − Psn 2V s − V r cos δ + Qs − Qsn − s s V r sin δ cos β
X
or
V 2s s
− Ps − Psn 2V s − V r cos δ + Qs − Qsn − V r sin δ
X
tan β = ; (2-155a)
V2
Ps − Psn V r sin δ − Qs − Qsn − s s V r cos δ
X
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 103

(a)

Ps′ for Vs′s = 0.2 pu

(pu) as
1
Psn

V 2s′s
Qsn+
0.5 X Qs′ for Vs′s = 0.2 pu Qsn

180° as 360°
0
(b) β
Qs′ (pu) Voltage Regulator β = 0°
1 Line
V2
Psn , Qsn+ s′s
X
Psn , Qsn
0.5
PAR β
(asym)
Line P*s′, Qs′*
0
1 Ps′ (pu)

Figure 2-23 (a) Variation of the modified sending-end active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs ) as a
function of the relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) with a fixed magnitude of
0.2 pu; (b) modified sending-end Qs versus Ps .

it can also be written from Equations (2-149) and (2-152) that

Ps − Psn
tan δ + β = − V 2s s
(2-155b)
Qs − Qsn − X − 2as cos β

Equations (2-153a) and (2-153b) define the relationship between Ps and Qs as an ellipse. The
active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs ) at the modified sending end are plotted in
Figure 2-23a as functions of the relative phase angle (β). The active and reactive power flows at
the modified sending end of the line can be regulated within the range defined by the P-Q plot
in Figure 2-23b by controlling the magnitude (Vs s) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) within
its rated value and the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
For the desired active and reactive power flows (Ps ∗ and Qs ∗) at the modified sending end, the
required magnitude (Vs s) and the relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s)
can be determined by substituting Ps with Ps ∗ and Qs with Qs ∗ in Equations (2-154) and (2-155a),
respectively. Note that the Equation (2-154) is a fourth-order equation that may need to be solved by
using a numerical method to determine the magnitude (Vs s) of the series-compensating volt-
age (Vs s).
Alternately, a two-step method may be applied where the first step is to determine the magnitude
(Vs ) and phase-shift angle (ψ) of the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) using Equations (2-67a),
(2-68), and (2-51b) after substituting Ps with Ps ∗ and Qs with Qs ∗ and the second step is for a desired
104 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

modified sending-end voltage (Vs ), the magnitude (Vs s) and the relative phase angle (β) of the
series-compensating voltage (Vs s) are determined using Equations (2-100) and (2-101) as given
in Table 2-11.
In a third method, which is a three-step method where the first step is to determine the active and
reactive power flows (Ps and Qs) at the sending end. If the desired active and reactive power flows at
the modified sending end are Ps ∗ and Qs ∗, the required exchanged active and reactive powers (Pse∗
and Qse∗) are determined in the second step by using the following equations:
P∗se = Ps − P∗s (2-156a)

and
Q∗se = Qs − Q∗s (2-156b)

In the third step, the required magnitude (Vs s) and the relative phase angle (β) of the compensat-
ing voltage (Vs s) are determined as shown in the next section.
The active and reactive power flows at any point in the line can also be controlled independently
by using a closed-loop control scheme. The automatic power flow control mode of operation of the
UPFC for achieving independent control of active and reactive power flows (P∗s and Q∗s ) at the mod-
ified sending end has been implemented in the world’s first UPFC. The field results from this ±160
MVA-rated UPFC are shown in “Comparison of field results and digital simulation results of volt-
age-sourced converter-based FACTS controllers,” by K. K. Sen and A. J. F. Keri, IEEE Trans. on
Power Delivery, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 300–306, Jan 2003. In 1998, this UPFC demonstrated for the first
time that the active and reactive power flows in a line could be regulated independently while main-
taining a fixed line voltage at the POC at Inez substation in Kentucky, USA.
The parameters as in Equation (2-119) and ar in Equation (2-132) are the maximum power flow
increases and are proportional to the magnitude (Vs s) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s).
When the magnitude of the compensating voltage increases, so does the maximum power flow
and vice versa. The same applies to the controllable range of the power flow in the P-Q plane. When
the controllable range extends to all four quadrants, the bidirectional and independent control of
active and reactive power flows is achieved.
For implementation of the VR, the relative phase angle is set to β = 0 or β = 180 in
Equations (2-149) and (2-152). For β = 0 , the variations of Ps and Qs are given by
Ps = Psn + ar sin δ + 0 or Ps = Psn + ar sin δ
and

V 2s s V 2s s
Qs = Qsn + + 2as cos 0 − ar cos δ + 0 or Qs = Qsn + + 2as − ar cos δ
X X
For β = 180 , the variations of Ps and Qs are given by
Ps = Psn + ar sin δ + 180 or Ps = Psn − ar sin δ
and
V 2s s V 2s s
Qs = Qsn + + 2as cos 180 − ar cos δ + 180 or Qs = Qsn + − 2as + ar cos δ
X X
For β = 0 or β = 180 , the variations of Ps and Qs are then given by
Ps = Psn ± ar sin δ (2-157a)
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 105

or
Ps − Psn X
Vs s = ± X or Vs s = Ps − Psn (2-157b)
V r sin δ V r sin δ
using Equation (2-132) and

V 2s s
Qs = Qsn + ± 2as ar cos δ (2-157c)
X
or

V 2s s ± 2V s − V r cos δ V s s − XQs + XQsn = 0 using Equations 2-119 and 2-132

or
2
2V s − V r cos δ ± 2V s − V r cos δ + 4X Qs − Qsn
Vs s =
2
or
1 2
Vs s = 2V s − V r cos δ − 2V s − V r cos δ + 4X Qs − Qsn (2-157d)
2
For a desired Ps , the required Vs s can be determined using Equation (2-157b); for a desired Qs ,
the required Vs s can be determined using Equation (2-157d).

Example 2-20

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. Using a VR, (a) for Ps = 1 2 pu, what is
Vs s? (b) for Ps = 0 8 pu, what is Vs s? (c) for Qs = 0 801539 pu, what is Vs s? (d) for Qs = − 0 105641
pu, what is Vs s?
Answer 2-20
In Example 2-5, it was calculated that the natural transmitted active power, Psn = 1pu and the reac-
tive power, Qsn = 0 267949 pu at the source end. Therefore, from Equation (2-157b),

X 05
a) V s s = Ps − Psn = 1 2 − 1 = 0 2,
V r sin δ 1 × sin 30
X 05
b) V s s = Ps − Psn = 0 8 − 1 = 0 2;
V r sin δ 1 × sin 30

from Equation (2-157d),

1 2
c) V s s = 2V s − V r cos δ − 2V s − V r cos δ + 4X Qs − Qsn
2
1 2
= 2 × 1 − 1 × cos 30 − 2 × 1 − 1 × cos 30 + 4 × 0 5 0 801539 − 0 267949 = 0 2,
2
d) from Equation (2-157d),

1
Vs s = 2V s − V r cos δ − 2V s − V r cos δ 2 + 4X Qs − Qsn
2
1
= 2 × 1 − 1 × cos 30 − 2 × 1 − 1 × cos 30 2 + 4 × 0 5 − 0 105641 − 0 267949 = 0 2
2
106 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Substituting β = 0 or β = 180 in Equation (2-155b) or combining Equations (2-157a) and

(2-157c) leads to
Ps − Psn Ps − Psn V2
tan δ = − or Qs = − + Qsn + s s ± 2as ;
V2 tan δ X
Qs − Qsn − s s 2as
X
(2-158a)
or substituting for tanδ from Equation (2-44),
V 2s
Ps Q − 2
V2 V2
Qs = − +
sn
X P + Q + V s s ± 2a or Qs = −
Ps
+ s + s s ± 2as ;
sn sn s
tan δ − Psn X tan δ X X
or substituting for as from Equation (2-119),
2
Ps Vs ± Vs s
Qs = − + (2-158b)
tan δ X
Then,
Ps V2
Qs = − + s (2-159)
tan δ X
since
Vs = Vs ± Vs s (2-160)
Note that Equation (2-159) is same as Equation (2-70b). Therefore, the Ps – Qs relationship is
defined with a slope (ms ) and an intercept (cs ) as
Qs = ms Ps + cs (2-71)
where
1 1 V2
ms = − = Qsn − s (2-72)
tan δ Psn X
and
2
Vs ± Vs s
cs = (2-161)
X

Example 2-21

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For β = 0 or β = 180 and V s s = 0 2 pu,
calculate ms and cs .
Answer 2-21
In Example 2-5, it was calculated that the natural transmitted active power, Psn = 1pu and the reac-
tive power, Qsn = 0 267949 pu at the source end. Therefore, from Equation (2-72),

1 V2 1 12
ms = Qsn − s = 0 267949 − = − 1 732051
Psn X 1 05
2 2
Vs ± Vs s 1±02
From Equation (2-161), cs = = = 2 88, 1 28 . Note that for β = 0 ,
X 05
cs = 2 88 and for β = 180 , cs = 1 28.

For implementation of the PAR (asym), the relative phase angle is set to β = 90 or β = − 90 in
Equations (2-149) and (2-152). For β = 90 , the variations of Ps and Qs are given by
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 107

Ps = Psn + ar sin δ + 90 or Ps = Psn + ar cos δ

and
V 2s s V 2s s
Qs = Qsn + + 2as cos 90 − ar cos δ + 90 or Qs = Qsn + + ar sin δ
X X
For β = − 90 , the variations of Ps and Qs are given by
Ps = Psn + ar sin δ − 90 or Ps = Psn − ar cos δ
and
V 2s s V2
Qs = Qsn + + 2as cos − 90 − ar cos δ − 90 or Qs = Qsn + s s − ar sin δ
X X
For β = ±90 , the variations of Ps and Qs are then given by
Ps = Psn ± ar cos δ (2-162a)
or
Ps − Psn X
Vs s = ± X or Vs s = Ps − Psn (2-162b)
V r cos δ V r cos δ
using Equation (2-132) and
V 2s s
Qs = Qsn + ± ar sin δ (2-162c)
X
or
V 2s s ± V r sin δV s s − XQs + XQsn = 0 using Equation 2-132

or
2
V r sin δ ± V r sin δ + 4X Qs − Qsn
Vs s = or
2
1 2
Vs s = V r sin δ − V r sin δ + 4X Qs − Qsn (2-162d)
2
For a desired Ps , the required Vs s can be determined using Equation (2-162b); for a desired Qs ,
the required Vs s can be determined using Equation (2-162d).

Example 2-22

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. Using a PAR (asym), (a) for Ps = 1 34641pu,
what is Vs s? (b) for Ps = 0 65359 pu, what is Vs s? (c) for Qs = 0 547949 pu, what is Vs s? (d) for
Qs = 0 147949 pu, what is Vs s?
Answer 2-22
In Example 2-5, it was calculated that the natural transmitted active power, Psn = 1pu and the reac-
tive power Qsn = 0 267949 pu at the source end. Therefore, from Equation (2-162b),

X 05
a) V s s = Ps − Psn = 1 34641 − 1 = 0 2,
V r cos δ 1 × cos 30
X 05
b) V s s = Ps − Psn = 0 65359 − 1 = 0 2;
V r cos δ 1 × cos 30
108 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

from Equation (2-162d),

1
c) V s s = V r sin δ − V r sin δ 2 + 4X Qs − Qsn
2
1
= 1 × sin 30 − 1 × sin 30 2 + 4 × 0 5 0 547949 − 0 267949 = 0 2,
2
1
d) V s s = V r sin δ − V r sin δ 2 + 4X Qs − Qsn
2
1
= 1 × sin 30 − 1 × sin 30 2 + 4 × 0 5 0 147949 − 0 267949 = 0 2
2

Substituting β = 90 or β = − 90 in Equation (2-155) or combining Equations (2-162a) and

(2-162c) leads to

Ps − Psn V 2s s
− = − cot δ or Qs = tan δ Ps − Psn + Qsn + (2-163a)
V 2s s X
Qs − Qsn −
X
or substituting for tanδ from Equation (2-44)

− Psn V 2s s − Psn P2sn V 2s s

Qs = 2 P s − P sn + Qsn + or Qs = 2 Ps + 2 + Qsn +
V X V V X
Qsn − s Qsn − s Qsn − s
X X X
(2-163b)
From Equation (2-163b), the Ps – Qs relationship is defined with a slope (ms ) and an intercept
(cs ) as
Qs = ms Ps + cs (2-164)
where
− Psn
ms = (2-165)
V2
Qsn − s
X
and
P2sn V 2s s
cs = 2 + Qsn + (2-166)
V X
Qs − s
X
Therefore, in the case of β = 0 , 180 or ±90 , both the active and reactive power flows (Ps
and Qs ) at the modified sending end vary with the magnitude (Vs s) of the series-compensating volt-
age (Vs s). For a given Vs s, (Ps and Qs ) are determined for β = 0 , 180 using Equations (2-157a) and
(2-71) and the same are determined for β = ±90 using Equations (2-162a) and (2-164).

Example 2-23
Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For β = 90 or β = − 90 and V s s = 0 2,
calculate ms and cs .
Answer 2-23
In Example 2-5, it was calculated that the natural transmitted active power, Psn = 1pu and the reac-
tive power, Qsn = 0 267949 pu at the source end.
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 109

− Psn −1
From Equation (2-165), ms = 2 = = 0 577350 pu.
V 12
Qsn − s 0 267949 −
X 05
P2sn V 2s s 12 0 22
From Equation (2-166), cs = + Q sn + = + 0 267949 +
V2 X 12 05
Qsn − s 0 267949 −
X 05
= − 0 229401 pu.
Additional Discussion
Note that the slope (ms ) in Example 2-21 is −1.732051 and that in Example 2-23 is 0.577350;
therefore, the product of these slopes is −1, meaning the Ps′ – Qs′ characteristic equations for
the VR and the PAR (asym) are perpendicular, which is shown in Figure 2-23.

2.2.2.4 Exchanged Power by a Series-Compensating Voltage

The series-compensating voltage is an AC voltage source that carries a current, which is at any
phase angle with its terminal voltage. Therefore, the compensating voltage, essentially, emulates
a four-quadrant, series-compensating impedance at its terminals. This virtual impedance
Zse = Rse − jX se consists of a resistance Rse = + R or − R and a reactance X se = X C or − X L
in series with the line. A Xse > 0 means the compensating reactance is capacitive and Xse < 0 means
the compensating reactance is inductive.
The series-compensating voltage (Vs s) is related to (Vdq), such that
Vs s = − Vdq (1-4)

and
Vdq = Vd + Vq = V d + jV q (1-5)

where Vd = V d and Vq = jV q are the respective active or direct and reactive or quadrature com-
ponents of the compensating voltage with load convention, meaning the line current (I) enters
at the higher potential terminal of the voltages (Vd and Vq) as shown in Figure 2-24a.
The series-compensating voltage (Vs s) is at any phase angle with the prevailing line current (I)
and, therefore, it exchanges with the line both active and reactive powers (Pse and Qse), which are
defined as
Pse = Vdq •I = − Vs s •I or Pse = V d I (2-167)

and

Qse = Vdq × I = − Vs s × I or Qse = V q I (2-168)

where Vd and Vq are the respective active or direct and reactive or quadrature components with
respect to the prevailing line current (I).
Figure 2-24b shows the phasor diagram related to a series-compensating voltage with a fixed mag-
nitude of 0.2 pu and its entire controllable range of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 . The compensating voltage (Vs s) is
added to the fixed sending-end voltage (Vs) to produce the effective sending-end voltage
(Vs = Vs + Vs s ). Just for comparison, the characteristics of a VR that regulates the magnitude
of the line voltage, a PAR (both types - symmetric and asymmetric) that regulates the phase angle
of the line voltage and a RR that regulates the line reactance are also shown in the figure. In these
special cases, the following occur.
110 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

(a)
Vs′s
Psrc , Qsrc Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr
Ps , Q s Vd Vq VX
I

X
Vs Vs′ Vr

Pse Qse
= Vd I = Vq I
(b) I
VR Line
with ‘− R’ PAR (asym)
Vs′s Line
Pse
β Vr
PAR (sym)
VX
Line
with ‘+ R’ RR Line 𝛿
Vs′ Vs (Vd = 0 )
2

𝛿′

ψ
𝛿
𝛿r 𝛿s 𝛿s′

Figure 2-24 (a) Power transmission system with a series-compensating voltage (Vs s); (b) phasor diagram.

• A series-compensating voltage can be in- or out-of-phase with the phase-to-neutral voltage of the
line to implement a VR.

• A series-compensating voltage can be in quadrature with the phase-to-neutral voltage of the line
to implement a PAR (both types - symmetric and asymmetric). Further details on a PAR (sym)
and a PAR (asym) are given in Section 2.3.2 (Phase Angle Regulation).

• A series-compensating voltage can be such that it provides series reactance compensation

because of being in quadrature with the prevailing line current. If the circular controllable area
is equally divided by the series reactance compensator line (V d = 0 or Pse = 0), the upper and
lower halves represent Pse due to ‘−R’ and ‘+R’, respectively.

Any compensator, which provides compensation for one of the parameters (voltage, phase angle,
or reactance) operates on a set of linear operating points. For example, Figure 2-22b shows that the
VR and the PAR (asym) operating characteristic lines are neither horizontal nor vertical in the P-Q
plane. Therefore, changing one parameter (voltage magnitude or phase angle) with the use of these
regulators changes both the active and the reactive power flows in the line simultaneously.
The exchanged active power by the series-compensating voltage with the line can be defined as
Pse = Ps − Ps , (2-169a)
which can also be derived from Equations (2-118) and (2-149) as
Pse = as sin β − ar sin δ + β (2-169b)
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 111

or
Vs s Vs s
Pse = V s sin β − V r sin δ cos β + cos δ sin β = V s − V r cos δ sin β − V r sin δ cos β
X X
with substitutions for as and ar from Equations (2-119) and (2-132) or

V s sV r Vs
Pse = − cos δ sin β − sin δ cos β (2-170)
X Vr

Equations (2-40), (2-41), and (2-43) can be rearranged as

V r sin δ Psn
= (2-171)
X Vs

and
Vr Vs Qsn
− cos δ = (2-172)
X Vr Vs
Substituting Equations (2-171) and (2-172) into Equation (2-170) leads to
Vs s Vs s
Pse = Qsn sin β − Psn cos β or Pse = D sin β − E (2-173)
Vs Vs
where
Psn = D sin E (2-174a)
Qsn = D cos E (2-174b)

D= P2sn + Q2sn (2-174c)

Psn
E = tan − 1 (2-174d)
Qsn
Equations (2-171) and (2-172) can be combined as
2 2 2
V sV r Vs Vs V sV r 1
P2sn + Q2sn = 1+ −2 cos δ = V 2 + V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ or
X Vr Vr X V 2r r
2
V 2s 2 V s V Xn
P2sn + Q2sn = V or P2sn + Q2sn = (2-175)
X 2 Xn X
where the natural voltage (VXn) across the line is given in Equation (2-30).
Equation (2-174c) is then
V s V Xn
D= P2sn + Q2sn = (2-176)
X
where the natural line current (In) is given in Equation (2-33).
By substituting D from Equation (2-176) and E from Equation (2-174d) into Equation (2-173), it
can be written that
Psn
Pse = ase sin β − tan − 1 (2-177)
Qsn
112 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

where
V s s V Xn
ase = (2-178)
X
The exchanged reactive power by the series-compensating voltage with the line can be defined as
Qse = Qs − Qs , (2-179a)
which can also be derived from Equations (2-122) and (2-152) as

V 2s s
Qse = as cos β − − 2as cos β + ar cos δ + β
X
V 2s s
Qse = − − as cos β + ar cos δ + β (2-179b)
X
or
V 2s s Vs s
Qse = − + − V s cos β + V r cos δ cos β − sin δ sin β
X X
with substitutions for as and ar from Equations (2-119) and (2-132) or

V 2s s V s s V r Vs
Qse = − − − cos δ cos β + sin δ sin β
X X Vr
or using Equations (2-171) and (2-172), it can be written that

V 2s s V s s
Qse = − − Qsn cos β + Psn sin β
X Vs
or
V 2s s V s s
Qse = − − D cos β − E (2-180)
X Vs
with substitutions from Equations (2-174a) and (2-174b).
By substituting D from Equation (2-176) and E from Equation (2-174d) into Equation (2-180), it
can be written that

V 2s s Psn
Qse = − − ase cos β − tan − 1 (2-181)
X Qsn
where ase is given in Equation (2-178).
The exchanged apparent power (Sse) is given by

Sse = P2se + Q2se (2-182)

Using Equation (2-178), Equations (2-177) and (2-181) can be combined as

2
V 2s s
P2se + Qse + = a2se (2-183)
X
and
Psn − Pse
tan β − tan − 1 = V 2s s
(2-184a)
Qsn Qse + X
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 113

Alternately, from Equations (2-169b) and (2-179b), it can be written that

Pse as sin β − ar sin δ + β as sin β − ar sin δ cos β − ar cos δ sin β
= =
V2 − as cos β + ar cos δ + β − as cos β + ar cos δ cos β − ar sin δ sin β
Qse + s s
X
as − ar cos δ sin β − ar sin δ cos β
= or
− as − ar cos δ cos β − ar sin δ sin β
V 2s s
Pse − as − ar cos δ cos β − ar sin δ sin β = Qse + as − ar cos δ sin β − ar sin δ cos β or
X
V 2s s
− Pse ar sin δ sin β − Qse + as − ar cos δ sin β = Pse as − ar cos δ cos β
X
V 2s s
− Qse + ar sin δ cos β
X
or
V 2s s
Pse as − ar cos δ − Qse + ar sin δ
X
tan β = (2-184b)
V 2s s
− Pse ar sin δ − Qse + as − ar cos δ
X

Equation (2-183) defines the relationship between Pse and Qse as a circle centered at (0, − V 2s's / X)
with a radius of ase. The exchanged active and reactive powers (Pse and Qse) are plotted in
Figure 2-25a as functions of the relative phase angle (β). For a given magnitude of the series-
compensating voltage, the exchanged capacitive power (Qse) is larger than its inductive counterpart
due to the fact that the capacitive compensation produces a larger line current. The series-
compensating voltage, being at any phase angle with the prevailing line current, emulates a
four-quadrant, series-compensating impedance Zse = Rse − jX se that consists of a resistance
Rse = + R or − R and a reactance X se = X C or − X L in series with the line. Therefore, the

(a)
XC XL XC
(pu) Pse
0.25 for Vs′s = 0.2 pu
ase β
0
180° 360°
− 0.25 Qse for Vs′s = 0.2 pu
−R +R −R
(b)
Qse
(pu) ase
PAR Pse (pu)
0
(asym) 0.5
Line Voltage
Regulator Line
− 0.5 β
Pse* , Q*se

Figure 2-25 (a) Variation of the exchanged active and reactive powers (Pse and Qse) as a function of the
relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) with a fixed magnitude of 0.2 pu;
(b) exchanged reactive power (Qse) versus active power (Pse).
114 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

series-compensating voltage (Vs s) acts as an IR. Figure 2-25a shows that the series inductive-
reactance compensation can be emulated with a series-compensating voltage at β = 75 or
β = 255 in this particular example. The exchanged active and reactive powers can be regulated
within the range defined by the P-Q plot in Figure 2-25b by controlling the magnitude (Vs s) of the
series-compensating voltage (Vs s) within its rated value and the relative phase angle of
0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
The magnitude (Vs s) of the series-compensating voltage is expressed by combining Equations
(2-178) and (2-183) as follows:
2 2
V 2s s V 2s s V s s V Xn
P2se + Q2se + 2Qse + − =0
X X X
or
2
V 2s s − V 2Xn − 2XQse V 2s s + X 2 P2se + Q2se = 0 (2-185)

Solving the above quadratic equation results in

2
V 2Xn − 2XQse ± V 2Xn − 2XQse − 4X 2 P2se + Q2se
V 2s s =
2
or
2
V 2Xn V 2Xn
V 2s s = − XQse ± − XQse − X 2 P2se + Q2se
2 2

or
2
V 2Xn V 2Xn
Vs s = + − XQse + − XQse − X 2 P2se + Q2se (2-186a)
2 2

or
2
V 2Xn V 2Xn
Vs s = + − XQse − − XQse − X 2 P2se + Q2se (2-186b)
2 2

or
2
V 2Xn V 2Xn
Vs s = − − XQse + − XQse − X 2 P2se + Q2se (2-186c)
2 2

or
2
V 2Xn V 2Xn
Vs s = − − XQse − − XQse − X 2 P2se + Q2se (2-186d)
2 2

The relative phase angle of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) is derived from Equation
(2-184a) as
Psn Pse
β = tan − 1 − tan − 1 (2-187a)
Qsn V 2s s
Qse +
X
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 115

Alternately, from Equation (2-184b), it can be written that

V 2s s
Pse as − ar cos δ − Qse + ar sin δ
X
β = tan − 1 (2-187b)
V 2s s
− Pse ar sin δ − Qse + as − ar cos δ
X

For independent control of exchanged active and reactive powers (Pse and Qse), the magnitude
(Vs s) of the compensating voltage (Vs s) and the relative phase angle (β) are determined from Equa-
tions (2-186b) and (2-187a) or (2-187b), respectively. For a given amount of exchanged power, it
results in a larger Vs s and smaller β per Equation (2-186a); it results in a smaller Vs s and larger
β per Equation (2-186b). Equations (2-186c) and (2-186d) result in the same respective Vs as
obtained in Equations (2-186a) and (2-186b); however, the corresponding β is 180 opposite.
For the desired exchanged active and reactive powers (P∗se, Q∗se) within the allowable control range,
the magnitude (Vs s) and the relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s)
are determined by substituting Pse with P∗se and Qse with Q∗se in Equations (2-186b) and (2-187a)
or (2-187b), respectively.
For implementation of the VR, the relative phase angle is set to β = 0 or β = 180 in Equations
(2-177) and (2-181). For β = 0 , the variations of Pse and Qse are given by

Psn Psn
Pse = ase sin 0 − tan − 1 or Pse = − ase sin tan − 1
Qsn Qsn
and
V 2s s Psn V 2s s Psn
Qse = − − ase cos 0 − tan − 1 or Qse = − − ase cos tan − 1
X Qsn X Qsn
For β = 180 , the variations of Pse and Qse are given by
Psn Psn
Pse = ase sin 180 − tan − 1 or Pse = ase sin tan − 1
Qsn Qsn
and
V 2s s Psn V 2s s Psn
Qse = − − ase cos 180 − tan − 1 or Qse = − + ase cos tan − 1
X Qsn X Qsn
For β = 0 or β = 180 , the variations of Pse and Qse are then given by

Psn
Pse = ase sin tan − 1 (2-188a)
Qsn

or using Equation (2-178), it can be written that

Pse X
Vs s = X or Vs s = Pse (2-188b)
Psn Psn
V Xn Sin tan − 1 V Xn Sin tan − 1
Qsn Qsn
and
V 2s s Psn
Qse = − ase cos tan − 1 (2-188c)
X Qsn
116 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

or
Psn
V 2s s ± V Xn cos tan − 1 V s s + XQse = 0 using Equation (2-178).
Qsn
Solving the above quadratic equation results in
2
Psn Psn
V Xn cos tan − 1 ± V Xn cos tan − 1 − 4XQse
Qsn Qsn
Vs s = or
2
2
1 Psn Psn
Vs s = V Xn cos tan − 1 V Xn cos tan − 1 − 4XQse (2-188d)
2 Qsn Qsn

For a desired Pse, the required Vs s can be determined using Equation (2-188b) or
Pse X
Vs s = X or Vs s = Pse (B-109e)
V r sin δ V r sin δ
For a desired Qse, the required Vs s can be determined using Equation (2-188d) or

V s − V r cos δ ± V s − V r cos δ 2 − 4XQse

Vs s = or
2
1
Vs s = V s − V r cos δ V s − V r cos δ 2 − 4XQse (B-109f)
2
Example 2-24

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. Using a VR, (a) for Pse = − 0 2 pu, what
is Vs s? (b) for Pse = 0 2 pu, what is Vs s? (c) for Qse = − 0 13359 pu, what is Vs s? (d) for Qse =
− 0 02641 pu, what is Vs s?
Answer 2-24
From Equation (B-109e),

X 05
a) V s s = Pse = − 0 2 = 0 2,
V r sin δ 1 × sin 30
X 05
b) V s s = Pse = 0 2 = 0 2;
V r sin δ 1 × sin 30

from Equation (B-109f),

1
c) V s s = V s − V r cos δ − V s − V r cos δ 2 − 4XQse
2
1 2
= 1 − 1 × cos 30 − 1 − 1 × cos 30 − 4 × 0 5 − 0 13359 = 0 2,
2
1
d) V s s = V s − V r cos δ + V s − V r cos δ 2 − 4XQse
2
1 2
= 1 − 1 × cos 30 + 1 − 1 × cos 30 − 4 × 0 5 − 0 02641 = 0 2
2
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 117

Substituting β = 0 or β = 180 in Equation (2-187a) or combining Equations (2-188a) and

(2-188c) leads to

Pse Psn Qsn V2

= or Qse = Pse − s s (2-189)
V 2s s Qsn Psn X
Qse +
X
From Equation (2-189), the Pse – Qse relationship is defined with a slope (mse) and an intercept
(cse) as
Qse = mse Pse + cse (2-190)
where
Qsn
mse = (2-191)
Psn
and

V 2s s
cse = − (2-192)
X

Example 2-25

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For β = 0 or β = 180 , calculate mse
and cse.
Answer 2-25
In Example 2-5, it was calculated that the natural transmitted active power, Psn = 1pu and the reac-
tive power, Qsn = 0 267949 pu at the source end. Therefore, from Equation (2-191),
Qsn 0 267949
mse = = = 0 267949 pu
Psn 1
V 2s s 0 22
From Equation (2-192), cse = − = − = − 0 08 pu.
X 05
For implementation of the PAR (asym), the relative phase angle is set to β = 90 or β = − 90 in
Equations (2-177) and (2-181). For β = 90 , the variations of Pse and Qse are given by

Psn Psn
Pse = ase sin 90 − tan − 1 or Pse = ase cos tan − 1
Qsn Qsn
and

V 2s s Psn V 2s s Psn
Qse = − − ase cos 90 − tan − 1 or Qse = − − ase sin tan − 1
X Qsn X Qsn
For β = − 90 , the variations of Pse and Qse are given by
Psn Psn
Pse = ase sin − 90 − tan − 1 or Pse = − ase cos tan − 1
Qsn Qsn
118 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

and
V 2s s Psn V 2s s Psn
Qse = − − ase cos − 90 − tan − 1 or Qse = − + ase sin tan − 1
X Qsn X Qsn

For β = ±90 , the variations of Pse and Qse are then given by
Psn
Pse = ± ase cos tan − 1 (2-193a)
Qsn

or using Equation (2-178)

Pse X
Vs s = ± X or Vs s = Pse (2-193b)
Psn Psn
V Xn cos tan − 1 V Xn cos tan − 1
Qsn Qsn
and
V 2s s Psn
Qse = − ase sin tan − 1 (2-193c)
X Qsn
or
Psn
V 2s s ± V Xn sin tan − 1 V s s + XQse = 0 using Equation 2-178
Qsn
Solving the above quadratic equation results in
2
Psn Psn
V Xn sin tan − 1 ± V Xn sin tan − 1 − 4XQse
Qsn Qsn
Vs s =
2

or
2
1 Psn Psn
Vs s = V Xn sin tan − 1 − V Xn sin tan − 1 − 4XQse (2-193d)
2 Qsn Qsn

For a desired Pse, the required Vs s can be determined using Equation (2-193b) or
Pse X
Vs s = X or Vs s = Pse (B-110e)
V s − V r cos δ V s − V r cos δ
For a desired Qse, the required Vs s can be determined using Equation (2-193d) or

V r sin δ ± V r sin δ 2 − 4XQse 1

Vs s = or Vs s = V r sin δ − V r sin δ 2 − 4XQse
2 2
(B-110f)
Example 2-26

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. Using a PAR (asym), (a) for
Pse = 0 05359 pu, what is Vs s? (b) for Pse = − 0 05359 pu, what is Vs s? (c) for Qse = − 0 28 pu, what
is Vs s? (d) for Qse = 0 12 pu, what is Vs s?
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 119

Answer 2-26
From Equation (B-110e),
X 05
a) V s s = Pse = 0 05359 = 0 2,
V s − V r cos δ 1 − 1 × cos 30
X 05
b) V s s = Pse = − 0 05359 = 0 2;
V s − V r cos δ 1 − 1 × cos 30
from Equation (B-110f),
1
c) V s s = V r sin δ − V r sin δ 2 − 4XQse
2
1
= 1 × sin 30 − 1 × sin 30 2 − 4 × 0 5 − 0 28 = 0 2,
2
1
d) V s s = V r sin δ − V r sin δ 2 − 4XQse
2
1
= 1 × sin 30 − 1 × sin 30 2 − 4 × 0 5 0 12 = 0 2
2
Substituting β = 90 or β = − 90 in Equation (2-187a) or combining Equations (2-193a) and
(2-193c) leads to

Pse Qsn Psn V2

= − or Qse = − Pse − s s (2-194)
V 2s s Psn Qsn X
Qse +
X
From Equation (2-194), the Pse – Qse relationship is defined with a slope (mse) and an intercept
(cse) as
Qse = mse Pse + cse (2-195)
where
Psn
mse = − (2-196)
Qsn
and
V 2s s
cse = − (2-197)
X

Example 2-27

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For β = 90 or β = − 90 , calculate mse
and cse.
Answer 2-27
In Example 2-5, it was calculated that the natural transmitted active power, Psn = 1pu and the reac-
tive power, Qsn = 0 267949 pu at the source end. Therefore, from Equation (2-196),
Psn 1
mse = − = − = − 3 732051 pu
Qsn 0 267949
120 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

V 2s s 0 22
From Equation (2-197), cse = − = − = − 0 08 pu.
X 05
Therefore, in the case of β = 0 , 180 , or ±90 , both the exchanged active and reactive powers
(Pse and Qse) vary with the magnitude (Vs′s) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs′s). For a given
Vs′s, Pse and Qse are determined for β = 0 and 180 , using Equations (2-188a) and (2-190) and the
same are determined for β = ±90 using Equations (2-193a) and (2-195).

Additional Discussion
Note that the slope (mse) in Example 2-25 is 0.267949 and that in Example 2-27 is −1/0.267949;
therefore, the product of these slopes is −1, meaning the Pse – Qse characteristics for the VR and
the PAR (asym) are perpendicular, which is shown in Figure 2-25.

The relationships between active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs) at the sending end, (Pr and
Qr) at the receiving end, (Ps and Qs ) at the modified sending end, and exchanged active and reactive
powers (Pse and Qse) by the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) as a function of the modified power
angle (δ ) are given in Table 2-9.
The equations for active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs) at the sending end, (Pr and Qr) at the
receiving end, (Ps and Qs ) at the modified sending end, and the exchanged active and reactive
powers (Pse and Qse) by the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) as a function of the magnitude (Vs s)
of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) are given in Table 2-10.

Example 2-28

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For a given V s s = 0 2 pu and β = 105 ,
calculate Ps and Qs.

Table 2-9 Relationships between active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs) at the sending end, (Pr and Qr)
at the receiving end, (Ps and Qs ) at the modified sending end, and exchanged (Pse and Qse) by the
series-compensating voltage (Vs s).

2 2 V sV s s
Ps − Psn + Qs − Qsn = a2s (2-123) as =
X
(2-119)
2 2 VrVs s
Pr − Prn + Qr − Qrn = a2r (2-136) ar =
X
(2-132)
2
2 V 2s s
Ps − Psn + Qs − Qsn − = 4a2s cos2 β − 4as ar cos β cos δ + β + a2r (2-153a) For as and ar,
X
2
see above.
2 2 V 2s s
Ps − Psn + Qs − Qsn = a2r sin2 δ + β + + 2as cos β − ar cos δ + β (2-153b)
X
V 2s s
2 V s s V Xn
P2se + Qse + = a2se (2-183) ase =
X X
(2-178)
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 121

Table 2-10 Equations for active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs), (Pr and Qr), (Ps and Qs ), and (Pse and Qse).

Ps = Psn + as sin β (2-118) Qs = Qsn + as cos β (2-122) V sV s s

as = (2-119)
X
Pr = Prn + ar sin δ + β (2-131) Qr = Qrn + ar cos δ + β (2-135) VrVs s
ar = (2-132)
X
V 2s s
Ps = Psn + ar sin δ + β Qs = Qsn + + 2as cos β − ar cos δ + β For as and ar, see above.
X
(2-149) (2-152)
Psn V 2s s Psn V s s V Xn
Pse = ase sin β − tan − 1 Qse = − − ase cos β − tan − 1 ase = (2-178)
Qsn X Qsn X
(2-177) (2-181)

Answer 2-28
In Example 2-5, it was calculated that the natural transmitted active power, Psn = 1pu and the reac-
tive power, Qsn = 0 267949 pu at the source end.
V sV s s 1×02
From Equation (2-119), as = = = 0 4 pu.
X 05
From Equation (2-118), Ps = Psn + as sin β = 1 + 0 4 × sin 105 = 1 386370 pu.
From Equation (2-122), Qs = Qsn + as cos β = 0 267949 + 0 4 × cos 105 = 0 164422 pu.

Example 2-29

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For a given V s s = 0 2 pu and β = 105 ,
calculate Pr and Qr.
Answer 2-29
In Example 2-5, it was calculated that the natural transmitted active power, Prn = 1pu and the reac-
tive power, Qrn = − 0 267949 pu at the load end.
VrVs s 1×02
From Equation (2-132), ar = = = 0 4 pu.
X 05
From Equation (2-131), Pr = Prn + ar sin δ + β = 1 + 0 4 × sin 30 + 105 = 1 282843 pu.
From Equation (2-135), Qr = Qrn + ar cos δ + β = −0 267949 + 0 4 × cos 30 + 105 =
−0 550792 pu.
Note that the values of Pr and Qr, calculated in this example, are the same as those calculated in
Example 2-9 with a shunt-compensating voltage.

Example 2-30

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For a given V s s = 0 2 pu and β = 105 ,
calculate Ps and Qs .
Answer 2-30
In Example 2-5, it was calculated that the natural transmitted active power, Psn = 1pu and the reac-
tive power, Qsn = 0 267949 pu at the source end.
122 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

V sV s s 1×02
From Equation (2-119), as = = = 0 4 pu.
X 05
VrVs s 1×02
From Equation (2-132), ar = = = 0 4 pu.
X 05
From Equation (2-149), Ps = Psn + ar sin δ + β = 1 + 0 4 × sin 30 + 105 = 1 282843 pu.
V2 0 22
From Equation (2-152), Qs = Qsn + s s + 2as cos β − ar cos δ + β = 0 267949 + +2×0 4×
X 05
cos 105 −0 4 × cos 30 + 105 = 0 423737 pu
Note that the values of Ps and Qs , calculated in this example, are the same as those calculated in
Example 2-8 with a shunt-compensating voltage.

Additional Discussion
The total reactive power needed by the line, Qtotal = Qs + Qr = 0 550792 + 0 423737 = 0 974529 pu.
Therefore, the line current, I = Qtotal X = 0 974529 0 5 = 1 396086pu as calculated in Example
2-12.

Example 2-31

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For a given V s s = 0 2 pu and β = 105 ,
calculate Pse and Qse.

Answer 2-31
In Example 2-5, it was calculated that the magnitude of the natural voltage, V Xn = 0 517638 pu, the
natural transmitted active power, Psn = 1 pu, and the reactive power, Qsn = 0 267949 pu at the
source end.
V sV s s 1×02
From Equation (2-119), as = = = 0 4 pu.
X 05
VrVs s 1×02
From Equation (2-132), ar = = = 0 4 pu.
X 05
V s s V Xn 0 2 × 0 517638
From Equation (2-178), ase = = = 0 207055 pu.
X 05
Psn 1
From Equation (2-177), Pse = ase sin β − tan − 1 = 0 207055 × sin 105 − tan− 1
Qsn 0 267949
= 0 103528 pu.
V2 Psn 0 22
From Equation (2-181), Qse = − s s − ase cos β − tan − 1 = − − 0 207055 ×
X Qsn 05
1
cos 105 − tan − 1 = − 0 259315 pu.
0 267949

For a desired active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs) at the sending end, (Pr and Qr) at
the receiving end, (Ps and Qs ) at the modified sending end, and the exchanged active and
reactive powers (Pse and Qse) by the series-compensating voltage, the expressions for the mag-
nitude (Vs s) and the relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) are given
in Table 2-11.
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 123

Table 2-11 Equations for magnitude (Vs s) and relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s)
as a function of (Ps and Qs) at the sending end, (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end, and exchanged (Pse
and Qse).

X Ps − Psn
Vs s = Ps − Psn 2
+ Qs − Qsn 2
(2-125) β = tan − 1 (2-126)
Vs Qs − Qsn
X Pr − Prn
Vs s = Pr − Prn 2
+ Qr − Qrn 2
(2-138) β = tan − 1 −δ (2-139)
Vr Qr − Qrn
Ps
V 2r V 2r
2 δ = tan − 1 (2-68)
Vs = + + XQs + + XQs −X 2 P2s + Q2s (2-67a) V 2s
2 2 − Qs
X
ψ = δ −δ (2-51b)
Vs s = V 2s + V 2s − 2V s V s cos ψ (2-100) V s sin ψ
β = tan − 1 (2-101)
V s cos ψ − V s
Psn Pse
V 2Xn V 2Xn
2 β = tan − 1 − tan − 1 (2-187a)
Vs s = + −XQse − −XQse −X Pse + Qse
2 2 2 Q sn V2
2 2 Qse + s s
X
(2-186b) Pse as − ar cos δ
V 2s s
− Qse + ar sin δ
X
β = tan− 1 (2-187b)
−Pse ar sin δ

V 2s s
− Qse + as − ar cosδ
X

Example 2-32

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For a given Ps = 1 386370 pu and
Qs = 0 164422 pu, calculate Vs s and β.

Answer 2-32

In Example 2-5, it was calculated that the natural transmitted active power, Psn = 1 pu and the
reactive power, Qsn = 0 267949 pu at the source end. Therefore, from Equation (2-125), the
X
magnitude (Vs s) of the series-compensating voltage, V s s = Ps − Psn 2 + Qs − Qsn 2
Vs
05
= 1 386370 − 1 2 + 0 164422 − 0 267944 2 = 0 2 pu.
1
From Equation (2-126), the relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s),
Ps − Psn 1 386370 − 1
β = tan − 1 = tan − 1 = 105 .
Qs − Qsn 0 164422 − 0 267944

Example 2-33

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For a given Pr = 1 282843 pu and
Qr = − 0 550792 pu, calculate Vs s and β.
124 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Answer 2-33

In Example 2-5, it was calculated that the natural transmitted active power, Prn = 1 pu and the
reactive power, Qrn = − 0 267949 pu at the load end. Therefore, from Equation (2-138), the
X
magnitude (Vs s) of the series-compensating voltage, V s s = Pr − Prn 2 + Qr − Qrn 2 =
Vr
05
1 282843 − 1 2 + − 0 550792 + 0 267949 2 = 0 2 pu. From Equation (2-139), the
1
Pr − Prn
relative phase angle (β) of the compensating voltage (Vs s), β = tan − 1 −δ =
Qr − Qrn
1 282843 − 1
tan − 1 − 30 = 105 .
− 0 550792 + 0 267943

Example 2-34

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For a given Ps = 1 282843 pu and
Qs = 0 423737 pu, calculate Vs s and β.

Answer 2-34

In Example 2-5, it was calculated that the natural transmitted active power, Psn = 1pu and the reac-
tive power, Qsn = 0 267949 pu at the source end. Therefore, from Equation (2-67a),

2
V 2r V 2r
Vs = + + XQs + + XQs − X 2 P2s + Q2s
2 2

2
12 12
= + 0 5 × 0 423737 + + 0 5 × 0 423737 − 0 52 1 2828432 + 0 4237372
2 2
= 0 967715 pu

Ps 1 282843
From Equation (2-68), δ = tan − 1 = tan − 1 = 41 515336 .
V 2s 0 9677152
− Qs − 0 423737
X 05
From Equation (2-51b), ψ = δ − δ = 41 515336 − 30 = 11 515336 .
From Equation (2-100), V s s = V 2s +V 2s −2V s V s cosψ = 0 9677152 +12 −2×0 967715×1× cos11 515336
=0 2 pu.
V s sin ψ 0 967715 × sin 11 515336
From Equation (2-101), β = tan − 1 = tan − 1 = 105
.
V s cos ψ − V s 0 967715 × cos 11 515336 − 1

Example 2-35

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For a given Pse = 0 103528 pu and
Qse = − 0 259315 pu, calculate Vs s and β.
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 125

Answer 2-35

In Example 2-5, it was calculated that the magnitude of the natural voltage, V Xn = 0 517638 pu.
From Equation (2-186b), the magnitude (Vs s) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s),

2
V 2Xn V 2Xn
Vs s = + − XQse − − XQse − X 2 P2se + Q2se
2 2

2
0 5176382 0 5176382
= + + 0 5 × 0 259315 − + 0 5 × 0 259315 − 0 52 0 1035282 + 0 2593152
2 2
= 0 2 pu

From Equation (2-187a), the relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s),
Psn Pse 1 0 103528
β = tan − 1 − tan − 1 = tan − 1 − tan − 1 = 105
Qsn V2 0 267949 0 22
Qse + s s − 0 259315 +
X 05
The equations for active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs) at the sending end, (Pr and Qr) at the
receiving end, (Ps and Qs ) at the modified sending end, and the exchanged active and reactive
powers (Pse and Qse) by the series-compensating voltage as a function of the magnitude (Vs s)
and the relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) are given in Table 2-12
and Table 2-13 for a VR.
The equations relating active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs) at the sending end, (Pr and Qr)
at the receiving end, (Ps and Qs ) at the modified sending end, and the exchanged active and reactive
powers (Pse and Qse) by the series-compensating voltage as a function of the magnitude (Vs s) and the
relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) are given in Table 2-14 and
Table 2-15 for a PAR (asym).

Table 2-12 Equations for Ps, Pr, Ps , and Pse when a VR is used.

Ps = Psn (2-127a)
VrVs s
Pr = Prn ± ar sin δ (2-140a) ar = (2-132)
X
VrVs s
Ps = Psn ± ar sin δ (2-157a) ar = (2-132)
X
Psn V s s V Xn
Pse = ase sin tan − 1 (2-188a) ase = (2-178), V Xn = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r (2-30)
Qsn X

Table 2-13 Equations relating (Ps and Qs), (Pr and Qr), (Ps and Qs ), and (Pse and Qse) when a VR is used.

Qs = Qsn ± as (2-127b) V sV s s
as = (2-119)
X
2
1 V V 2r
Qr = mr Pr + cr (2-84) mr = Qrn + r (2-85) cr = − (2-86)
Prn X X
1 V2 Vs ± Vs s 2
Qs = ms Ps + cs (2-71) ms = Qsn − s (2-72) cs = (2-161)
Psn X X
Qse = mse Pse + cse (2-190) Qsn V 2s s
mse = (2-191) cse = − (2-192)
Psn X
126 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Table 2-14 Equations for Ps, Pr, Ps , and Pse when a PAR (asym) is used.

V sV s s
Ps = Psn ± as (2-128a) as = (2-119)
X
VrVs s
Pr = Prn ± ar cos δ (2-142a) ar = (2-132)
X
VrVs s
Ps = Psn ± ar cos δ (2-162a) ar = (2-132)
X
Psn V s s V Xn
Pse = ± ase cos tan − 1 (2-193a) ase = (2-178) V Xn = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r (2-30)
Qsn X

Table 2-15 Equations relating (Ps and Qs), (Pr and Qr), (Ps and Qs ), and (Pse and Qse) when a PAR (asym) is used.

Qs = Qsn (2-128c)
− Prn P2rn
Q r = m r P r + cr (2-144) mr = (2-145) cr = + Qrn (2-146)
V2 V 2r
Qrn + r Qrn +
X X
− Psn P2sn V 2s s
Qs = ms Ps + cs (2-164) ms = (2-165) cs = + Qsn + (2-166)
V2 V 2s X
Qsn − s Qsn −
X X
Psn V 2s s
Qse = mse Pse + cse (2-195) mse = − (2-196) cse = − (2-197)
Qsn X

2.2.2.5 Additional Series-Compensating Voltages

A series-compensating voltage can be used to implement (1) PAR (symmetric) and (2) RR.
The natural active power at the receiving end of the line is given by
Prn = a × sin δ (2-46)
where
V sV r
a= (2-41)
X
The power flow in a line can be reversed in one of the two ways, either by (1) modifying the power
angle (δ ) to be negative as shown in Figure 2-27 or (2) modifying the effective line reactance (Xeff)
between its two ends to be capacitive as shown in Figures 2-35a and e and 2-38a and c, respectively.
The expressions for the magnitude and phase angle for the line current (I) are derived in Equa-
tions (2-113) and (2-115), respectively, where the relative phase angle (β) is as follows:

ψ ψ
Equation (2-200): β = + 90 for ψ > 0 or β = + 270 for ψ < 0 for a PAR (sym)
2 2
V r sin δ
Equation (2-227): β = tan − 1 for a RR.
V s − V r cos δ

2.2.2.5.1 Phase Angle Regulator (Symmetric)

A PAR (sym) connects a compensating voltage (Vs s) in series with the line to regulate the phase-
shift angle (ψ) of the line voltage (Vs) at the sending end. The magnitude (Vs ) of the modified send-
ing-end voltage (Vs ) and the magnitude (Vs) of the sending-end voltage (Vs) are the same. There-
fore, substituting Vs with Vs in Equation (2-100), the expression for the magnitude (Vs s) of the
series-compensating voltage (Vs s) for a phase-shift angle (ψ) becomes
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 127

ψ
Vs s = V 2s + V 2s − 2V s V s cos ψ or V s s = 2V s sin (2-198)
2
A ψ > 0 makes Vs s positive and the power flow in the line increases; whereas, a ψ < 0 makes Vs s
negative and the power flow in the line decreases.
Substituting Vs with Vs, Equation (2-101) can be rewritten as
V s sin ψ ψ
β = tan − 1 or β = − tan − 1 cot (2-199)
V s cos ψ − V s 2
or
ψ ψ
β= + 90 for ψ > 0 or β= + 270 for ψ < 0 (2-200)
2 2
Figure 2-26a shows a two-generator/one-line power system network with a series-compensating
voltage to implement a PAR (sym). Figure 2-26b shows the phasor diagram without any compen-
sation. Figure 2-26c shows that the line current (I) decreases as the phase angle of the voltage
between the modified sending end and receiving end decreases from its uncompensated value.
The line current (I) increases when the phase angle of the voltage between the modified sending
end and receiving end increases from its uncompensated value as shown in Figure 2-26d. Since for a
phase-shift angle (ψ), the magnitude of the line voltage stays unchanged, it is referred to as PAR
symmetric (sym). The expressions for power flows at the receiving end of the line are shown in
Figure 2-26, considering that the modified sending-end voltage is Vs ∠ δs , i.e. power angle changes
while the voltage magnitude at the modified sending end remains unchanged.
The modified power angle (δ ) and the phase-shift angle (ψ) are related by the following equation:
δ =δ+ψ (2-51a)

(a) (b)
Psrc , Qsrc Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr
Ps , Qs Vs′s VX
I VXn

X
Vs Vr

Pse In
Vs Vs′ Vr
Qse 𝛿
90°

(c) (d)
ψ ψ
2 β − 360° 2
Vs′sA β Vs′sA
VX I
Vs Vs′ Vs Vr Vs′ Vs I
VA Pr = sin 𝛿′ VA
𝛿′ Vr X VX
90°
ψ ψ
Vs Vr V 𝛿 𝛿′
𝛿 Qr = (cos 𝛿′− r )
X Vs Vr

VC VB VC VB

Figure 2-26 (a) Two-generator/one-line power system network and its series-compensating voltage to
implement a PAR (sym) and phasor diagrams for (b) an uncompensated line, (c) decreasing power flow in the
line, and (d) increasing power flow in the line.
128 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

The equations for active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs ) at the modified sending end of a
line using a PAR (sym) are given below:
Ps = a × sin δ (2-201)
and
Vs
Qs = a − cos δ (2-202)
Vr
where a is defined in Equation (2-41).
The equations for active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end of a line using a
PAR (sym) are given below:
Pr = a × sin δ (2-203)
and
Vr
Qr = a cos δ − (2-204)
Vs
where a is defined in Equation (2-41).
Using Equation (2-41), Equations (2-201) and (2-202) can be combined as
2
V 2s 2 2
P2s + Qs − = a2 sin δ + cos δ = a2 using the identity cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1 or
X
2
V 2s
P2s + Qs − = a2 (2-205)
X
Using Equation (2-41), Equations (2-203) and (2-204) can be combined as
2
V 2r 2 2
P2r + Qr + = a2 sin δ + cos δ = a2 using the identity cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1 or
X
2
V 2r
P2r + Qr + = a2 (2-206)
X
The equations for active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs ) at the modified sending end and (Pr
and Qr) at the receiving end, using a PAR (sym), as a function of the modified power angle (δ ) are
given in Table 2-16.
The equations relating the active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs ) at the modified sending
end and (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end when a PAR (sym) is used are given in Table 2-17.

Table 2-16 Equations for active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs ) at the modified sending end and
(Pr and Qr) at the receiving end, using a PAR (sym), as a function of the modified power angle (δ ).

Vs V sV r
Ps = a × sin δ (2-201) Qs = a − cos δ (2-202) a= (2-41) δ = δ+ψ (2-51a)
Vr X
Vr V sV r
Pr = a × sin δ (2-203) Qr = a cos δ − (2-204) a= (2-41) δ =δ+ψ (2-51a)
Vs X
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 129

Table 2-17 Equations relating the active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs ) at the
modified sending end and (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end when a PAR (sym) is used.

2 V sV r
V 2s a= (2-41)
P2s + Qs − = a2 (2-205) X
X
V 2r
2 V sV r
P2r + Qr + = a2 (2-206) a= (2-41)
X X

(a) (c)
PAR
𝛿 (sym)
Line

Q, V
ψ/2 VXn VX (pu)
Vr
2
Vs 𝛿′ = 90°
Vs′s
𝛿′ = 0°
𝛿′ = 60° Ps′ vs Qs′
𝛿 = 30° Vs′′
for PAR
𝛿′ = – 30° 𝛿 = 30° Vs′ (sym)
ψ 𝛿′ = − 30° 1

𝛿
𝛿r 𝛿s 𝛿 = 0°
Psn , Qsn 𝛽 = 0°
PAR
(b) 𝛿 𝛿′ = 0° 𝛿
(sym)
Line Qlinen
−1 − 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 P (pu)
Vs′s ψ/2 VX VXn 𝛿′ = 0°
Vr
Prn , Qrn

Vs 𝛿 = 0°
𝛿′ = 0°
−1 𝛽 = 180°
Vs′
𝛿′ = 60° 𝛿 = 30° 𝛿′ = − 30° 𝛿 = 30°
𝛿′ = 90°
ψ 𝛿′ = 60° Pr vs Qr
for PAR
𝛿 (sym)
𝛿r 𝛿s
𝛿′ = 90°
−2

Figure 2-27 Phasor diagram of a PAR (sym): (a) active power flow, P s = P r = − 1 pu; (b) active power flow,
P s = P r = 2 pu; (c) power flow characteristics at the modified sending end and the receiving end.

Considering the electrical system data, given in Table 2-1, the P-Q relationships, given in
Table 2-17, are shown in Figure 2-27 for an active power flow in the range of −1 to 2 pu. This is
useful when a bidirectional power flow is desired. Note the reactive power (Qline), absorbed by
the line, is the sum of the absolute values of the reactive power at both ends of the line, since
the power factors at both ends of the line are a mixture of leading and lagging power factors, oth-
erwise it will be the difference of the absolute values of the reactive power at both ends of the line,
according to Equations (2-320b) and (2-320a), discussed later in the chapter.

2.2.2.5.2 Reactance Regulator

A RR connects a variable capacitor/reactor with a compensating reactance (Xse) either directly or
indirectly in series with the line to regulate the effective reactance of the line between its two ends.
When a compensating reactance (Xse) is connected directly in series with a line, a voltage (Vq) is
130 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

(a) Pr , Qr (b)
Vs′s
VX
I VXn

X Vs Vr
Vq
In
Vs Vs′ Vr
𝛿
Qse
90°

(d) − 90°
(c) Vq
Vq VX VX

VXn Vs′Vr Vs′s VXn

Vs′s Pr = sin 𝛿′ β
Vs Vs′ Vr X Vs′ Vs I Vr
𝛿′
I Vs′Vr Vr 𝛿′
Qr = (cos 𝛿′− ) 𝛿
X Vs′
90° 90°

Figure 2-28 RR operating with a reactance control method: (a) two-generator/one-line power system
network and its series-compensating voltage Vs s = − Vq to implement a RR and phasor diagrams for (b) an
uncompensated line, (c) an inductively compensated line, and (d) a capacitively compensated line.

formed across the reactance as shown in Figure 2-28a. The voltage (Vq = jVq) is in quadrature with
the prevailing line current (I). A compensating voltage Vs s = − Vq may also be used, maintain-
ing the quadrature relationship with the prevailing line current (I). The compensating voltage
modifies the magnitude (Vs ) and phase angle (δs ) of the modified sending end voltage (Vs )
simultaneously.
Substituting Vs with Vs, δ with δ, and X with Xeff, the power flow Equations (2-74) and (2-75) can
be rewritten using Equation (2-61) as
Pr = aeff sin δ (2-207)

and
Vr
Qr = aeff cos δ − (2-208)
Vs
where
V sV r
aeff = , (2-209)
X eff

X eff = X − X se (2-210a)

or
X se = X − X eff , (2-210b)

and
δ = δs − δr (2-27)
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 131

Xeff is the effective reactance of the line between its two ends. The compensating reactance (Xse) is
defined to be negative when the RR is operated in an inductive mode and positive when the RR is
operated in a capacitive mode. The effective line reactance (Xeff) has a positive value when being
inductive and a negative value when being capacitive.
Combining Equations (2-207) and (2-209), it can be written that
V sV r
Pr = sin δ
X eff
or
V sV r
X eff = sin δ (2-210c)
Pr
For a desired amount of active power flow (Pr), the required effective line reactance (Xeff) can be
determined by using Equation (2-210c). Then, the series-compensating reactance (Xse) can be deter-
mined by using Equation (2-210b).
The line reactance (X) is inductive. The power flow can be decreased by inserting an additional
inductive reactance in series with the line, thereby increasing the effective reactance of the line
between its two ends. The power flow can also be increased by inserting an additional capacitive
reactance in series with the line, thereby decreasing the effective reactance of the line between its
two ends.
From Equation (2-210a), the normalized effective line reactance is given by
X eff X − X se
=
X X
or
X eff X se
= 1− (2-211a)
X X
or
X se X eff
= 1− (2-211b)
X X
Using (2-46), (2-48), and (2-41), Equations (2-207), (2-208), and (2-209) can be rewritten as
X V sV r X
Pr = × sin δ or Pr = Prn (2-212)
X eff X X eff

and
X V sV r Vr X
Qr = × cos δ − or Qr = Q (2-213)
X eff X Vs X eff rn

From Equations (2-212) and (2-213), the expression for the normalized power flow in the line can
be written as
Pr Q X 1
= r = = (2-214)
Prn Qrn X eff X se
1−
X
using Equation (2-211a).
132 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Figure 2-28a shows a two-generator/one-line power system network with a compensating voltage
that emulates either a series-connected inductive reactance or a series-connected capacitive reac-
tance. Figure 2-28b shows the phasor diagram without any compensation. Figure 2-28c shows that
the line current (I) decreases from its natural or uncompensated value when the series-
compensating voltage (Vq), in load convention, leads the line current by 90 to provide an inductive
reactance compensation. The line current (I) increases when the series-compensating voltage (Vq)
lags the prevailing line current (I) by 90 to provide a capacitive reactance compensation as shown
in Figure 2-28d. The expressions for power flows at the receiving end of the line are shown in
Figure 2-28, considering that the modified sending-end voltage is Vs ∠ δs , i.e. both the magnitude
and the phase angle at the modified sending end change.
Figures 2-29a and 2-29b are identical to Figures 2-28a and 2-28b, respectively. Figure 2-29c shows
that if the sending-end voltage (Vs) is decreased with a VR and the phase angle is decreased with a
PAR (sym), the equivalent modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) can be achieved to mimic a series
inductive reactance compensation. Figure 2-29d shows that if phase angle is increased with a
PAR (sym) and the sending-end voltage (Vs) is increased with a VR, the equivalent modified
sending-end voltage (Vs ) can be achieved to mimic a capacitive series reactance compensation.
Therefore, a RR is indeed a combination of a VR and a PAR (sym). The same conclusion can be
made if a combination of a VR and a PAR (asym) is used to mimic a RR.
Equations (2-212) and (2-213) can be combined as
Qrn
Qr = Pr , (2-215)
Prn
which is a straight line with a fixed slope of Qrn/Prn as shown in Figure 2-38.

(a) P r , Qr (b)
Vs′s VX
I VXn

X
Vs Vr
Vq
In
Vs Vs′ Vr
𝛿
Qse 90°

(d) − 90°
(c) Vq
Vq VX VX

VXn Vs′Vr Vs′s VXn

Vs′s Pr = sin 𝛿′ I
Vs Vs′ Vr X Vs′ Vs Vr
𝛿′
I Vs′Vr Vr 𝛿′
Qr = (cos 𝛿′− ) 𝛿
X Vs′
90° 90°

Figure 2-29 Series-reactance regulation as combined effects voltage regulation and phase angle regulation.
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 133

For a given amount of active power flow (Pr), the reactive power (Qr) can be determined by using
Equations (2-215). Then, the apparent power flow (Sr) and the prevailing line current (I) can be
determined by using the following equations:

Sr = P2r + Q2r (2-76)

Sr
I= (2-77)
Vr
The active power flow (Ps ) at the modified sending end is given by
Ps = Pr (2-216a)
since the line is assumed to be lossless, or
X
Ps = Prn (2-216b)
X eff

using Equation (2-212).

The reactive power flow (Qs ) at the modified sending end is given by
Qs = Qr + Qline , (2-78a)
which can be rewritten as
X
Qs = Q + I2X (2-217a)
X eff rn

using Equations (2-213) and (2-11b), or

Ps
Qs = Q + I2X (2-217b)
Prn rn
with a substitution from Equation (2-216b).
The active power flow at the receiving end of the line when the line is series-compensated is
given by
Pr = V r I cos δr − θI or
Pr = V r I cos δr − δr + θIr
where θIr is the phase angle of the line current with respect to the receiving-end voltage, or
Pr = V r I cos − θIr or
Pr = V r I cos θIr or
Pr
I cos θIr = (2-218)
Vr
The reactive power flow at the receiving end of the line when the line is series-compensated is
given by
Qr = V r I sin δr − θI or
Qr = V r I sin δr − δr + θIr
where θIr is the phase angle of the line current with respect to the receiving-end voltage, or
Qr = V r I sin − θIr or
134 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Qr = − V r I sin θIr or
Qr
I sin θIr = − (2-219)
Vr
Using Equation (2-50a), the voltage at the modified sending end is given by
Vs = Vr + VX or
V s ∠δs = V r ∠δr + V X ∠θVX or
V s ∠ δr + δ = V r ∠δr + I∠θI jX or
V s ∠ δr + δ = V r ∠δr + I∠ δr + θIr jX
Considering the receiving-end voltage phasor as reference (i.e. δr = 0 ), it can be written from the
above equation that
V s ∠δ = Vr ∠0 + I∠θIr jX or
V s cos δ + jV s sin δ = V r + I cos θIr + jI sin θIr × jX or
V s cos δ + jV s sin δ = V r − XI sin θIr + jXI cos θIr
Equating the real and imaginary parts of the both sides of the above equation, it can be writ-
ten that
V s cos δ = V r − XI sin θIr (2-220a)
and
V s sin δ = XI cos θIr (2-220b)
Therefore, the magnitude of the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) is derived from Equations
(2-220a) and (2-220b) using the identity cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1 as

2
2
Vs = V 2s cos2 δ + sin2 δ = V s cos δ + V s sin δ or

2 2
Vs = V r − XI sin θIr + XI cos θIr or
2
Vs = V 2r + XI cos2 θIr + sin2 θIr − 2V r X I sin θI or

2
Vs = V 2r + XI + 2XQr (2-221)

using the identity cos2 θIr + sin2 θIr = 1 and using Equation (2-219).
The phase angle of the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) is derived from Equations (2-220a) and
(2-220b) as
sin δ V s sin δ XI cos θIr
δ = tan − 1 tan δ = tan − 1 = tan − 1 = tan − 1
cos δ V s cos δ V r − XI sin θIr
V r XI cos θIr
= tan − 1
− V r XI sin θIr
V 2r

or
XPr
δ = tan − 1 (2-222)
V 2r + XQr

using Equations (2-218) and (2-219).

 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 135

(a) Pr , Qr (b)
Vs′s VX
I
VXn
X
Vq Vs′
Vs I0% Vr
Vs Vs′s = Xse I e±j90° Vr
𝛿
Xeff 90°

(d) − 90°
(c) Vq
Vq VX VX
VsVr
Pr = sin 𝛿
VXeff Xeff Vs′s VXeff
𝛽
Vs Vs′s Vs′ Vr Vs′ Vs I33% Vr
VsVr Vr
Qr = (cos 𝛿 − )
Xeff Vs
𝛿 𝛿′
Xeff = X − Xc 𝛿
I−100% 90°

Figure 2-30 RR operating with a reactance control method: (a) two-generator/one-line power system
network and its series-compensating voltage Vs s = − Vq to implement a RR and phasor diagrams for (b) an
uncompensated line, (c) a 100% inductively compensated line, and (d) a 33% capacitively compensated line.

Figure 2-30 shows a two-generator/one-line power system network with the RR operated both in
inductive and in capacitive modes and the related phasor diagrams. The line current decreases from
I0%, which is same as natural current (In), to I−100%, when the inductive reactance compensation
(−Xse/X) increases from 0 to 100%. The line current increases from I0% to I33% when the capacitive
reactance compensation (Xse/X) increases from 0 to 33%.
The effects of the compensating reactance (Xse) on the normalized effective line reactance and the
normalized power flow in the line are shown in Figure 2-31. When the compensating reactance is
inductive, the effective line reactance (Xeff) increases and the active and reactive power flows
(Pr and Qr) decrease as the reactance compensation (−Xse/X) increases. When the compensating
reactance is capacitive, the effective line reactance (Xeff) decreases and the active and reactive power
flows (Pr and Qr) increase as the reactance compensation (Xse/X) increases.
The reactance control method, just implemented, is based on emulating a reactance in series with
the line reactance. This control method is used to operate the RR, so that the series-compensating
voltage (Vs s) is proportional to the prevailing line current (I) with the emulated reactance (Xse)
being the constant of proportionality. For this control algorithm to work successfully, a line current
must exist. Also, in the reactance control method, the polarity of the reactance is defined before the
desired control action is to take place. If it is defined to be inductive, the most that can be achieved is
the reduction of the line current to somewhat lower than the corresponding uncompensated value.
The line current can never be brought to nearly zero by the controller since the successful operation
of the control algorithm depends on the existence of the line current. If the emulated reactance is to
be defined as capacitive, the line current, at first, increases. If the emulated capacitive reactance
demand is higher than the line inductive reactance, the effective line reactance becomes capacitive
and the power flow in the line reverses. But reversing the power flow while the line current is high,
causes a number of problems. During the transition, when the power flow reverses, the line may
136 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Pr , Qr
Vs′s = Xse I e±j90° VX
I

X
Vs Vs′ Vs′s Vr
Xse =
Inductive Capacitive Vs′s I
Region Region Capacitive

2 I
Inductive
P r Qr 1
= =
Prn Qrn 1 − Xse /X
1
Xeff
= 1 − Xse /X
X

−1 0 1 2 3 Xse /X

Figure 2-31 Effect of a compensating reactance on the power flow and the effective line reactance.

operate beyond its maximum thermal capability. Also, during the emulation of a higher capacitive
reactance, there exists a point at which the inductive reactance of the line and the capacitive reac-
tance emulated by the RR become equal, which can cause instability in the power flow of the line.
In a practical implementation, if the current through the RR exceeds its rating, the VSC-based RR
will be bypassed. The reactance control method provides the basic features of the RR in terms of
controlling the power flow in the line. However, the undesirable feature of this control method
appears during a reversal of power flow in the line, when the line current should be brought to
nearly zero and be increased gradually in the opposite direction; instead, a high-current reverses,
causing even higher transients.
The desirable way to reverse the power flow in a line is to implement a control method, which
reduces the line current to nearly zero and reverses with absolute stability. That means, in the proc-
ess of reversing the power flow in the line, this control method should first emulate an inductive
reactance of higher and higher value, and then change to emulate a capacitive reactance of very
high value, and gradually reduce the capacitive reactance value to increase the power flow in
the reverse direction. The reactance control method does not allow a near-zero line current oper-
ating condition because this method relies primarily on the existence of the line current for its oper-
ation. The voltage control method is used to connect a compensating voltage in series with the line
with any amount of bidirectional line current including, near zero. This compensating voltage is
either in phase or in opposite phase with the voltage across the effective line reactance. This control
method offers all the desirable features offered by the reactance control method in terms of con-
trolling the power flow in the line. In addition, the voltage control method offers an absolute sta-
bility in the power flow, causing the power to go through near zero while changing its direction
of flow.
Two control methods – reactance control and voltage control – are compared in the following
section. The latter is shown to have a superior characteristic when a reversal of power flow in
the line occurs.
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 137

2.2.2.5.2.1 Reactance Control MethodFigure 2-32 shows a single-line diagram of a simple power
transmission system with the RR operating with a capacitive reactance control method and the
related phasor diagrams. The line current increases from an uncompensated value of I0% to a com-
pensated value of I33% when the reactance compensation (Xse/X) increases from 0 to 33%. For a larger
reactance compensation (X se X = 300 ), the line current (I300%) flows in the reverse direction and
decreases further as the compensation increases. Figure 2-33 shows the RR operating with an
inductive reactance control method and the related phasor diagram. The line current decreases
from I0% to I−100% when the reactance compensation (−Xse/X) increases from 0 to 100%.
The effects of the compensating reactance (Xse) on the normalized power flow in the line and the
normalized effective line reactance are shown in Figure 2-34. In an operation of the RR with a
capacitive reactance control method, the power flow (Pr) increases monotonically as the reactance
compensation (Xse/X) increases during the period when 0 < Xse/X < 1. When X se X = 1, the power
flow (Pr) can possibly reach to an extremely high value limited by the line resistance only. Finally,
the power flow (Pr) decreases monotonically in the reverse direction as the reactance compensation
(Xse/X) increases during the period when Xse/X > 1. In an operation of the RR with an inductive
reactance control method, the power flow (Pr) decreases monotonically as the reactance compen-
sation (−Xse/X) increases when Xse/X < 0. The points to be made here are

(a) Pr , Qr (b)
Vs′s VX
I

VXn
X
Vq Vs′
Vs I0% Vr
Vs Vq = Xse I e− j90° Vr
𝛿
Xeff 90°

(d) − 90°
(c) − 90° Vs′s
Vq
VX Vq

Vs′s VXeff VXeff VX

β I33% β
Vs′ Vs Vr Vs Vr Vs′

𝛿′ 𝛿 𝛿′
𝛿
90° 90°

I300%

Figure 2-32 RR operating with a reactance control method: (a) two-generator/one-line power system
network and its series-compensating voltage Vs s = − Vq to implement a RR and phasor diagrams for (b) an
uncompensated line, (c) a 33% capacitively compensated line, and (d) a 300% capacitively compensated line.
138 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

(a) (b)
Pr , Qr
Vs′s VX Vq VX
I

VXeff
X Vs′s
Vs′ Vs Vs′ Vr
Vq

Vs Vq = Xse I e+ j90° Vr
𝛿
Xeff I−100%

Figure 2-33 RR operating with a reactance control method: (a) two-generator/one-line power system
network with a RR and (b) the phasor diagram for a 100% inductively compensated line.

Pr , Qr
Vs′s = Xse I e±j90°
VX
I

X
Vs Vs′ Vr
Vs′s
Xse =
Inductive Capacitive Vs′s I
Region Region Capacitive

2 I
Inductive

1 Pr Qr 1
= =
Prn Qrn 1 − Xse /X

−1 0 1 2 3 Xse /X

−1
Xeff
= 1 − Xse /X
X
−2

Figure 2-34 Effect of a compensating reactance on the power flow and the effective line reactance.
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 139

• The RR is capable of controlling the power flow in a line when operating with a reactance control
method.

• In an operation with a capacitive reactance control method, this power flow can be reversed in
theory, but not in practice.

However, while changing direction, the power flow (Pr) goes through two simultaneous
extremes: one is a very high positive value when the effective line reactance (Xeff) is nearly zero
inductive and the next one is a very high negative value when the effective line reactance (Xeff)
is nearly zero capacitive. The fact that these two extremes are practically limited by the line resist-
ance (R) only, which is an impractical operating point.

2.2.2.5.2.2 Voltage Control Method In an operation of the RR with a voltage control method, a
compensating voltage (Vs s) is connected in series with the line, either in phase or in opposite phase
with the voltage (VXeff = VXn) across the line effective line reactance (Xeff). The compensating volt-
age (Vs s) maintains its phase angle in quadrature with the prevailing line current (I) and emulates a
compensating reactance (Xse) in series with the line. In the process, the magnitude and phase angle
of the line voltage at the modified sending end change simultaneously.
The series-compensating voltage (Vs s) is related to (Vq), such that

Vs s = − Vq (2-223)

The voltage, (Vq), leading the line current, emulates an inductive reactance in series with the line,
causing the power flow as well as the line current to decrease as the level of compensation increases,
and the RR is considered to be operating in an inductive mode. The voltage, (Vq), lagging the line
current, emulates a capacitive reactance in series with the line, causing the power flow as well as the
line current to increase as the level of compensation increases, and the RR is considered to be oper-
ating in a capacitive mode.
The compensating voltage (Vs s) exchanges only reactive power (Qse) with the line. This reactive
power (Qse) is defined as

Qse = Vq × I = − Vs s × I or Qse = V q I (2-224)

By inspection of Figure 2-28d, it can be written that

Vr Vs
=
sin β sin π − δ − β

or
V s sin β − V r sin δ + β = 0 (2-225)
Equation (2-225) can be rewritten as

V s sin β = V r sin δ + β = V r sin δ cos β + cos δ sin β or

V s − V r cos δ sin β = V r sin δ cos β or

V r sin δ
tan β = (2-226)
V s − V r cos δ
140 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Therefore,
V r sin δ
β = tan − 1 (2-227)
V s − V r cos δ
From Equation (2-226), it can be written that,

tan β V r sin δ V r sin δ

sin β = = = (2-228a)
1+ tan 2 β V 2s + V 2r − 2V s V r cos δ V Xn

1 V s − V r cos δ V s − V r cos δ
cos β = = = (2-228b)
1+ tan 2 β V 2s + V 2r − 2V s V r cos δ V Xn

using Equation (2-30).

Substituting for cosβ from Equation (2-228b) in Equation (2-97), the magnitude of the modified
sending-end voltage (Vs ) is derived as

V s − V r cos δ
Vs = V 2s + V 2s s + 2V s V s s (2-229)
V Xn
Substituting for sinβ from Equation (2-228a) and cosβ from Equation (2-228b) in Equation (2-98),
the phase-shift angle is derived as
V r sin δ
Vs s
V sin β V Xn
ψ = tan − 1 = tan − 1
s s
or
V s + V s s cos β V s − V r cos δ
Vs + Vs s
V Xn
−1 V s s V r sin δ
ψ = tan (2-230)
V s V Xn + V s s V s − V r cos δ
As discussed in Section 2.2.2.6.4 (Equivalent Impedance of a Reactance Regulator), Vs s > 0 repre-
sents a series-capacitive compensating reactance and Vs s < 0 represents a series-inductive compen-
sating reactance.
Alternately, for a given series-compensating reactance (Xse), the modified sending-end voltage
(Vs ) can be determined using the following equations:
X eff = X − X se (2-210a)
δ = δs − δr (2-27)
V sV r
aeff = (2-209)
X eff

Pr = aeff sin δ (2-207)

Vr
Qr = aeff cos δ − (2-208)
Vs

Sr = P2r + Q2r (2-76)

Sr
I= (2-77)
Vr
2
Vs = V 2r + XI + 2XQr (2-221)
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 141

XPr
δ = tan − 1 (2-222)
V 2r + XQr
ψ = δ −δ (2-51b)
Figure 2-35 shows a single-line diagram of a simple power transmission system with the RR oper-
ating with a voltage control method when the compensating voltage is in phase with the voltage
(VXeff) across the effective line reactance (Xeff) and the related phasor diagrams. The line current
decreases from I0% to I−100% when the voltage compensation (−Vs s/VXeff) increases from 0 to 50%,
which is analogous to an increase in the inductive reactance compensation (−Xse/X) from 0 to 100%.
The relationship between the voltage compensation (Vs s/VXeff) and the reactance compensation
(Xse/X) is explained in the following section. When fully compensated (i.e. at − V s s V Xeff =
100 ), the line current is zero. With further increase in the voltage compensation (i.e. at
− V s s V Xeff = 150 ), the line current (I300%) flows in the reverse direction and any further increase
in the voltage compensation (−Vs s/VXeff) only increases this reverse line current. Once again, a volt-
age compensation (−Vs s/VXeff) of 150% is analogous to a capacitive reactance compensation (Xse/X)
of 300%, which is explained later in this section.
Figure 2-36 shows the RR operating with a voltage control method when the compensating volt-
age is in opposite phase with the voltage (VXeff) across the effective line reactance (Xeff) and the

(a) Pr , Qr (b)
Vs′s VX
I

X VXn
Vs′
Vq
Vs I0% Vr
Vs Xse = Vs′s /I Vr
𝛿
Xeff 90°

(e) − 90°
(c) (d) Vs′s Vs′s

Vq VX Vq Vq

VXeff VXeff VXeff VX

Vs Vs′s Vs′ β
Vr Vs Vr Vs′

Vs Vr
𝛿 𝛿′
𝛿 𝛿
I−100% 90°

I300%

Figure 2-35 RR operating with a voltage control method with a compensating voltage in phase with the
voltage across the effective line reactance: (a) two-generator/one-line power system network and its series-
compensating voltage Vs s = − Vq to implement a RR and the phasor diagrams for (b) an uncompensated line,
(c) a 100% inductively compensated line, (d) an infinite inductively compensated line, and (e) a 300%
capacitively compensated line.
142 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

(a) (b)
Pr , Qr − 90°
Vs′s Vq
VX VX
I

Vs′s VXeff
X β I33%
Vs′ Vs′ Vs Vr
Vq

Vs Xse = Vs′s /I Vr 𝛿′
𝛿
Xeff 90°

Figure 2-36 RR operating with a voltage control method when a compensating voltage is in opposite phase
with the voltage across the effective line reactance: (a) two-generator/one-line power system network with a
RR and (b) the phasor diagram for a 33% capacitively compensated line.

related phasor diagram. The line current increases from I0% to I33% when the voltage compensation
(Vs s/VXeff) increases from 0 to 50%, which is analogous to an increase in the capacitive reactance
compensation (Xse/X) from 0 to 33%. It can be noted from the phasor diagram that the voltage
(VXeff) across the effective line reactance (Xeff) is finite and is the difference between the voltage
sources (Vs and Vr). Also, this voltage phasor remains constant, whether or not there is any voltage
compensation, in a system in which the sending- and receiving-end voltages are fixed. Moreover,
this finite difference prevents the two opposing voltage phasors - one is the compensating voltage
(Vq) and the other one is the voltage (VX) across the inductive line reactance (X) - from being equal
and making the line immune from resonance.
From the phasor diagram in Figure 2-36,
I 33 X eff = V Xeff (2-231)
Vs s
I 33 X = V X = V Xeff + V s s = V Xeff 1 + (2-232)
V Xeff

Equations (2-231) and (2-232) can be combined as

X eff 1
= (2-233a)
X 1 + V s s V Xeff

or
1
X eff = X (2-233b)
1 + V s s V Xeff

The compensating voltage Vs s > 0 when it is in opposite phase with the voltage across the effec-
tive line reactance and Vs s < 0 when it is in phase with the voltage across the effective line
reactance.
Combining Equations (2-211b) and (2-233a), the relationship between the compensating reac-
tance and the compensating voltage can be found as
X se V s s V Xeff
= (2-234a)
X 1 + V s s V Xeff
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 143

or
V s s V Xeff
X se = X (2-234b)
1 + V s s V Xeff

or

Vs s
X se = X eff (2-234c)
V Xeff

using Equation (2-233b), or

V Xeff Vs s
= = I, (2-234d)
X eff X se

which confirms Equation (1-3b).

Equations (2-212) and (2-213) can be rewritten with a substitution from Equation (2-233a) as
Vs s
Pr = 1+ Prn (2-235)
V Xeff

and
Vs s
Qr = 1+ Qrn (2-236)
V Xeff

From Equations (2-235) and (2-236), the expression for the normalized power flow in the line can
be written as
Pr Q Vs s
= r =1+ (2-237)
Prn Qrn V Xeff

From Equations (2-214) and (2-237), it can be written that

X eff 1
= , which is Equation 2-233a
X 1 + V s s V Xeff

The expression for the normalized power flow in the line given in Equations (2-214) and (2-237)
are basically the same. In an operation of the SSSC with a reactance control method, the control
parameter is Xse/X, which is essentially Vs s/VX. The power expression given by Equation (2-214) has
a pole at X se X = 1, causing the power flow (Pr) to be unstable at resonance, whereas, in an oper-
ation of the RR with a voltage control method, the control parameter is Vs s/VXeff. The power expres-
sion given by Equation (2-237) has a zero at V s s V Xeff = − 1, causing an absolute stability at the
instant when power flow (Pr) reverses.
The effects of the compensating voltage (Vs s) on the normalized power flow in the line, the normal-
ized effective line reactance, and the normalized compensating reactance of the line are shown in
Figure 2-37. When the compensating voltage is in phase with the voltage across the effective line reac-
tance, the effective line reactance increases monotonically as the voltage compensation (−Vs s/VXeff)
increases during 0 > Vs s/VXeff > − 1. When fully compensated (i.e. at V s s V Xeff = − 1), the effective
line reactance reaches infinity. Finally, the effective line reactance decreases monotonically in the
reverse direction as the voltage compensation (−Vs s/VXeff) increases during Vs s/VXeff < − 1.
When the compensating voltage is in opposite phase with the voltage across the effective line
144 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Pr , Qr
Vs′s (Xse = Vs′s / I)
VX
I

X
Vs Vs′ Vs′s Vr
Xse =
Capacitive Inductive Capacitive Vs′s I
Region Region Region Capacitive

2 I
Inductive

Xse Vs′s /VXeff

=
1 Xeff 1 X 1 + Vs′s /VXeff
=
Xse X 1 + Vs′s /VXeff
X

1 0 −1 −2 −3 Vs′s /VXeff

Pr Qr
−1 = = 1 + Vs′s /VXeff
Prn Qrn

−2

Figure 2-37 Effect of compensating voltage on power flow, effective line reactance, and compensating
reactance.

reactance, the effective line reactance monotonically decreases as the voltage compensation (Vs s/
VXeff) increases during Vs s/VXeff > 0. The points to be made here are

• The RR is capable of controlling the power flow in a line when operating with voltage control
method.

• When the compensating voltage is in phase with the voltage across the effective line reactance,
this power flow can be reversed.

However, while changing direction, the power flow (Pr) goes through zero, resulting in an abso-
lute stability in the power flow (Pr) of the line. During the transition period when the power flow
(Pr) reverses, the effective line reactance (Xeff) goes through two simultaneous extremes: one is a
very high inductive value when the power flow (Pr) in the line is nearly zero positive and the next
one is a very high capacitive value when the power flow (Pr) is nearly zero negative. The fact is that
in the region where 0 > Vs s/VXeff > − 1, the RR acts like a reactance compensator operating with an
inductive reactance control method. In the rest of the region, the RR acts like a reactance compen-
sator operating with a capacitive reactance control method.
Equations (2-235) and (2-236) can be combined as
Qrn
Qr = Pr , which is Equation 2-215
Prn
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 145

Using Equations (2-235) and (2-236) for active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr), the apparent
power flow (Sr) and the prevailing line current (I) are given by

Sr = P2r + Q2r (2-76)

Sr
I= (2-77)
Vr
The active power flow (Ps ) at the modified sending end is given by
Ps = Pr (2-216a)
since the line is assumed to be lossless, or
Vs s
Ps = 1+ Prn (2-238)
V Xeff

using Equation (2-235).

The reactive power flow (Qs ) at the modified sending end is given by
Qs = Qr + Qline , (2-78a)
which can be rewritten as
Vs s
Qs = 1+ Qrn + I 2 X (2-239)
V Xeff

using Equations (2-236) and (2-11b), or

Ps
Qs = Q + I2X (2-217b)
Prn rn
with a substitution from Equation (2-238).
From Equation (2-237), it can be determined that for Pr Prn = − 1, V s s V Xeff = − 2 and for
Pr Prn = 2, V s s V Xeff = 1. Therefore, varying Vs s/VXeff in the range of −2 to 1 and using Equa-
tions (2-235) and (2-215), the variation of active power (Pr) as a function of reactive power (Qr)
in the case of a RR is derived and shown in Figure 2-38. When Pr = 0, Qr = 0; when Pr = Prn ,
Qr = Qrn . The variation of active power (Ps ) as a function of reactive power (Qs ) in the case of
a RR is derived in Equation (2-217b) and shown in Figure 2-38. The figure also shows the variation
of the magnitude of the modified sending-end voltage as given in Equation (2-229). When Pr = 0,
V s = V r ; when Pr = Prn , V s = V s .

2.2.2.6 Representation of a Series-Compensating Voltage as a Series-Compensating Impedance

The series-compensating voltage (Vs s) exchanges with the line both active and reactive powers (Pse
and Qse), which are defined as
Pse = Vdq •I = − Vs s •I or Pse = V d I (2-167)

and

Qse = Vdq × I = − Vs s × I or Qse = V q I (2-168)

where Vd and Vq are the respective active or direct and reactive or quadrature components with
respect to the prevailing line current (I).
146 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

(a) (c)
− 90°
Vs′s
Vq

Q,V
VXeff Vr VX
Vs (pu)
2
Vs′
𝛿
2 Ps′ vs Qs′
for RR

𝛿′ 𝛿 = 30° Vs′
1

ψ
𝛿
(b)
𝛿r 𝛿s 𝛿s′ Psn , Qsn β = 0°
− 90° 𝛿′ = 0°
Vq 𝛿
VX Qlinen
0
Vs′s VXeff −1 − 0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 P (pu)
Vs Vr
Vs′ 𝛿′ = 0°
Prn , Qrn Pr vs Qr
𝛿 for RR
2
β = 180°
−1
𝛿′
𝛿 = 30°

ψ
𝛿
𝛿r 𝛿s 𝛿s′
−2

Figure 2-38 Power flow characteristics at the modified sending end and receiving end for reactance
regulation and Vs at the modified sending end of the line at power angle δ = δs − δr = 30 when V s = V r = 1 pu,
X = 0 5 pu, and R = 0 (X R = ∞ ).

The exchanged active and reactive powers (Pse and Qse) can also be defined as
Pse = Ps − Ps (2-169a)
Qse = Qs − Qs (2-179a)
where the active and reactive power flows at the sending end are Ps and Qs and the active and reac-
tive power flows at the modified sending end are Ps and Qs , respectively.
For exchanged active and reactive powers (Pse and Qse), the emulated series-compensating resist-
ance (Rse) and reactance (Xse) can be determined using the current magnitude from Equation (2-57)
and the following equations:
Pse
Rse = (2-240)
I2
and
− Qse
X se = (2-241)
I2
The emulated series-compensating resistance (Rse), reactance (Xse), and impedance (Zse) are
defined as
Zse = Z se ∠θZse = Rse − jX se (2-242a)
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 147

or
− X se
Z se ∠θZse = R2se + X 2se ∠ tan − 1 (2-242b)
Rse
where
Z se ∠θZse = Z se cos θZse + jZ se sin θZse (2-243)
Equating the real and imaginary parts of the Equations (2-242a) and (2-243), it can be written that
Rse = Z se cos θZse (2-244a)
and
X se = − Z se sin θZse (2-244b)
Note that Xse > 0 means the series-compensating reactance is capacitive and Xse < 0 means the
series-compensating reactance is inductive.

Example 2-36

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For a given V s s = 0 2 pu and β = 105 ,
calculate Rse and Xse.
Answer 2-36

In Example 2-12, it was calculated that the magnitude of line current, I = 1 396086 pu.
In Example 2-31, it was calculated that the exchanged active and reactive powers, Pse = 0 103528 pu
and Qse = − 0 259315 pu.
From Equation (2-240), series-compensating resistance (Rse) can be calculated as
Pse 0 103528
Rse = = = 0 053117 pu
I2 1 3960862
From Equation (2-241), series-compensating reactance (Xse) can be calculated as
− Qse 0 259315
X se = = = 0 133046 pu
I2 1 3960862
Additional Discussion

In Example 2-28, Ps and Qs are calculated as 1.386370 pu and 0.164422 pu, respectively.
In Example 2-30, Ps and Qs are calculated as 1.282843 pu and 0.423737 pu, respectively.

Therefore, using Equations (2-169a) and (2-179a), the exchanged active and reactive powers (Pse
and Qse) can be calculated as Pse = Ps − Ps = 1 386370 − 1 282843 = 0 103528 pu and Qse = Qs −
Qs = 0 164422 − 0 423737 = − 0 259315 pu, which were confirmed in Example 2-31.
For a series-compensating voltage, Vs s = V s s ∠ δs + β = − Vdq , the equation defining the
series-compensating impedance can be written as
Vdq − Vs s
Z se ∠θZse = or using Equation 1-4 Z se ∠θZse = or
I∠ θI I∠ θI
Vs s ∠180 V s s ∠ δs + β + 180
Z se ∠θZse = or Z se ∠θZse =
I∠ θI I∠ δs + θIs
148 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

or
Vs s
Z se ∠θZse = ∠ β + 180 − θIs , (2-245a)
I
which can be further expanded using Equation (2-57) to obtain
Vs s
Z se ∠θZse = X ∠ β + 180 − θIs (2-245b)
VX
where θIs is the phase angle of the line current with respect to the sending-end voltage.
Equation (2-245b) can be expanded using Equation (2-115) as
Vs s Vs s V r cos δ − V s − V s s cos β
Z se ∠θZse = X ∠ β + 180 − θIs = X ∠ β + 180 − tan − 1
VX VX V r sin δ + V s s sin β
or
Vs s − V s cos β + V r cos δ + β − V s s
Z se ∠θZse = X ∠ tan − 1 (2-246)
VX V s sin β − V r sin δ + β
Digress:
V r cos δ − V s − V s s cos β
F = β + 180 − tan − 1 or
V r sin δ + V s s sin β
V cos δ − V − V s s cos β
tan − 1
r s
= β + 180 − F
V r sin δ + V s s sin β
or
V r cos δ − V s − V s s cos β
= tan β + 180 − F or
V r sin δ + V s s sin β
V r cos δ − V s − V s s cos β
= tan β − F
V r sin δ + V s s sin β
or

V r cos δ − V s − V s s cos β sin β − F

= or
V r sin δ + V s s sin β cos β − F

V r cos δ − V s − V s s cos β sin β cos F − cos β sin F

= or
V r sin δ + V s s sin β cos β cos F + sin β sin F
V r cos δ − V s − V s s cos β cos β cos F + sin β sin F = V r sin δ + V s s sin β
sin β cos F − cos β sin F

or

V r cos δ − V s − V s s cos β cos β cos F + V r cos δ − V s − V s s cos β sin β sin F

= V r sin δ + V s s sin β sin β cos F − V r sin δ + V s s sin β cos β sin F

or
V r cos δ − V s − V s s cos β sin β + V r sin δ + V s s sin β cos β sin F
= V r sin δ + V s s sin β sin β − V r cos δ − V s − V s s cos β cos β cos F
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 149

or
sin F V r sin δ + V s s sin β sin β − V r cos δ − V s − V s s cos β cos β
=
cos F V r cos δ − V s − V s s cos β sin β + V r sin δ + V s s sin β cos β
or

V s cos β − V r cos δ + β + V s s sin2 β + cos 2 β

tan F = or
− V s sin β + V r sin δ + β + V s s sin β cos β − sin β cos β
− V s cos β + V r cos δ + β − V s s
tan F =
V s sin β − V r sin δ + β
or
− V s cos β + V r cos δ + β − V s s
F = tan − 1
V s sin β − V r sin δ + β
From Equations (2-244a) and (2-244b), it can be written that
V s s V s sin β − V r sin δ + β
Rse = X (2-247a)
VX VX
and
V s s V s cos β − V r cos δ + β + V s s
X se = X (2-247b)
VX VX
where

2 2
VX = V s sin β − V r sin δ + β + V s s + V s cos β − V r cos δ + β

or

VX = V 2s cos2 β + sin2 β − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r cos2 δ + β + sin2 δ + β + V 2s s + 2V s s V s cos β − 2V s s V r cos δ + β

or

VX = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r + V 2s s + 2V s s V s cos β − 2V s s V r cos δ + β (2-109)

using the identities ( cos2 β + sin2 β = 1) and cos2 δ + β + sin2 δ + β = 1 .

Using Equation (2-30), Equation (2-109) can be rewritten as

VX = V 2Xn + V s s V s s + 2 V s cos β − V r cos δ + β (2-110)

Note that Xse > 0 means the series-compensating reactance is capacitive and Xse < 0 means the
series-compensating reactance is inductive.

Example 2-37

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For an IR operating at V s s = 0 2 pu and
β = 105 , calculate Rse and Xse.
150 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Answer 2-37

In Example 2-12, it was calculated that the magnitude of the voltage (VX) across the line
V X = 0 698043 pu.
Therefore, from Equation (2-247a), the series-compensating resistance (Rse) can be calculated as
V s s V s sin β − V r sin δ + β 02 1 × sin 105 − 1 × sin 30 + 105
Rse = X =05×
VX VX 0 698043 0 698043
= 0 053117 pu

From Equation (2-247b), the series-compensating reactance (Xse) can be calculated as

V s s V s cos β − V r cos δ + β + V s s 02
X se = X =05×
VX VX 0 698043
1 × cos 105 − 1 × cos 30 + 105 + 0 2
= 0 133046 pu
0 698043
Additional Discussion

In Example 2-36, Rse and Xse were calculated as 0.053117 pu and 0.133046 pu, respectively.

For the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1 and an IR operating at β = 60 , the series-
connected compensating voltage is varied from V s s = − 1 pu to 0.5 pu. Using Equations (2-247a)
and (2-247b), variations of compensating resistance (Rse) and compensating reactance (Xse) are
shown in Figure 2-39 as functions of the active power (Pr) at the receiving end of the line.
Figure 2-40 shows the variations in compensating impedance magnitude (Zse) and its phase angle
(θZse). Note that the active power flow increases from its nominal value of 1.0 pu when Xse > 0 and
Vs s > 0; the active power flow decreases from its nominal value of 1.0 pu when Xse < 0 and Vs s < 0;
the active power flow reverses when Xse > 0 and Vs s < 0. More on this point was presented

Rse , Xse
(pu)
2
Rse
Xse

0
–1 –0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 Pr (pu)

–1

–2

Figure 2-39 Variations of series-compensating resistance and reactance of an IR as functions of the active
power at the receiving end of the line.
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 151

Zse θ Zse
(pu) (deg)
2 200
Zse

1 θ Zse 100

0 0
–1 –0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 Pr (pu)

–1 –100

–2 –200

Figure 2-40 Variations of series-compensating impedance magnitude and its phase angle of an IR as
functions of the active power at the receiving end of the line.

in “UPFC-unified power flow controller: theory, modeling, and applications,” by K. K. Sen and E. J.
Stacey at Power Engineering Society Winter Meeting, Tampa, USA, 1998 and published in IEEE
Trans. on Power Delivery, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 1453-1460, Oct. 1998.
Note that the phase angle of the compensating impedance changes from 75 to −105 (inductive
to capacitive) instantly at the nominal power flow Pr = 1 pu at the receiving end, which reinforces
the fact that an inductive compensation reduces power flow and a capacitive compensation
increases power flow in an inductive line.
Selected operating points of the IR is given in Table 2-18. Note that V s s = − 1 pu and β = 60 is
actually an operating point of V s s = 1 pu and β = 240 .

Table 2-18 Selected operating points of an IR and the corresponding series-compensating resistance,
reactance, and impedance for the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1 and the IR operating at β = 60 .

Vs s (pu) Ps = Pr (pu) Rse (pu) Xse (pu) Zse (pu) θZse (degrees)

−1.000000 −1.000000 0.250000 0.933013 0.965926 −75.000000

−0.750000 −0.500000 0.624499 1.165332 1.322119 −61.813215
−0.500000 0.000000 1.866025 0.000000 1.866025 0.000000
−0.250000 0.500000 0.208166 −0.388444 0.440706 61.813215
0.000000 1.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
0.250000 1.500000 −0.028851 0.161513 0.164070 −100.128079
0.500000 2.000000 −0.032903 0.245592 0.247786 −97.630740
152 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

2.2.2.6.1 Equivalent Impedance of a Voltage Regulator (VR)

For a VR, the relative phase angle (β) is either 0 or 180 . Therefore, Equation (2-103) becomes
V s = V s + V s s for β = 0
or
V s = V s − V s s for β = 180 .
In general,
Vs = Vs + Vs s (2-248)
where the regulation parameter is the series-compensating voltage (Vs s), the magnitude of which
Vs s > 0 represents the relative phase angle (β) equals 0 and Vs s < 0 represents β = 180 .
The phase-shift angle is given by Equation (2-98) as
ψ =0 for β = 0 or 180
For β = 0 , the series-compensating resistance (Rse) can be defined from Equation (2-247a) as
V s s V r sin δ
Rse = − X
VX VX
and the series-compensating reactance (Xse) can be defined from Equation (2-247b) as
V s s V s − V r cos δ + V s s
X se = X
VX VX
For β = 180 , the series-compensating resistance (Rse) can be defined from Equation (2-247a) as
V s s V r sin δ
Rse = X
VX VX
and the series-compensating reactance (Xse) can be defined from Equation (2-247b) as
V s s − V s + V r cos δ + V s s
X se = X
VX VX
In general,
V s s V r sin δ
Rse = − X (2-249a)
VX VX
and
V s s V s − V r cos δ + V s s
X se = X (2-249b)
VX VX

where Vs s > 0 represents β = 0 and Vs s < 0 represents β = 180 .

Using Equation (2-242b), the series-compensating impedance (Z se ∠ θZse ) can be written from
Equations (2-249a) and (2-249b) as

Vs s V s − V r cos δ + V s s
Z se ∠θZse = X ∠ tan − 1 (2-250)
VX V r sin δ

where Vs s > 0 represents β = 0 and Vs s < 0 represents β = 180 .

 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 153

Example 2-38

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For a VR operating at V s s = 0 2 pu and
β = 0 , calculate Vs , δ , Rse, and Xse.
Answer 2-38

From Equation (2-97), V s = V 2s + V 2s s + 2V s V s s cos β = 12 + 0 22 + 2 × 1 × 0 2 × cos 0 =

1 2 pu.
V s s sin β 0 2 × sin 0
From Equation (2-98), ψ = tan − 1 = tan − 1 =0 .
V s + V s s cos β 1 + 0 2 × cos 0
From Equation (2-51a), δ = δ + ψ = δ + 0 = δ = 30 .
From Equation (2-54b), V X = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r = 1 22 − 2 × 1 2 × 1 × cos 30 + 12
= 0 601281 pu
From Equation (2-249a), the series-compensating resistance (Rse) can be calculated as
V s s V r sin δ 02 1 × sin 30
Rse = − X = −0 5 × = − 0 138298 pu
VX VX 0 601281 0 601281
From Equation (2-249b), the series-compensating reactance (Xse) can be calculated as
V s s V s − V r cos δ + V s s 02 1 − 1 × cos 30 + 0 2
X se = X =05× = 0 092376 pu
VX VX 0 601281 0 601281
For the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1 and a VR operating at β = 0 , the
series-compensating voltage is varied from V s s = − 0 1 pu to 0.1 pu. Using Equations (2-249a)
and (2-249b), variations of compensating resistance (Rse) and compensating reactance (Xse) are
shown in Figure 2-41 as functions of the active power (Pr) at the receiving end of the line.
Figure 2-42 shows the variations in compensating impedance magnitude (Zse) and its phase
angle (θZse).

Rse , Xse
(pu)
2

Rse Xse
0
−1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 Pr (pu)
Practical Operating
−1 Region of a VR

−2

Figure 2-41 Variations of series-compensating resistance and reactance of a VR as functions of the active
power at the receiving end of the line.
154 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Zse
θZse
(pu)
(deg)
2 200

1 100

Zse
0 0
−1 − 0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 Pr (pu)
Practical Operating
−1 Region of a VR
− 100

θZse
−2 − 200

Figure 2-42 Variations of series-compensating impedance magnitude and its phase angle of a VR as functions
of the active power at the receiving end of the line.

Table 2-19 Selected operating points of a VR and the corresponding series-compensating resistance,
reactance, and impedance for the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1 and the VR operating at β = 0 .

Vs s (pu) Ps = Pr (pu) Rse (pu) Xse (pu) Zse (pu) θZse (degrees)

−0.100000 0.900000 0.099540 −0.006764 0.099770 3.887227

−0.075000 0.925000 0.073971 −0.008725 0.074484 6.726911
−0.050000 0.950000 0.048628 −0.008167 0.049309 9.533805
−0.025000 0.975000 0.023866 −0.005202 0.024427 12.295292
0.000000 1.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
0.025000 1.025000 −0.022705 0.007219 0.023825 −162.361980
0.050000 1.050000 −0.044038 0.016204 0.046924 −159.798949
0.075000 1.075000 −0.063847 0.026685 0.069199 −157.317551
0.100000 1.100000 −0.082036 0.038389 0.090574 −154.922794

Note that the phase angle of the compensating impedance changes from 15 to −165 (inductive
to capacitive) instantly at the nominal power flow (Pr = 1 pu) at the receiving end, which reinforces
the fact that an inductive compensation reduces power flow and a capacitive compensation
increases power flow in an inductive line.
Selected operating points of the VR is given in Table 2-19. Note that V s s = − 0 1 pu and β = 0 is
actually an operating point of V s s = 0 1 pu and β = 180 .

2.2.2.6.2 Equivalent Impedance of a Phase Angle Regulator (Asymmetric)

For a PAR (asym), the relative phase angle (β) is either −90 or 90 . The resulting effect is that the
variable compensating voltage modifies mainly the phase angle of the line voltage in a PAR (asym)
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 155

with some increase in the magnitude of the voltage as shown in the phasor diagrams Figures 2-20c
and 2-20d, respectively.
For β = 90 , the series-compensating resistance (Rse) can be defined from Equation (2-247a) as
V s s V s − V r cos δ
Rse = X
VX VX
and the series-compensating reactance (Xse) can be defined from Equation (2-247b) as
V s s V r sin δ + V s s
X se = X
VX VX
For β = − 90 , the series-compensating resistance (Rse) can be defined from Equation (2-247a) as
V s s − V s + V r cos δ
Rse = X
VX VX
and the series-compensating reactance (Xse) can be defined from Equation (2-247b) as
V s s − V r sin δ + V s s
X se = X
VX VX
In general,
V s s V s − V r cos δ
Rse = X (2-251a)
VX VX
and
V s s V r sin δ + V s s
X se = X (2-251b)
VX VX
where Vs s > 0 represents β = 90 and Vs s < 0 represents β = − 90 .
Using Equation (2-242b), the series-compensating impedance Z se ∠θZse can be written from
Equations (2-251a) and (2-251b) as
Vs s − V r sin δ − V s s
Z se ∠θZse = X ∠ tan − 1 (2-252)
VX V s − V r cos δ
where Vs s > 0 represents β = 90 and Vs s < 0 represents β = − 90 .

Example 2-39

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For a PAR (asym) operating at
V s s = 0 2 pu and β = 90 , calculate Vs , δ , Rse, and Xse.
Answer 2-39

From Equation (2-97), V s = V 2s + V 2s s + 2V s V s s cos β = 12 + 0 22 + 2 × 1 × 0 2 × cos 90 =

1 019804 pu.
V s s sin β 0 2 × sin 90
From Equation (2-98), ψ = tan − 1 = tan − 1 = 11 319933 .
V s + V s s cos β 1 + 0 2 × cos 90
From Equation (2-51a), δ = δ + ψ = 30 + 11 319933 = 41 319933
From Equation (2-54b),

VX = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r = 1 0198042 − 2 × 1 019804 × 1 × cos 41 319933 + 12

= 0 712706 pu
156 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

From Equation (2-251a), the series-compensating resistance (Rse) can be calculated as

V s s V s − V r cos δ 02 1 − 1 × cos 30
Rse = X =05× = 0 026376 pu
VX VX 0 712706 0 712706

From Equation (2-251b), the series-compensating reactance (Xse) can be calculated as

V s s V r sin δ + V s s 02 1 × sin 30 + 0 2
X se = X =05× = 0 137809 pu
VX VX 0 712706 0 712706

For the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1 and a PAR (asym) operating at β = 90 , the
series-compensating voltage is varied from V s s = − 1 154701 pu to 0.577350 pu. Using Equa-
tions (2-251a) and (2-251b), variations of compensating resistance (Rse) and compensating reac-
tance (Xse) are shown in Figure 2-43 as functions of the active power (Pr) at the receiving end of
the line. Figure 2-44 shows the variations in compensating impedance magnitude (Zse) and its phase
angle (θZse).
Note that the phase angle of the compensating impedance changes from 105 to −75 (inductive
to capacitive) instantly at the nominal power flow (Pr = 1 pu) at the receiving end, which reinforces
the fact that an inductive compensation reduces power flow and a capacitive compensation
increases power flow in an inductive line. Also, the phase angle of the compensating
impedance changes from −180 to 180 (capacitive to inductive) instantly at Pr = 0 133975 pu
at the receiving end.
Selected operating points of the PAR (asym) is given in Table 2-20. Note that V s s = − 1 154701 pu
and β = 90 is actually an operating point of V s s = 1 154701 pu and β = 270 .

Rse , Xse
(pu)
2

Xse
1

0
−1 − 0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 Pr (pu)

Rse
−1

−2

Figure 2-43 Variations of series-compensating resistance and reactance of a PAR (asym) as functions of the
active power at the receiving end of the line.
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 157

Zse
(pu) θZse
2 200 (deg)
Zse
θZse
1 100

0 0
−1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 Pr (pu)

−1 − 100

−2 − 200

Figure 2-44 Variations of series-compensating impedance magnitude and its phase angle of a PAR (asym) as
functions of the active power at the receiving end of the line.

Table 2-20 Selected operating points of a PAR (asym) and the corresponding series-compensating resistance,
reactance, and impedance for the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1 and the PAR (asym) operating at
β = 90 .

Vs s (pu) Ps = Pr (pu) Rse (pu) Xse (pu) Zse (pu) θZse (degrees)

−1.154701 −1.000000 −0.173205 0.846410 0.863950 −101.565051

−0.866025 −0.500000 −0.381854 1.043244 1.110933 −110.103909
−0.577350 0.000000 −1.616025 0.933013 1.866025 −150.000000
−0.288675 0.500000 −0.308870 −0.487197 0.576855 122.373659
0.000000 1.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
0.288675 1.500000 0.030217 0.177880 0.180428 −80.359028
0.577350 2.000000 0.032814 0.263869 0.265901 −82.911337

2.2.2.6.3 Equivalent Impedance of a Phase Angle Regulator (Symmetric)

ψ
For a PAR (sym), the regulation parameter is the phase-shift angle (ψ). For ψ > 0, β = + 90 , the
2
series-compensating resistance (Rse) can be defined from Equation (2-247a) as
ψ ψ
Vs s V s cos − V r cos δ +
Rse = X 2 2
VX VX

and the series-compensating reactance (Xse) can be defined from Equation (2-247b) as
ψ ψ
Vs s − V s sin + V r sin δ + + Vs s
X se = X 2 2
VX VX

ψ
For ψ < 0, β = + 270 , the series-compensating resistance (Rse) can be defined from Equa-
2
tion (2-247a) as
158 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

ψ ψ
Vs s − V s cos + V r cos δ +
Rse = X 2 2
VX VX

and the series-compensating reactance (Xse) can be defined from Equation (2-247b) as
ψ ψ
V s s V s sin 2 − V r sin δ + 2 + V s s
X se = X
VX VX

In general,
ψ ψ
Vs s V s cos − V r cos δ +
Rse = X 2 2 (2-253a)
VX VX

and
ψ ψ
Vs s − V s sin + V r sin δ + + Vs s
X se = X 2 2 (2-253b)
VX VX
ψ ψ
where Vs s > 0 represents β = + 90 and Vs s < 0 represents β = + 270 .
2 2
Therefore, the series-compensating impedance Z se ∠θZse can be written from Equations (2-253a)
and (2-253b) as
ψ ψ
Vs s V s sin − V r sin δ + − Vs s
Z se ∠θZse = X ∠ tan −1 2 2 (2-254)
VX ψ ψ
V s cos − V r cos δ +
2 2
ψ ψ
where Vs s > 0 represents β = + 90 and Vs s < 0 represents β = + 270 .
2 2
Example 2-40

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For a PAR (sym) operating at
ψ = 11 478341 , calculate Vs , δ , Rse, and Xse.
Answer 2-40

For a PAR (sym), V s = V s .

ψ 11 478341
From Equation (2-198), V s s = 2V s sin = 2 × 1 × sin = 0 2 pu.
2 2
ψ
From Equation (2-200), β = + 90 for ψ > 0; β = 95.739170 .
2
From Equation (2-51a), δ = δ + ψ = 30 + 11 478341 = 41 478341 .
From Equation (2-54b),

VX = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r = 12 − 2 × 1 × 1 × cos 41 478341 + 12 = 0 708229 pu

From Equation (2-253a), the series-compensating resistance (Rse) can be calculated as

ψ ψ
Vs s V s cos − V r cos δ + 02
Rse = X 2 2 =05×
VX VX 0 708229

11 478341 11 478341
cos − cos 30 +
2 2
= 0 036545 pu
0 708229
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 159

From Equation (2-253b), the series-compensating reactance (Xse) can be calculated as

ψ ψ
V s s − V s sin 2 + V r sin δ + 2 + V s s
X se = X
VX VX

11 478341 11 478341
− sin + sin 30 + +02
02 2 2
=05× = 0 136386 pu
VX 0 708229

For the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1, operating with a PAR (sym), the phase angle is
varied from ψ = − 60 to 60 . Using Equations (2-253a) and (2-253b), variations of compensating
resistance (Rse) and compensating reactance (Xse) are shown in Figure 2-45 as functions of the active
power (Pr) at the receiving end of the line. Figure 2-46 shows the variations in compensating
impedance magnitude (Zse) and its phase angle (θZse).

Rse , Xse
(pu) 2
Xse

Rse 1

0
−1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 Pr (pu)

−1

−2

Figure 2-45 Variations of series-compensating resistance and reactance of a PAR (sym) as functions of the
active power at the receiving end of the line.

Zse θZse
(pu) (deg)
2 200
Zse
θZse
1 100

0 0
−1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 Pr (pu)

−1 − 100

−2 − 200

Figure 2-46 Variations of series-compensating impedance magnitude and its phase angle of a PAR (sym) as
functions of the active power at the receiving end of the line.
160 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Table 2-21 Selected operating points of a PAR (sym) and the corresponding series-compensating resistance,
reactance, and impedance for the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1.

ψ Ps = Pr (pu) Rse (pu) Xse (pu) Zse (pu) θZse (degrees)

−60 −1.000000 0.250000 0.933013 0.965926 −75

−45 −0.517638 0.379410 1.415976 1.465926 −75
−30 0.000000 ∞ ∞ ∞ 0
−15 0.517638 −0.129410 −0.482963 0.500000 105
0 1.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0
15 1.414214 0.044139 0.164730 0.170541 −75
30 1.732051 0.066987 0.250000 0.258819 −75
45 1.931852 0.081350 0.303603 0.314313 −75
60 2.000000 0.091506 0.341506 0.353553 −75

Note that the phase angle of the compensating impedance changes from 105 to −75 (inductive
to capacitive) instantly at the nominal power flow (Pr = 1 pu) at the receiving end, which reinforces
the fact that an inductive compensation reduces power flow and a capacitive compensation
increases power flow in an inductive line. Also, the phase angle of the compensating impedance
changes from −75 to 105 (capacitive to inductive) instantly at no power flow (Pr = 0) at the receiv-
ing end when both compensating resistance (Rse) and reactance (Xse) are ∞.
Selected operating points of the PAR (sym) is given in Table 2-21. Note that V s s = − 1 154701 pu
and β = 90 is actually an operating point of V s s = 1 154701 pu and β = 270 .

2.2.2.6.4 Equivalent Impedance of a Reactance Regulator

The series-compensating voltage (Vs s) is related to (Vq), such that
Vs s = − Vq (2-255)

where Vq is in quadrature with respect to the prevailing line current (I) as shown in Figure 2-28.
The compensating voltage (Vs s) exchanges with the line only the reactive power (Qse), which is
defined as

Qse = Vq × I = − Vs s × I or Qse = V q I (2-256)

From Equations (2-247a) and (2-225), it can be written that

Rse = 0, (2-257)
which confirms the fact that the exchanged active power (Pse) is zero.
From Equations (2-246) and (2-225), it can be written that
Vs s
Z se ∠θZse = X ∠ − 90 (2-258)
VX
Since the natural voltage (VXn) across the line reactance (X) is given by VXn = Vs − Vr , Equa-
tion (2-26b), it can be written by inspecting Figure 2-28d that the magnitude (VXn) of the natural
voltage (VXn) is
V Xn = V s cos β + V r cos π − δ − β = V s cos β − V r cos δ + β (2-259)
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 161

By inspection of Figure 2-28d, it can also be written that

V X = V Xn + V s s (2-260)
From Equations (2-259) and (2-260), it can be written that
V X = V s cos β − V r cos δ + β + V s s (2-261)
Therefore, from Equations (2-247b) and (2-261), it can be written as
Vs s
X se = X (2-262)
VX
where Vs s > 0 represents a series-capacitive compensating reactance and Vs s < 0 represents a
series-inductive compensating reactance. Therefore, Xse > 0 means the series-compensating reac-
tance is capacitive and Xse < 0 means the series-compensating reactance is inductive.
Equations (2-262) and (2-57) can be combined as
Vs s
X se = (2-263a)
I
or
V s s = IX se (2-263b)
Note that only the absolute value is considered to determine the magnitude of the series-
compensating voltage.

Example 2-41

Consider the magnitudes of the sending- and receiving-end voltages, V s = V r = 1 pu, the power
angle, δ = δs − δr = 60 , and the line reactance, X = 0 5. For a RR operating at V s s = 0 5 pu (capac-
itive) and −0.5 pu (inductive), respectively, calculate Vs , δ , and Xse.
Answer 2-41

From Equation (2-30), V Xn = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r = 12 − 2 × 1 × 1 × cos 60 + 12 = 1 pu.

For a capacitive compensation of V s s = 0 5 pu,
From Equation (2-229),
V s − V r cos δ 1 − 1 × cos 60
Vs = V 2s + V 2s s + 2V s V s s = 12 + 0 52 + 2 × 1 × 0 5
V Xn 1
= 1 322876 pu
V s s V r sin δ 0 5 × 1 × sin 60
From Equation (2-230), ψ = tan − 1 = tan − 1
V s V Xn + V s s V s − V r cos δ 1 × 1 + 0 5 1 − 1 × cos 60
= 19 106605
From Equation (2-51a), δ = δ + ψ = 60 + 19 106605 = 79 106605 .
From Equation (2-260), V X = V Xn + V s s = 1 + 0 5 = 1 5 pu.
Vs s 05
From Equation (2-262), X se = X =05× = 0 166667 pu.
VX 15
For an inductive compensation of V s s = − 0 5 pu,
From Equation (2-229),

V s − V r cos δ 1 − 1 × cos 60
Vs = V 2s + V 2s s + 2V s V s s = 12 + 0 52 − 2 × 1 × 0 5
V Xn 1
3
= = 0 866025 pu
2
162 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

From Equation (2-230),

V s s V r sin δ − 0 5 × 1 × sin 60
ψ = tan − 1 = tan − 1
V s V Xn + V s s V s − V r cos δ 1 × 1 − 0 5 1 − 1 × cos 60
−1
= tan − 1 = − 30
3
From Equation (2-51a), δ = δ + ψ = 60 − 30 = 30 .
From Equation (2-260), V X = V Xn + V s s = 1 − 0 5 = 0 5 pu.
Vs s −0 5
From Equation (2-262), X se = X =05× = − 0 5 pu.
VX 05

Check:
V sV r 1×1
From Equation (2-41) a = = = 2.
X 05
From Equation (2-27), δ = δs − δr = 60 .
From Equation (2-46), Prn = a × sin δ = 2 × sin 60 = 3 pu.
Vr 1
From Equation (2-48), Qrn = a cos δ − = 2 cos 60 − = − 1.
Vs 1
From Equation (2-210a), X eff = X − X se = 0 5 − − 0 5 = 1.
X 05 3
From Equation (2-212), Pr = Prn = × 3= .
X eff 1 2
X 05 1
From Equation (2-213), Qr = Q = × −1 = − .
X eff rn 1 2
3 1
From Equation (2-76), Sr = P2r + Q2r = + = 1.
4 4
Sr 1
From Equation (2-77), I = = = 1.
Vr 1
2 2
From Equation (2-221), V s = V 2r + XI + 2XQr = 12 + 0 5 × 1 + 2 × 0 5 × −0 5
3
= .
2
3
XPr 05× 1
From Equation (2-222), δ = tan −1
= tan −1 2 = tan − 1 = 30 .
2
V r + XQr 1 + 0 5 × −0 5 3
From Equation (2-51b), ψ = δ − δ = 30 − 60 = − 30 , which corroborates with the
results above.
For the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1, operating with a RR, the series-compensating
voltage is varied from V s s = − 1 pu to 1 pu. Using Equations (2-257) and (2-262), variations of com-
pensating resistance (Rse) and compensating reactance (Xse) are shown in Figure 2-47 as functions
of the active power (Pr) at the receiving end of the line. Figure 2-48 shows the variations in
compensating impedance magnitude (Zse) and its phase angle (θZse).
Note that the phase angle of the compensating impedance changes from 90 to −90 (inductive to
capacitive) instantly at the nominal power flow (Pr = 1pu) at the receiving end, which reinforces the
fact that an inductive compensation reduces power flow and a capacitive compensation increases
power flow in an inductive line. Also, the phase angle of the compensating impedance magnitude
changes from −90 to 90 (capacitive to inductive) instantly at no power flow (Pr = 0) at the receiv-
ing end when the compensating reactance (Xse) as well as the compensating impedance magnitude
(Zse) are ∞. An RR also reinforces the fact that the compensating resistance (Rse) is zero.
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 163

Rse , Xse
(pu)
2
Xse

Rse
0
−1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 Pr (pu)

−1

−2

Figure 2-47 Variations of series-compensating resistance and reactance of a RR as functions of the active
power at the receiving end of the line.

Zse θZse
(pu) (deg)
2 200
Zse

θZse
1 100

0 0
−1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 Pr (pu)

−1 − 100

−2 − 200

Figure 2-48 Variations of series-compensating impedance magnitude and its phase angle of a RR as functions
of the active power at the receiving end of the line.

Selected operating points of the RR is given in Table 2-22.

The expressions for series-compensating resistance (Rse) and reactance (Xse) from each of an IR, a
VR, a PAR (asym), a PAR (sym), and a RR are shown in Table 2-23.
The series-compensating resistance (Rse) and reactance (Xse) from each of an IR, a VR, a PAR
(asym), a PAR (sym), and a RR are combined in the form of a series-compensating impedance
(Zse∠θZse) and shown in Table 2-24.
 164 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Table 2-22 Selected operating points of a RR and the corresponding series-compensating resistance,
reactance, and impedance for the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1.

Vs s (pu) Ps = Pr (pu) Rse (pu) Xse (pu) Zse (pu) θZse (degrees)

−1.035276 −1.000000 0.000000 1.000000 1.000000 −90

−0.776457 −0.500000 0.000000 1.500000 1.500000 −90
−0.517638 0.000000 0.000000 ∞ ∞ ±90
−0.258819 0.500000 0.000000 −0.500000 0.500000 90
0.000000 1.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0
0.258819 1.500000 0.000000 0.166667 0.166667 −90
0.517638 2.000000 0.000000 0.250000 0.250000 −90

Table 2-23 Series-compensating resistance (Rse) and reactance (Xse) for an IR, a VR, a PAR (asym), a PAR (sym), and a
RR, respectively.

V s s V s sin β − V r sin δ + β V s s V s cos β − V r cos δ + β + V s s

IR Rse = X X se = X
VX VX VX VX
(2-247a) (2-247b)
V s s V r sin δ V s s V s − V r cos δ + V s s
VR Rse = − X (2-249a) X se = X (2-249b)
VX VX VX VX
PAR V s s V s − V r cos δ V s s V r sin δ + V s s
Rse = X (2-251a) X se = X (2-251b)
(asym) VX VX VX VX
PAR ψ ψ ψ ψ
(sym) V s s V s cos 2 − V r cos δ + 2 V s s − V s sin 2 + V r sin δ + 2 + V s s
Rse = X X se = X
VX VX VX VX
(2-253a)
(2-253b)
RR Rse = 0 (2-257) Vs s
X se = X (2-262)
VX

Table 2-24 Series-compensating impedance (Zse) for an IR, a VR, a PAR (asym), a PAR (sym), and a RR,
respectively.

Vs s − V s cos β + V r cos δ + β − V s s
IR Z se ∠θZse = X ∠ tan − 1 (2-246)
VX V s sin β − V r sin δ + β
Vs s V s − V r cos δ + V s s
VR Z se ∠θZse = X ∠ tan − 1 (2-250)
VX V r sin δ
Vs s − V r sin δ − V s s
PAR (asym) Z se ∠θZse = X ∠ tan − 1 (2-252)
VX V s − V r cos δ
ψ ψ
Vs s V s sin − V r sin δ + − Vs s
PAR (sym) Z se ∠θZse =X ∠ tan − 1 2 2 (2-254)
VX ψ ψ
V s cos − V r cos δ +
2 2
Vs s
RR Z se ∠θZse =X ∠ − 90 = X se ∠ − 90 (2-258, 2-262)
VX
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 165

2.2.3 Comparison Between Series- and Shunt-Compensating Voltages

A compensating voltage for modifying the line voltage can be generated with one of three distinct
methods by using (a) rotating machines, (b) power electronics converters, and (c) transformer/
LTCs. A Shunt–Shunt configuration is used in some special cases for point-to-point transfer of
power between two isolated networks with different voltages and/or phase angles. In an application
in which power electronics-based VSCs or rotating machines are used, the frequencies of the two
networks may be different and, therefore, it is referred to as an “asynchronous tie.” A Shunt–Series
configuration is used for power flow control. The final choice of the PFC topology is dependent on
the system requirements and the life-cycle costs, involving installation, operation, and
maintenance.
When a series-compensating voltage is used to modify the line voltage, the modified sending-end
voltage is given by
Vs = Vs + Vs s (2-94a)
This equation may be rewritten in the case of an autotransformer, shown in Figure 2-49a, as
Vs − se = Vs + Vcomp (2-264)

where Vs -se, Vs, and Vcomp are modified sending-end, sending-end, and compensating voltages,
respectively. When a shunt-compensating voltage is used, the modified sending-end voltage
(Vs′-sh) is the compensating voltage. The equation, in the case of a two-winding transformer, shown
in Figure 2-49b, is given by
Vs − sh = Vcomp (2-265)

(a) (b)
Ps′, Qs′ Ps′, Qs′

I I

Vs′s = Vcomp Vs′ V

Vs Vs′− sh = Vcomp s′
Vs′−se

Vs

Autotransformer Two−winding Transformer

(c)
10.0
Ss′−se /Ss′−sh

8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Vcomp / Vs

Figure 2-49 (a) Autotransformer. (b) Two-winding transformer. (c) Ratio of the transmitted apparent power
with series-compensated and shunt-compensated voltages as a function of normalized compensating voltage.
166 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Using Equations (2-264) and (2-265), the transmitted power at the modified sending end of a line
is given by

Ss − se = Vs − se ×I (2-266a)

when an autotransformer is used and

Ss − sh = Vs − sh ×I (2-266b)

when a two-winding transformer is used where I is the line current.

Using Equations (2-266a) and (2-266b), the ratio of the transmitted apparent power (Ss -se) by
using a series-compensating voltage and (Ss -sh) by using a shunt-compensating voltage is given by

Ss − se V s − se × I V s − se V s + V comp Vs 1
= = = =1+ =1+ (2-267)
Ss − sh V s − sh × I V s − sh V comp V comp V comp V s

The ratio (Ss -se/Ss -sh) is less than ∞ for Vcomp greater than zero, but greater than one for Vcomp less
than ∞. Therefore, the PFC with the series-compensating voltage always offers a large leverage
between its own rating and the transmitted apparent power in the line. The series-compensating
voltage needs to be rated for only a fraction of the transmitted apparent power. The ratio of the
transmitted apparent power with series- and shunt-compensating voltages as a function of the nor-
malized compensating voltage is plotted in Figure 2-49c. When the compensating voltage is one pu,
the series-compensating voltage transmits twice the apparent power that the shunt-compensating
voltage transmits. When the series-compensating voltage is a fraction of the line voltage, the trans-
mitted apparent power ratio becomes greater than two.
As an example, a 0.1-pu-rated series-compensating voltage in an autotransformer with one pu
line current requires a Shunt–Series Compensator rating of 0.1 pu whereas, for the same outcome,
a 1.1-pu-rated shunt-compensating voltage in a two-winding transformer with one pu line current
requires a Shunt–Shunt Compensator rating of 1.1 pu. The rating and thus the cost advantage of the
Shunt–Series Compensator makes it attractive for its use as a PFC. Note that the world’s first UPFC
used a Shunt–Series configuration of 160 MVA rating to regulate power flow in a 1000 MVA-rated
transmission line. An alternate option of using a Shunt–Shunt configuration would require the use
of two 1000 MVA-rated STATCOMs, connected back to back. A one-pu-power-rated Shunt–Series
solution costs significantly less than a (1000/160) 6.25-pu-power-rated Shunt–Shunt solution. In
conclusion, the series compensator in the Shunt–Series configuration is rated for the compensating
(not transmitted) power in the AC line to which it is connected. However, the shunt compensator in
the Shunt–Shunt configuration must be rated for the transmitted power, which is also the compen-
sating power, in the AC line to which it is connected. Both the series and shunt compensators carry
the same line current; however, the reduced voltage rating of the series compensator makes its
power rating to be a fraction of the power rating of the shunt compensator.
The equations that describe the active and reactive power flows at the receiving end of a line with
the use of a shunt-compensating voltage are given in Equations (2-74) and (2-75). The variation of
active power as a function of reactive power is derived in Equation (2-79) and is shown in
Figure 2-50. Modified power angle (δ ) in the second and third quadrants (+Pr/−Qr and −Pr/
−Qr) are not used and, therefore, are not shown in Figure 2-50. If the fourth-quadrant (−Pr/
+Qr) operation of a Shunt–Shunt configuration is needed for reversal of active power flow, note
that the Shunt–Series configuration with a series-compensating voltage can also be used for this
purpose as shown by increasing the radius of the shaded circle in Figure 2-50. More discussion
 2.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 167

Upper Qr Shunt-
Voltage Shunt Shunt-
Limit Series

0 Pr
−2 −1 1 2
Prn , Qrn
Lower
−0.5 Voltage
Limit
11.54°
𝛿𝛿′′ = 330
330°° 11.54°
−1
𝛿′ = 300°
300 𝛿′ = 0° 𝛿𝛿==30°
30°
𝛿′
𝛿'==60°
60°
− 1.5

𝛿′ = 270° 𝛿′ = 90°
−2

Figure 2-50 Qr vs Pr at the receiving end of the line for the range of modified power angle δ = δs − δr from
270 to 90 when V s = V r = 1 pu, X = 0 5 pu, and R = 0 (X R = ∞ ).

on this topic is given in “Introduction to FACTS Controllers: Theory, Modeling, and Applications,”
by Sen and Sen, IEEE Press and John Wiley & Sons, 2009, Chapter 8, Section 8.3 (Shunt–Series
Compensation Using a Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)).
For a Shunt–Shunt Compensator, the relationship between active and reactive power flows (Pr
and Qr) at the receiving end is shown by the half circle in Figure 2-50 as a function of the modified
power angle (δ ) and is given by the following equation:
2
V 2r
P2r + Qr + = a2 (2-79)
X
where
Vs Vr
a = (2-61)
X
V 2r
Equation (2-79) represents the locus of a circle, centered at 0, − with a radius of a .
X
For a Shunt–Series Compensator, the relationship between active and reactive power flows (Pr
and Qr) at the receiving end is shown by the small circle in Figure 2-50 and is given by the following
equation:
2 2
Pr − Prn + Qr − Qrn = a2r (2-136)

where
V rV s s
ar = (2-132)
X
The active and reactive power flows at the receiving end of the line can be regulated within the
range defined by the P-Q plot in Figure 2-50 by controlling the magnitude (Vs s) of the series-
compensating voltage (Vs s) within its rated value and the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
168 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

The Shunt–Shunt configuration is capable of controlling the power angle (the phase angle
between the voltage, Vs , at the POC, which is the modified sending end and the voltage, Vr, at
the far end of the line, which is the receiving end) over its entire controllable range of 0 ≤ δ ≤
360 . The maximum transfer of active power along a lossless line (with quality factor
Q = X R = ∞ ) between the sending and receiving ends takes place at the 90 power angle. At
the same time, the actual power angle is significantly lower and depends on the line length (i.e.
line reactance, X), system characteristics, and load flows. As an example, a compensation range
(ψ max) of ± 11.54 with an uncompensated power angle of 30 is shown in the shaded area in
Figure 2-50. In this application, the Shunt–Shunt configuration is severely restricted to operate
within the first quadrant when used as a PFC. However, in some special cases for point-to-point
transfer of power between two isolated networks or interconnection of two transmission lines with
different voltages or phase angles (or frequencies), Shunt–Shunt compensation scheme may be the
preferred option while selecting a SPFC.

2.3 Implementation of Power Flow Control Concepts

The various methods of power flow control that have been established so far are summarized in this
section. In order to control the flow of power in the line, at least one parameter (voltage magnitude,
its phase angle, or line reactance) needs to be regulated.

2.3.1 Voltage Regulation

The various methods of voltage regulation can be categorized as (a) direct method and (b) indirect
method.

2.3.1.1 Direct Method

The direct method of voltage regulation of a line is to add a compensating voltage vectorially in or
out of phase with the phase-to-neutral voltage of the line at the POC. The Voltage-Regulating Trans-
former (VRT), in its Shunt–Series configuration, generates a bipolar compensating voltage through
transformer action and connects it in series with the line as shown in Figure 2-51a.
The VRT as shown in Figure 2-51a consists of an Exciter Unit and a Voltage-Regulating Unit. The
Exciter Unit consists of a three-phase (A, B, and C), Y-connected primary windings and is con-
nected in shunt with the line. The three-phase primary windings are excited from the three-phase
line voltages (VsA, VsB, and VsC). A three-phase, bipolar compensating voltages (Vs sA, Vs sB, and
Vs sC) that are either in phase or out of phase with the corresponding phase-to-neutral voltage are
generated from the induced voltages in the secondary windings. The Voltage-Regulating Unit con-
sists of a total of six secondary windings (two windings in each phase). The magnitude of the series-
compensating voltage (Vs s) is varied with the use of LTCs. The line is regulated at a voltage (Vs )
from the uncompensated voltage (Vs). The corresponding phasor diagram is shown in Figure 2-51b.
This is an autotransformer-type VRT where the secondary winding is electrically connected with
the primary winding. Note that Figure 2-51 is functionally the same as an autotransformer and is
consistent with the modeling techniques used in Chapters 3 and 4. There are also other ways to
implement a VRT, such as a two-winding transformer, which is a VRT in a Shunt–Shunt
configuration.
Figure 2-52 shows the schematic diagram of a Thyristor-Controlled Load Tap Changer (LTC).
A transformer winding is tapped at various places. Each of the tapped points is connected to
 2.3 Implementation of Power Flow Control Concepts 169

(a) IA
Vs′sA

VsA Vs′A
Vs′sB IB

VsB Vs′B
Vs′sC IC

VsC Vs′C

(b)
Vs′sA Vs′A
Exciter VsA
Unit A

B
Vs′C VsB
C VsC Vs′sB
Vs′sC
Vs′B
Voltage−
Regulating Unit

Figure 2-51 (a) Voltage-Regulating Transformer (Shunt–Series configuration); (b) phasor diagram.

Gate Gate Gate Gate

Firing Firing Firing Firing
Circuit Circuit Circuit Circuit
Controller

B A

Figure 2-52 Thyristor-Controlled Load Tap Changer.

one side of a BTB thyristor (triac) switch. The other side of each triac switch is connected at point A.
Depending on which thyristor is on, the voltage between points A and B can be varied between zero
and the full-winding voltage with desired steps in between. In the mechanical contact version of
this arrangement, the LTC connects with one of various taps to make a variable number of turns
active between the connected tap and one end of the winding.
There are other ways to regulate the line voltage as described below.
170 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

2.3.1.2 Indirect Method

The indirect way to regulate the line voltage is to connect a variable capacitor or a variable reactor in
shunt with the line. According to Equation (2-23), a shunt-connected capacitor raises the line
voltage. According to Equation (2-22), a shunt-connected reactor lowers the line voltage. It is very
common to connect a single or multiple banks of fixed shunt capacitors/reactors, using contactors
(i.e. mechanical switches) to provide power factor correction/voltage regulation.
The shunt reactor or capacitor can also be connected through thyristor switches, which are power
electronics-based naturally commutated switches that can be turned on during the positive half
cycle of an AC voltage; however, these switches turn off naturally when the voltage reverses. During
the evolution of this approach over the last five decades, the various electronic topologies and their
control methods became known as Thyristor-Switched Capacitor (TSC), Thyristor-Switched Reac-
tor (TSR), and Thyristor-Controlled Reactor (TCR). The TSC connects fixed capacitors in a step-like
manner in shunt with the line. The TSR connects fixed reactors in a step-like manner in shunt with
the line. However, it is rarely used. The TCR connects a reactor in shunt with the line through thy-
ristor switches whose duty cycle can be varied, thereby controlling the flow of current through the
reactor and making it appear like a variable reactor. A combination of TSC, TSR, and TCR is termed
the SVC as shown in Figure 2-53.
A capacitive reactance (−jXC) with a parallel inductive reactance (+jXL) offers a shunt-
compensating reactance of
+ jX L − jX C X LX C
− jX sh = =j (2-268)
j XL − XC XC − XL
where XC > XL makes Xsh inductive and XC < XL makes Xsh capacitive.

Transmission Line

Coupling
Transformer

Gate Gate Gate Gate

Firing Firing Firing Firing
Circuit Circuit Circuit Circuit

Controller

XC Thyristor-Switched XL Phase-Controlled
Capacitor Banks Reactor Banks

Figure 2-53 Static Var Compensator (SVC).

 2.3 Implementation of Power Flow Control Concepts 171

(a)

Xsrc X
Vsrc Vr
Qsh Vs
Iq XTIE
Vs E Vs
Qsh = ( − 1)
E XTIE E

STATCOM
(b) Iq

XTIE
Vs − E

(c) Iq
E Vs − E
Vs Vs − E

Vs
E
Iq
E < Vs : Inductive E > Vs : Capacitive

Figure 2-54 Concept of a STATCOM.

A two-generator/one-line power system network model is shown in the one-line diagram of

Figure 2-54a. The network is driven by an ideal voltage source (Vsrc) behind a Thèvenin source
reactance (Xsrc). The line reactance is X and the sending- and receiving-end voltages are Vs and
Vr. The indirect way to implement a variable shunt capacitor or a variable shunt reactor is to
use a shunt compensator, which generates a variable magnitude voltage (E) in phase with the line
voltage (Vs) at the POC, and connects this voltage in shunt with the line through a tie-reactance
(XTIE). If the line voltage (Vs), compensator voltage (E), and tie-reactance (XTIE) are thought of
as the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ), receiving-end voltage (Vr), and line reactance (X), respec-
tively, then the active power absorbed from the line at the POC is zero because the line voltage and
the compensating voltage are in phase δ = 0 . However, the compensating reactive power
absorbed from the line can be expressed by rewriting Equations (2-60) and (2-61) as
V sE V s
Qsh = −1 (2-269)
X TIE E
The concept of connecting a variable amplitude synchronous AC voltage in shunt with the AC
line through inductive impedance has been practiced since the introduction of the SynCon in which
the internal voltage (E) of the synchronous machine is controlled by controlling the field current.
The same concept has been implemented using power electronics VSC-based STATCOM. In
172 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

contrast to SynCon, the power circuit of the VSC does not have any wear-and-tear because there is
no moving parts in the main power circuit; also, the response time of a VSC is in ms compared to
that in seconds in the case of a SynCon of a 100 Mvar rating. As shown in Chapter 1, the fast
response of a STATCOM is beneficial in lowering voltage flicker caused by an electric arc furnace.
A STATCOM is implemented with the use of a variable magnitude, shunt compensator voltage as
shown in Figure 2-54a. A net voltage (Vs-E) drives a current (Iq) through the tie-reactance (XTIE) as
shown in Figure 2-54b. The current (Iq) always lags the driving voltage (Vs-E) by 90 . Through con-
trol action, the magnitude of the shunt-compensator voltage (E) can be made higher or lower than
the line voltage (Vs). When E < Vs as shown in Figure 2-54c, the current (Iq) through the STATCOM
lags the terminal voltage (Vs) and the line “sees” an inductive reactance connected at its terminal.
The STATCOM is considered to be operating in an inductive mode and reactive power is absorbed
at the POC by the emulated reactor. Similarly, when E > Vs as shown in Figure 2-54c, the current
(Iq) through the STATCOM leads the terminal voltage (Vs) and the line “sees” the STATCOM as a
capacitive reactance. The STATCOM is considered to be operating in a capacitive mode and reactive
power is delivered at the POC by the emulated capacitor.
Figure 2-55 shows a schematic diagram of the STATCOM. The STATCOM consists of a VSC
(VSC1), a magnetic circuit (MC1), a shunt-coupling transformer (SHNTR), a shunt breaker
(SHNBRK), current and voltage sensors, and a Control & Protection Unit. The operation of the STAT-
COM is such that the VSC produces a voltage that is almost in phase with the line voltage. Through
control action, the VSC output voltage is maintained to be smaller or larger than the line voltage.
Therefore, the STATCOM essentially injects an almost sinusoidal reactive current of variable mag-
nitude at the POC. This reactive current, in turn, regulates the line voltage. Note that MC1 is typically
a specialty transformer, such as an Interphase Transformer. However, the coupling transformer may

Ps′, Qs′

Vs SHNBRK V2 Vs′
V1
I1

SHNTR
iDC1
E1

+v
− DC

MC1 VSC1
Control & Protection Unit
STATCOM

Figure 2-55 Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM).

 2.3 Implementation of Power Flow Control Concepts 173

be a conventional transformer. In the first generation of FACTS Controllers in 1990s and 2000s, in
some cases, the specialty transformer and the coupling transformer were combined.
In one type of VSC, called Harmonic-Neutralized VSC (HN-VSC), a number of square wave vol-
tages are generated at fundamental frequency by operating the controllable semiconductor
switches once per cycle of the fundamental frequency. These square wave voltages are combined
using a magnetic circuit in order to produce a high-quality sinusoidal voltage with acceptable har-
monic content. Note that there are many circuit topologies, other than HN-VSC that can be used to
create an electronic shunt compensator voltage, E1. It should be noted that VSC configurations and
modulators are still evolving. Configurations, such as 2-level, 3-level, H-bridge, half bridge, and so
on with modulators, such as HN, Pulse Width Modulation (PWM), and Space Vector (SV) have
been used in high-power applications. It should also be noted that irrespective of configuration
and modulation technique used in a VSC, all VSCs produce undesired harmonic voltage and cur-
rent components that are injected into the power system network at the POC.

2.3.2 Phase Angle Regulation

The effective phase angle of the line voltage at the POC is varied by using a PAR, which is also
known as a Phase-Shifting Transformer (PST). The PAR connects a voltage in series with the line
and in quadrature with the phase-to-neutral voltage of the line. The PAR characteristics can be of
asymmetric (asym) and symmetric (sym) types. Both PARs (asym and sym) may consist of a single-
core or dual-core transformers. When a single-core transformer is used, the primary windings are
always connected in Δ; however, when a dual-core transformer is used, the primary windings may
be connected in Y or in Δ.

2.3.2.1 Single-core Phase Angle Regulator

Figures 2-56a, 2-56c, and 2-56e show one-line diagrams of a PAR (asym) for no operation, decreas-
ing power flow, and increasing power flow in the line and the related phasor diagrams in Figures
2-56b, 2-56d, and 2-56f, respectively. In a PAR (asym), the regulation parameter is the magnitude
(Vs s) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s), which is varied with LTCs. With proper polarities of
the series-connected windings, the compensating voltage is either at −90 (Figure 2-56c) or 90
(Figure 2-56e) with respect to the primary phase-to-neutral voltage (Vs).
Therefore, the magnitude and phase-shift angle of the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) are
derived from Equations (2-97) and (2-98) as

Vs = V 2s + V 2s s (2-270)

and
Vs s
ψ = tan − 1 (2-271a)
Vs
where Vs s > 0 represents β = 90 and Vs s < 0 represents β = − 90 .
The series-compensating voltage introduces a phase-shift angle (ψ), shown in Figures 2-56d and
2-56f, whose magnitude (for a small change) in radians varies with the magnitude of the compen-
sating voltage in pu where the phase-to-neutral voltage of the line is the base voltage. Therefore,
Vs s
ψ tan ψ = (2-271b)
Vs
using Equation (2-271a).
174 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

(a) (b)

Vs Vs′
Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr VXn
A 90° In
VA
VXn
In
𝛿 Vr
Vs X
Vs′ Vr

C B VC VB

Phase Angle Regulator (asymmetric)

(c) (d)
Vs′sA Vs′sA β = − 90°
Vs′sA

A Pr , Qr
Ps′, Qs′ Vs′ VX
VsA I
VX
I
ψ 𝛿′
𝛿 Vr
Vs
Vs′ X Vr

VsC VsB
C B
Phase Angle Regulator (asymmetric)
(e) (f)
Vs′sA Vs′sA β = + 90°
Vs′sA
I
A
Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr Vs′ VX
VsA 90°
VX 𝛿′
I
ψ
𝛿 Vr
Vs X
Vs′ Vr

VsC VsB
C B
Phase Angle Regulator (asymmetric)

Figure 2-56 Two-generator/one-line power system network with (a) no compensation and (b) its related
phasor diagram; (c) a series-compensating voltage, Vs s for decreasing power flow and (d) its related phasor
diagram; (e) a series-compensating voltage, Vs s for increasing power flow and (f ) its related phasor diagram
using a PAR (asym).

The three-phase, series-compensating secondary windings are center-tapped at A, B, and C,

respectively, when the compensating voltage is designed to be of equal magnitude for both
β = 90 and β = − 90 . The three-phase line voltages (VsA, VsB, and VsC) are applied to
Δ-connected primary windings. The series-compensating secondary voltage (Vs s) that is in phase
with the primary phase-to-phase voltage, but in quadrature with the primary phase-to-neutral volt-
age, is connected in series with the line. The magnitude (Vs s) of the series-compensating voltage
(Vs s) is varied with LTCs. The modified sending-end voltage (Vs A) is always larger than the send-
ing-end voltage because of the addition of two orthogonal voltages: (1) sending-end voltage (VsA)
and (2) series-compensating voltage (Vs sA).
 2.3 Implementation of Power Flow Control Concepts 175

(a) (b)

Vs Vs′
Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr VXn In
A VA 90°
VXn
In
𝛿 Vr
X
Vs Vs′ Vr

C B VC VB
Phase Angle Regulator (symmetric)
(c) (d)
ψ
2
Vs′sA Vs′sA β − 360°
VX I
Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr Vs Vs′
A VA 𝛿′
VX Vr
I
ψ
X 𝛿
Vs Vs′ Vr

C B VC VB
Phase Angle Regulator (symmetric)
(e) (f)
ψ
Vs′sA 2
β Vs′sA
A Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr Vs′ Vs
VA I
VX VX
I
ψ 90°
𝛿 𝛿′
Vs X
Vs′ Vr Vr

VC VB
C B
Phase Angle Regulator (symmetric)

Figure 2-57 Two-generator/one-line power system network with (a) no compensation and (b) its related
phasor diagram; (c) a series-compensating voltage, Vs s, for decreasing power flow and (d) its related phasor
diagram; (e) a series-compensating voltage, Vs s, for increasing power flow and (f ) its related phasor diagram
using a PAR (sym).

Figures 2-57a, 2-57c, and 2-57e show one-line diagrams of a PAR (sym) for no operation, decreas-
ing power flow, and increasing power flow in the line and the related phasor diagrams in Figures
2-57b, 2-57d, and 2-57f, respectively. In a PAR (sym), the regulation parameter is the phase-shift
angle (ψ). With proper polarities of the series-connected windings, the compensating voltage is
either at −90 (Figure 2-57c) or 90 (Figure 2-57e) with respect to the primary phase-to-neutral volt-
age (Vs). The resulting effect is that only the phase angle of the line voltage between Vs and Vs is
changed, but the magnitude stays unchanged at Vs as shown in the phasor diagrams Figures 2-57d
and 2-57f, respectively.
The three-phase series-compensating secondary windings are center-tapped at A, B, and C,
respectively. The three-phase voltages (VA, VB, and VC) are applied to Δ-connected primary
176 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

windings. The series-compensating secondary voltage (Vs s) that is in phase with the primary
phase-to-phase voltage, but in quadrature with the primary phase-to-neutral voltage, is connected
in series with the line. The series-compensating voltage, Vs s (of magnitude, Vs s, and relative phase
angle, β, with respect to Vs), is varied with LTCs. As a result, the phase-shift angle (ψ) varies.
The difference between the PAR (asym) and PAR (sym) is that in the case of a PAR (asym), the
line voltage is used to excite the primary windings, whereas in the case of a PAR (sym), the voltage
at the midpoint of the series-compensating winding is used to excite the primary windings. In a PAR
(asym), the variable compensating voltage modifies mainly the phase angle of the line voltage with
some increase in the magnitude of the line voltage; in a PAR (sym), the variable compensating volt-
age modifies only the phase angle of the line voltage with no change in its magnitude.

2.3.2.2 Dual-core Phase Angle Regulator

In some configurations, the PAR consists of two transformers, referred to as dual-core PAR as
shown in Figures 2-58 and 2-59. The first transformer (Exciter Unit) is called a regulating trans-
former. Its three-phase (A, B, and C), Y-connected primary windings are connected in shunt with
the line. The three-phase primary windings are excited from the line voltages (VsA, VsB, and VsC)
and three-phase voltages (VA, VB, and VC) are induced in the regulating transformer secondary
windings. For series connection of these voltages, an electrical isolation is necessary. The second
transformer (Series Unit) is called a series transformer, which is excited from the phase-to-phase
voltages (VB – VC, VC – VA, and VA – VB) of the regulating transformer. Three-phase, bipolar com-
pensating voltages (Vs sA, Vs sB, and Vs sC) that are in quadrature with the corresponding phase-to-
neutral voltage are induced in the secondary windings of the series transformer. The magnitudes of
the series-compensating voltages are varied using the LTCs in the secondary windings of the reg-
ulating transformer. The induced voltages of the series transformer are connected in series with the
line. If the series transformer is a step-down transformer, the primary windings of the series

(a)
VC VB Series
IA
Unit
VA VC
V sA Vs′sA Vs′A
IB

VB VA
VsB Vs′sB Vs′B
IC

VsC Vs′sC Vs′C

(b) (c)
Vs′sA Vs′sA
Exciter VA
Unit VsA Vs′A Vs′A VsA
A
ψ ψ
Vs′C Vs′B
VC
ψ ψ
B Vs′sC VsC ψ VsB VsC ψ VsB Vs′sB
C
Vs′B Vs′sB Vs′sC Vs′C
VB

Figure 2-58 (a) Phase Angle Regulator (asym), (b) phasor diagram for decreasing power flow, and (c) phasor
diagram for increasing power flow.
 2.3 Implementation of Power Flow Control Concepts 177

(a)
VC VB Series
IA
Unit

VsA VA VC Vs′A
Vs′sA IB

VB VA
VsB Vs′sB Vs′B
IC

VsC Vs′sC Vs′C

(b) Vs′sA (c) Vs′sA

Exciter VA
VsA Vs′A VsA
Unit VA Vs′A VA
A ψ ψ

VC ψ
Vs′C ψ VsB VsC Vs′B
B
VC ψ VB VC ψ VB
C Vs′sC Vs′sC
Vs′B Vs′sB Vs′sB
VsC Vs′C VsB
VB

Figure 2-59 (a) Phase Angle Regulator (sym), (b) phasor diagram for decreasing power flow, and (c) phasor
diagram for increasing power flow.

transformer as well as the secondary windings of the regulating transformer are high-voltage and
low-current rated, so that the LTCs on the secondary side of the regulating transformer can operate
at a low current and can ride through a high fault current. In contrast, when a PAR is realized with
one transformer, the LTCs are always required to carry a high line current as well as even a higher
fault current.
An asymmetrical, dual core design connects a voltage in series with the line and changes the
phase angle of the line voltage with some increase of its magnitude. The primary windings of
the regulating transformer are Y-connected as shown in Figure 2-58a. They are connected in shunt
with the line and excited from the line voltages (VsA, VsB, and VsC). Three-phase voltages (VA, VB,
and VC) are induced in the regulating transformer secondary windings. Three-phase, bipolar com-
pensating voltages (Vs sA, Vs sB, and Vs sC) that are in quadrature with the corresponding phase-to-
neutral voltage are induced in the secondary windings of the series transformer. The magnitudes of
the series-compensating voltages are varied using the LTCs in the secondary windings of the reg-
ulating transformer. The induced voltages of the series transformer are connected in series with the
line. The corresponding phasor diagrams for decreasing power flow and increasing power flow are
shown in Figures 2-58b and 2-58c, respectively.
A symmetrical, dual core design connects a voltage in series with the line and changes the phase
angle of the line voltage without changing its magnitude. The primary windings of the regulating
transformer are Y-connected as shown in Figure 2-59a. They are connected in shunt with the line
and excited from the voltage at the midpoints of the secondary windings of the series transformer.
Three-phase voltages (VA, VB, and VC) are induced in the regulating transformer secondary wind-
ings. Three-phase, bipolar compensating voltages (Vs sA, Vs sB, and Vs sC) that are in quadrature
with the corresponding phase-to-neutral voltage are induced in the secondary windings of the series
transformer. The magnitudes of the series-compensating voltages are varied using the LTCs in the
secondary windings of the regulating transformer. The induced voltages of the series transformer
178 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

are connected in series with the line. The corresponding phasor diagrams for decreasing power flow
and increasing power flow are shown in Figures 2-59b and 2-59c, respectively.

2.3.3 Series Reactance Regulation

In a special case, the magnitude of the line voltage and its phase angle can also be varied together in
such a way that the effective line reactance (Xeff) between the sending and receiving ends is
regulated.

2.3.3.1 Direct Method

The direct way to regulate the effective line reactance is to connect a capacitor or a reactor in series
with the line. A series-connected capacitor increases the power flow in the line by decreasing the
effective line reactance between its two ends. A series-connected reactor decreases the power flow
in the line by increasing the effective line reactance between its two ends. Through the use of a
TCSC, a series-connected variable capacitor or a variable reactor can be implemented as shown
in Figure 2-60. Each section of a TCSC consists of a parallel combination of a fixed capacitor with
a reactance (XC) and a variable reactor with a reactance (XL), emulated by a TCR. The equivalent
series-compensating reactance (xse) of each section of the TCSC can be determined during its induc-
tive or capacitive operation. The total compensating reactance (Xse) across the TCSC is defined by
X se = k × x se (2-272a)
where k is the number of sections, connected in series; the series-compensating reactance (xse) per
section is determined by the parallel combination of a capacitive reactance (−jXC) and an inductive
reactance (+jXL), which is given by
+ jX L − jX C X LX C
− jx se = =j (2-272b)
j XL − XC XC − XL
where XC > XL makes Xse inductive and when XC < XL makes Xse capacitive.
The total compensating voltage (Vq) across the TCSC is the sum of voltages across k sections. The
voltage across a section is the sum of two currents (the line current, I, and the current, ITCR,
through the TCR) multiplied by the series-connected capacitive reactance (XC).

2.3.3.2 Indirect Method

The indirect way to emulate a series capacitor or a reactor is to connect a compensating voltage in
series with the line and maintain its phase angle at 90 lagging or leading the prevailing line

Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr
Vq = − j(I + ITCR)kXC(k = 0, 1, ..., m) VX
I

XC XC X
Vs ITCR ITCR Vs′ Vr

XTCR XTCR
XL XL

Figure 2-60 Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) (k is the number of sections, connected in series).
 2.3 Implementation of Power Flow Control Concepts 179

SRSBRK
Ps′, Qs′
Vq
I

SRSTR
Vs ES V2 Vs′
V1

I2

SRSDS
iDC2
E2
+
vDC –

VSC2 MC2
Control & Protection Unit

SSSC

Figure 2-61 Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC).

current. Through control action, the magnitude of the series-compensating voltage is varied in
order to vary the emulated capacitor or reactor. The series-compensating voltage varies the mag-
nitude and phase angle of the line voltage simultaneously. A variable magnitude, series-
compensating voltage can also be implemented through the use of electrical machines, VSCs, or
transformers/LTCs.
Figure 2-61 shows a schematic diagram of the SSSC. The SSSC consists of a HN-VSC (VSC2), a
magnetic circuit (MC2), a series-coupling transformer (SRSTR), a series disconnect switch (SRSDS),
an electronic bypass-switch (ES), a series bypass breaker (SRSBRK), current and voltage sensors,
and a Control & Protection Unit. The operation of the SSSC is such that the VSC produces a voltage
that is almost in quadrature with the prevailing line current. Through control action, the magnitude
of the series-compensating voltage is varied to emulate a variable reactance in series with the line.

2.3.4 Impedance Regulation

In all the concepts presented thus far, only one parameter (voltage magnitude, its phase angle, or
line reactance) is regulated one at a time and, therefore, both the active and reactive power flows are
affected simultaneously, according to Equations (2-59), (2-60), and (2-61). In impedance regulation,
an impedance that consists of two parameters – resistance and reactance are emulated by a series-
compensating voltage. This compensating voltage is added to the original line voltage to modify
both the magnitude and the phase angle of the line voltage. This modified line voltage, in turn,
regulates the active and reactive power flows in the line independently as desired. There are several
schemes to implement the concept of impedance regulation that results in an independent control
of active and reactive power flows in a line.
Figure 2-62 shows the basic building blocks of VSC-based PFCs namely, STATCOM and SSSC
and their combined topology called a UPFC. When the STATCOM and the SSSC operate as
180 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

X
Vs Vr

STATic synchronous Static Synchronous Series

COMpensator (STATCOM) Compensator (SSSC)
Vs
Vq I
Iq
–Vq
Xse =
I
Vs
Capacitive

Iq I
Vq
Inductive

1
Vs Vr sin (δs − δr)
P= X

Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)

Vs Vs′s Vs′
Vs′s

Vs Vs′

Figure 2-62 The UPFC (with a common DC link) and its building blocks: STATCOM and SSSC.

stand-alone compensators, they exchange mostly reactive power with the line and, in the process,
control only one power flow control parameter – line voltage by the STATCOM and line reactance
by the SSSC, respectively. In both cases, the compensating voltage and the current flowing through
it are in quadrature. Of course, each of the STATCOM and SSSC also draws active power to provide
its own losses that are a few percent of its rated power. When both the STATCOM and the SSSC are
connected at their common DC link, the series-compensating voltage of the SSSC is no longer
restricted to be in quadrature with the prevailing line current. This unique DC link connection adds
the active power exchange capability to both the STATCOM and the SSSC. The series-
compensating voltage can be at any phase angle with the prevailing line current, thereby exchan-
ging active power with the line bidirectionally. This exchanged active power flows freely back and
forth through their DC link. The result is an emulation of a four-quadrant, series-compensating
impedance Zse = Rse − jX se that consists of a resistance Rse = +R or − R and a reactance
(Xse = XC or − XL) in series with the line as shown in Figure 1-8b. The modified line voltage
 2.3 Implementation of Power Flow Control Concepts 181

Psrc , Qsrc Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr

Ps , Qs Vs′s
VX
I

Series X
Vs Vs′ Vr
XTIE Unit
Psh
Qsh Pse
E
Plink Qse
Shunt
Unit
Unified Power Flow Controller

Figure 2-63 Two-generator/one-line power system network, integrated with a PFC – Unified Power Flow
Controller (UPFC).

can be regulated to a desired magnitude and phase angle within the design limit to control the
active and reactive power flows in the line independently in the Pr – Qr circle as shown in
Figure 2-22 for receiving-end power flows and in the Ps – Qs ellipse as shown in Figure 2-23
for modified sending-end power flows. The hardware required for this three-decade old technology
is rated for only a fraction of the transmitted power flow capability of the line. Note that the char-
acteristics, shown in Figure 2-62, for various FACTS Controllers are using ideal specialty trans-
former and the coupling transformer without any leakage impedance and saturation. The actual
characteristic differs, based on the transformer characteristics.
A two-generator/one-line power system network, integrated with a UPFC is shown in Figure 2-63.
The VSC1 (E = E∠ δs + α ), shown as the Shunt Unit, is connected to the line voltage Vs = V s ∠δs
with a tie-reactance (XTIE). The VSC2 (Vs s = V s s ∠ δs + β ), shown as the Series Unit, is connected
in series with the line. The active and reactive powers, exchanged by the shunt-connected VSC, are
Psh and Qsh, respectively. The active and reactive powers, exchanged by the series-connected VSC,
are Pse and Qse, respectively. The active power (Plink) flows from one VSC to the other bidirectionally
through their common DC link. However, the reactive powers (Qsh and Qse), exchanged by the two
VSCs, are independent of each other.

2.3.4.1 Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)

Figure 2-64 shows the schematic diagram of the UPFC. The UPFC consists of two HN-VSCs (VSC1
and VSC2), two magnetic circuits (MC1 and MC2), a shunt-coupling transformer (SHNTR), a
series-coupling transformer (SRSTR), a shunt breaker (SHNBRK), a series disconnect switch
(SRSDS), an electronic bypass-switch (ES), a DC link switch (DCLS), a series bypass breaker
(SRSBRK), current and voltage sensors, and a Control & Protection Unit. Each VSC is coupled with
a transformer at its output. Both VSCs generate almost sinusoidal voltages.
When the DCLS is closed, the VSCs are connected at their common DC link. The series-con-
nected, variable magnitude, compensating voltage that is at any phase angle with respect to the
line current, exchanges an active power as well as a reactive power with the line. This exchanged
active power at the AC terminal of the series-connected VSC flows to the AC terminal of the shunt-
connected VSC through their common DC link. In addition, the shunt-connected VSC can deliver
or absorb reactive power independently as desired. When the DCLS is open, the two VSCs can be
operated as stand-alone, independent, reactive compensators, such as a shunt compensator
182 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

SRSBRK
Ps′, Qs′
Vdq
I

SRSTR
Vs SHNBRK ES V2 Vs ′
V1
I1
I2

SHNTR SRSDS
iDC1 iDC2
E1 DCLS E2
+ +
v
– DC –

MC1 VSC1 VSC2 MC2

Control & Protection Unit

UPFC

Figure 2-64 Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC).

SSSC
Vs′s
Psrc , Qsrc Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr
Ps , Qs Vd Vq
VX
I

Vs Vs′ X Vr
Pse Qse
Vd I
Id = Vs
V 2s
Qsh Psh
Id
Plink
Iq

STATCOM

Figure 2-65 Basic UPFC model, integrated in a two-generator/one-line power system network.

(STATCOM) and a series compensator (SSSC) and, in turn, exchange almost exclusively reactive
power with the line at their respective terminals.
A basic UPFC model, integrated in a two-generator/one-line power system network is shown in
Figure 2-65. The figure shows the basic UPFC model, which consists of the STATCOM and the
 2.3 Implementation of Power Flow Control Concepts 183

SSSC that are connected at their common DC link. The SSSC connects a compensating voltage
(Vs s) in series with the line. The compensating voltage (Vs s) consists of active and reactive com-
ponents, which are Vd and Vq with load convention. The compensating voltage (Vs s) is at any
phase angle with the prevailing line current (I). The active component Vd = V d that is either
in-phase or out-of-phase with the line current emulates a positive or a negative resistor in series
with the line. The reactive component Vq = jV q that is in quadrature and either leading or lag-
ging the line current emulates a reactor or a capacitor in series with the line.
The series-compensating voltage (Vs s) exchanges active and reactive powers (Pse and Qse) that are
defined as
Pse = − Vs s •I = Vdq •I = V d I = V s I d (2-273)

and

Qse = − Vs s × I = Vdq × I = V q I (2-274)

The active power (Pse) that is exchanged with the line by the SSSC flows through the STATCOM
and results in an active current flow Id = I d through it. This current is either in phase or out of
phase with the line voltage (Vs) and emulates a positive or a negative resistor at the POC in shunt
with the line. However, the reactive power (Qse) that is exchanged with the line by the SSSC is inde-
pendent of whether there is any reactive current (Iq) flowing through the STATCOM. The loading
effect (voltage change) of the power system network at the POC due to (1) active current flow
through the STATCOM and (2) load change in the line may be compensated by the independent
control of the reactive current flow through the STATCOM. This reactive component Iq = jI q
that is in quadrature with the line voltage emulates an inductive or a capacitive reactance at the
POC in shunt with the line.
The fast-switching capability of the VSCs enables the UPFC to provide a fast dynamic response, if
properly designed. Even though the Shunt–Series configuration is preferable for a PFC, instead of a
Shunt–Shunt configuration in a synchronous system because of the advantages in lower rating,
thus lower cost, the VSC-based UPFC started with two major drawbacks (high installation and
operating costs) since its inception in the 1990s. Over the decades, the list of drawbacks has
expanded to include component obsolescence, impracticability of relocation, and lack of interop-
erability. Moreover, the fast dynamic response in the range of ms is not required in most utility
applications. Traditionally, a mechanical LTC is used since its speed of operation provides an ade-
quate response time in most utility applications. If faster response is needed, the mechanical LTCs
can be replaced with faster switches. This was the motivation to redesign the PFC as discussed next.
In the next section, a new SPFC is introduced to provide an independent control of active and
reactive power flows in a line with the use of time-tested components, such as transformer/LTCs
that are familiar to utilities worldwide for almost a century.

2.3.4.2 Sen Transformer (ST)

The schematic diagram of an ST and its operational phasor diagram are shown in Figure 2-66. The
ST consists of an Exciter Unit and a Compensating-Voltage Unit that connects a compensating volt-
age in series with the line and, in turn, modifies the line voltage to a specific magnitude and phase
angle within its design limit. While the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) provides a compensation
in its entire controllable range of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 , its exchanged active and reactive powers with the
line flow bidirectionally through the magnetic link to the shunt-connected Exciter Unit as shown in
Figure 2-11.
184 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

(a)
Vs′sA IA
VsA
0
a1 1 Vs′A
2
3
IB
VsB

3
2
b1

1
0
Vs′B

4
IC

3
c1

2
1
VsC

Vs′C

Vs′sB

0
(b)
a2 1
2
Va1
3 V
A s′s β

4
A

3
2
b2

1
Vs′A

3
c2

2
ψ

1
0
V c1 V
b1

VsA
Vs′sC Va3 Va2
V sC B
V ψ Vs′B V s′s
C sB
B 1
a3 2 ψ β
3
4
3

V c3 β Vs′C Vb V
2

b3 V c2
1
0

3 b2
Vs′sC
3

c3
2
1
0

Exciter Unit Compensating-Voltage Unit

Figure 2-66 Sen Transformer (ST).

Compensating-
Voltage Unit
Vs′s
Psrc , Qsrc Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr
Ps , Qs Vd Vq
VX
I

Vs Vs′ X Vr
Pse Qse
Vd I
Id = Vs
V 2s
Qsh Psh
Id Vq I
Plink Iq = j Vs
Iq V 2s

Qlink
Exciter Unit

Figure 2-67 Basic ST model, integrated in a two-generator/one-line power system network.

A basic ST model, integrated in a two-generator/one-line power system network is shown in

Figure 2-67. The figure shows the basic ST model, which consists of a shunt-connected Exciter Unit
and a series-connected Compensating-Voltage Unit. The Compensating-Voltage Unit connects a
compensating voltage (Vs s) in series with the line. The compensating voltage (Vs s) consists of
 2.4 Interline Power Flow Concept 185

active and reactive components, which are Vd = V d and Vq = jV q with load convention. The com-
pensating voltage (Vs s) is at any phase angle with the prevailing line current (I). The active com-
ponent (Vd) that is either in phase or out of phase with the line current, emulates a positive or a
negative resistor in series with the line. The reactive component (Vq) that is in quadrature either
leading or lagging the line current, emulates a reactor or a capacitor in series with the line.
The series-compensating voltage (Vs s) exchanges active and reactive powers (Pse and Qse) that are
defined as
Pse = − Vs s •I = Vdq •I = V d I = V s I d (2-275)

and

Qse = − Vs s × I = Vdq × I = V q I = V s I q (2-276)

The active and reactive powers (Pse and Qse) that are exchanged with the line, flow through a
magnetic link to the Exciter Unit and result in active and reactive currents (Id or Id and Iq or
jIq) flowing through it. The active current (Id) is either in phase or out of phase with the line voltage
and emulates a positive or a negative resistor at the POC in shunt with the line. The reactive current
(Iq) is in quadrature with the line voltage and emulates an inductive or a capacitive reactance at the
POC in shunt with the line.
The active and reactive powers exchanged by the UPFC and the ST with the line are the same. In
both the UPFC and ST, the exchanged active power (Pse) contributes to the same amount of active
current (Id) through the shunt connection. Therefore, when the series-connected Compensating-
Voltage Unit emulates a +R, the shunt-connected Exciter Unit emulates a −R and vice versa. In the
case of the ST, the exchanged reactive power (Qse) by the Compensating-Voltage Unit contributes to
an amount of reactive current (Iq) through the shunt connection. However, the reactive current (Iq)
through the STATCOM is independent of the reactive power (Qse), exchanged by the SSSC with the
line. Therefore, in the ST, when the series-connected Compensating-Voltage Unit emulates a capac-
itive reactance, the shunt-connected Exciter Unit emulates an inductive reactance and vice versa.

2.4 Interline Power Flow Concept

The ST or the UPFC is suitable for independent control of active and reactive power flows in one
line to which it is connected. However, several lines are usually connected in close proximity to a
common voltage bus. Any change in the power flow in one line will affect the power flows in the
neighboring lines. Therefore, a compensation scheme is needed to transfer power directly from par-
ticular lines to other specific lines. In a multiline transmission network, it would be advantageous to
be able to transfer power from an overloaded to an underloaded line with a minimum impact on the
power flow in the other uncompensated lines.
A series-compensating voltage regulates the magnitude and phase angle of the line voltage inde-
pendently and, therefore, controls the active and reactive power flows in a line independently as
desired. In the process, it exchanges active and reactive powers at the POC with the line. The need
for the exchanged active power demand can be met using a Series–Series configuration, which is
composed of at least two DC-to-AC VSCs that are connected back to back at their common DC link.
Hence, it is called a BTB-SSSC. Each SSSC is connected in series with an AC line. In a typical appli-
cation, the BTB-SSSC can transfer active power from one or more lines, referred to as “leader” lines,
to the others, referred to as “follower” lines. In addition, the BTB-SSSC can provide independent
186 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

reactive power compensation in each line to which it is connected and thereby controls the effective
reactance of each line between its two ends. In 2003, a VSC-based PFC (BTB-SSSC), also known as
IPFC, was demonstrated to be able to provide this operation at Marcy substation in New York, USA.
If the lines that are involved in the compensation scheme are not connected to a common voltage
bus, they may be operated at different frequencies. This compensation scheme then becomes an
“asynchronous tie.”
Another PFC, based on transformer/LTCs, is the MST that provides independent control of active
and reactive power flows in a line and also transfers active and reactive powers selectively from one
line to another in a multiline transmission system without affecting the power flows in the uncom-
pensated lines.

2.4.1 Back-to-Back SSSC

A basic BTB-SSSC that provides a series compensation in a three-generator/two-line power system
network is shown in Figure 2-68. Both lines are connected together at the sending end with voltage
(Vs). The line 1 consists of a series-compensating voltage (V1s s), line reactance (X1), and a receiv-
ing-end voltage (V1r). The line 2 consists of a series-compensating voltage (V2s s), line reactance
(X2), and a receiving-end voltage (V2r).
The modified sending-end voltages for lines 1 and 2 are
V1s = Vs + V1s s (2-277)
V2s = Vs + V2s s (2-278)
Line 1 operates as the “leader” line where the series-compensating voltage (V1s s) is of any mag-
nitude within its allowable limit and at any phase angle with the sending-end voltage as well as the
prevailing line current (I1). Therefore, the series-compensating voltage (V1s s) exchanges active and
reactive powers (P1se and Q1se) with the line and emulates a four-quadrant, series-compensating
impedance Z1se = R1se − jX 1se that consists of a compensating resistance R1se = +R1 or − R1
and a compensating reactance X 1se = X C1 or − X L1 in series with line 1. A positive resistance
(+R1) absorbs active power from the line and a negative resistance (−R1) delivers active power
to the line; a capacitive reactance (XC1) increases the power flow of the line and an inductive reac-
tance (XL1) decreases the power flow of the line.

Psrc , Qsrc P1r , Q1r

P1s′, Q1s′
P1s , Q1s V1s′s
VX1
I1

P1se X1
V1s′ V1r
Q1se
+ P2r , Q2r
– P2s′, Q2s′
P2s , Q2s P2se VX2
Q2se I2

Vs V2s′ X2
V2r
V2s′s

Figure 2-68 Basic BTB-SSSC, integrated in a three-generator/two-line power system network.

 2.4 Interline Power Flow Concept 187

Line 2 operates as the “follower” line where the series-compensating voltage (V2s s) is of specific
magnitude and phase angle with the prevailing line current (I2). The compensating voltage (V2s s),
therefore, exchanges both active and reactive powers (P2se and Q2se) with the line and satisfies the
active power and reactive power demands (both delivered and absorbed) by the series-
compensating voltage (V1s s) in line 1. The compensating voltage (V2s s) emulates a series-
compensating impedance Z2se = R2se − jX 2se that consists of a resistance R2se = +R2 or − R2
and a reactance X 2se = X C2 or − X L2 in series with line 2.
In an application, it may be desirable to provide series compensation to a number of lines in such
a way that the active powers from specific “leader” lines flow through specific “follower” lines while
the reactive compensation in each line is independently provided. Such a scheme can be implemen-
ted with several lines compensated by the SSSCs that are connected at their common DC link.
Figure 2-69 shows a basic BTB-SSSC with two VSCs that are connected at their common DC link.
The series-compensating voltage (V1s s) from VSC1 is connected in series with line 1. The series-
compensating voltage (V2s s) from VSC2 is connected in series with line 2. The active power that
flows through their common DC link is P1se = − P2se, assumimg the VSCs are lossless. In addition,
the two VSCs exchange reactive power Q1se Q2se with the respective line independently as
desired. In an actual installation, if the “leader” line receives P1se, the “follower” line supplies
P2se, which is the sum of P1se and the losses in the VSCs.
The BTB-SSSC, shown in Figure 2-69, consists of two HN-VSCs (VSC1 and VSC2), two magnetic
circuits (MC1 and MC2), two series-coupling transformers (SRSTR1 and SRSTR2), two series dis-
connect switches (SRSDS1 and SRSDS2), two electronic bypass-switches (ES1 and ES2), a DC link
switch (DCLS), two series bypass breakers (SRSBK1 and SRSBK2), current and voltage sensors, and
a Control & Protection Unit.

V1s′s V2s′s
Vs SRSBK1 SRSBK2

SRSTR1 SRSTR2
I1 ES1 ES2 I2

I11 I22

V1s′ V2s′
SRSDS1 SRSDS2
i iDC2
E1 DC1 DCLS E2

+
–
vDC +
–

MC1 VSC1 VSC2 MC2

Control & Protection Unit

BTB-SSSC

Figure 2-69 Implementation of a basic BTB-SSSC.

188 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

When the DCLS is open, the two VSCs can be used as independent reactive compensators, such as
a series compensator, SSSC. Each compensator is coupled with a transformer at its output. The
SSSC connects an almost sinusoidal voltage, of variable magnitude, in series with the line. When
the SSSCs operate as stand-alone controllers, they exchange almost exclusively reactive power with
the line at their respective AC terminals.
When the DCLS is closed, the VSCs are connected at their common DC link. While operating
both the VSCs together as a BTB-SSSC, the exchanged power at the terminal of each VSC can
be reactive as well as active. The series-compensating voltage can be at any phase angle with respect
to the prevailing line current. The exchanged active power at the terminal of one VSC with the line
flows to the terminal of the other VSC through the common DC link. Note that the BTB-SSSC
power circuit must be rated for the compensating (not transmitted) power in the AC lines to which
it is connected.
If the lines that are involved in the BTB-SSSC compensation scheme are not connected to a com-
mon voltage bus, they are not required to be operated at the same frequency. This compensation
scheme, integrated in a four-generator/two-line power system network, is shown in Figure 2-70,
then becomes an “asynchronous tie.”
The modified sending-end voltages (V1s and V2s ) for lines 1 and 2 are
V1s = V1s + V1s 1s (2-279)
V2s = V2s + V2s 2s (2-280)
where V1s and V2s are the sending-end voltages for lines 1 and 2, respectively, and V1s 1s and V2s 2s
are the series-compensating voltages for lines 1 and 2, respectively.

2.4.2 Multiline Sen Transformer (MST)

The alternative technique of power flow control in a multiline transmission system can be imple-
mented using transformer/LTCs technology, called the MST as shown in Figure 2-71. The MST is
based on the established technology of transformer/LTCs and is capable of providing an effective
power flow management for multiple lines that are connected to a common voltage bus.
The general power flow equations in an uncompensated line are given by
V sV r
Psn = sin δs − δr (2-281)
X

P1r , Q1r
V1s′1s P1s′, Q1s′
P1s , Q1s VX1
I1

P1se X1
V1s V1s′ V1r
+ Q1se P2r , Q2r
– P2s′, Q2s′
P2s , Q2s P2se VX2
I2
Q2se

X2
V2s′ V2r
V2s V2s′2s

Figure 2-70 BTB-SSSC scheme as an asynchronous tie, integrated in a four-generator/two-line power system
network.
 2.4 Interline Power Flow Concept 189

Psrc, Qsrc P1r , Q1r

V1s′s P1s′, Q1s′
P1s , Q1s VX1
I1

P1se X1
Plink , Qlink V1s′ V1r
Q1se
Exciter P2r , Q2r
Unit P2s′, Q2s′
P2s , Q2s P2se VX2
I2
Q2se

X2
Vs V2s′ V2r
V2s′s

Figure 2-71 Basic MST, integrated in a three-generator/two-line power system network.

V sV r Vs
Qsn = − cos δs − δr (2-282)
X Vr
V sV r
Prn = sin δs − δr (2-283)
X
and
V sV r Vr
Qrn = cos δs − δr − (2-284)
X Vs
using Equations (2-40), (2-43), (2-46), (2-48), (2-41), and (2-27).
Therefore, the power flow equations for the receiving end in the compensated line 1 (“leader”
line) can be rewritten by substituting Prn with P1r, Qrn with Q1r, Vs with V1s , Vr with V1r, δs with
δ1s , δr with δ1r, and X with X1 in Equations (2-283) and (2-284) as
V 1s V 1r
P1r = sin δ1s − δ1r (2-285)
X1
and
V 1s V 1r V 1r
Q1r = cos δ1s − δ1r − (2-286)
X1 V 1s
Equations (2-285) and (2-286) can be combined as
2 2
V 21r V 1s V 1r
P21r + Q1r + = (2-287)
X1 X1
and
P1r
tan δ1s − δ1r = V 21r
(2-288)
Q1r + X1

The magnitude (V1s ) of the modified sending-end voltage (V1s ) in line 1 is expressed by rearran-
ging Equation (2-287) as
2
X1 V 21r
V 1s = P21r + Q1r + (2-289)
V 1r X1
190 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

The phase angle (δ1s ) of the modified sending-end voltage (V1s ) in line 1 is expressed by rearran-
ging Equation (2-288) as
P1r
δ1s = tan − 1 + δ1r (2-290)
V 21r
Q1r +
X1
Considering the sending-end voltage phasor as reference (δs = 0 ), ψ 1 = δ1s − δs as the phase-
shift angle of the modified sending-end voltage in line 1, and δ1 = δs − δ1r as the natural power
angle of line 1, Equation (2-290) can be rewritten as
P1r
ψ 1 = tan − 1 − δ1 (2-291)
V2
Q1r + 1r
X1
Therefore, the magnitude (V1s s) and the relative phase angle (β1) of the series-compensating volt-
age (V1s s) in line 1 can be rewritten by substituting Vs with V1s and ψ with ψ 1 in Equations (2-100)
and (2-101) as

V 1s s = V 21s + V 2s − 2V 1s V s cos ψ 1 (2-292)

and
V 1s sin ψ 1
β1 = tan − 1 (2-293)
V 1s cos ψ 1 − V s
The equations for the active and reactive powers (P1se and Q1se) exchanged in line 1 can be rewrit-
ten by substituting Psn with P1sn, Qsn with Q1sn, β with β1, Vs s with V1s s, VXn with V1Xn, X with X1,
and ase with a1se in Equations (2-177), (2-181), and (2-178) as
P1sn
P1se = a1se sin β1 − tan − 1 (2-294)
Q1sn
and
V 21s s P1sn
Q1se = − − a1se cos β1 − tan − 1 (2-295)
X1 Q1sn
where
V 1s s V 1Xn
a1se = (2-296)
X1

Note that the expression for the natural voltage (V1Xn) across line 1 can be rewritten by substitut-
ing VXn with V1Xn, Vr with V1r, and δ with δ1 in Equation (2-30) as

V 1Xn = V 2s − 2V s V 1r cos δ1 + V 21r (2-297)

The natural power flow equations for the sending end in line 1 (“leader” line) can be rewritten by
substituting Psn with P1sn, Qsn with Q1sn, Vr with V1r, δr with δ1r, and X with X1 in Equations (2-281)
and (2-282) as
V s V 1r
P1sn = sin δs − δ1r (2-298)
X1
 2.4 Interline Power Flow Concept 191

and
V s V 1r Vs
Q1sn = − cos δs − δ1r (2-299)
X1 V 1r
If the multiline power flow concept is applied in two lines using series-compensating voltages
generated by transformer/LTCs, it can be written from Figure 2-71 that
P1se + P2se = Plink (2-300)
and
Q1se + Q2se = Qlink (2-301)
If the multiline power flow concept is applied in two lines using series-compensating voltages
generated by VSCs or electrical machines, it can be written from Figure 2-68 that
P1se + P2se = 0 (2-302)
while the reactive powers, exchanged with the leader and follower lines, are independent of each
other. The active power exchanged with line 2 is the negative of the active power exchanged with
line 1. In other words, if line 1 is delivering active power, line 2 is absorbing the same amount of
active power that line 1 is delivering and vice versa, assuming the VSCs are lossless. Once the active
and reactive powers (P2se and Q2se), which are exchanged with line 2 are known, the required series-
compensating voltage (V2s s = V 2s s ∠ δs + β2 ) can be determined as follows.
The expression for the magnitude (V2s s) of the series-compensating voltage in line 2 can be
rewritten by substituting Vs s with V2s s, Pse with P2se, Qse with Q2se, VXn with V2Xn, and X with
X2 in Equation (2-186b) as

2
V 22Xn V 22Xn
V 2s s = + − X 2 Q2se − − X 2 Q2se − X 22 P22se + Q22se (2-303)
2 2

The expression for the relative phase angle (β2) of the series-compensating voltage (V2s s) can be
rewritten by substituting Vs s with V2s s, Pse with P2se, Qse with Q2se, Psn with P2sn, and Qsn with Q2sn in
Equation (2-187a) as
P2sn P2se
β2 = tan − 1 − tan − 1 V2
(2-304)
Q2sn Q2se + X2s2 s

Note that the expressions for the natural voltage (V2Xn) across line 2 can be rewritten by substi-
tuting VXn with V2Xn, Vr with V2r , and δ with δ2 in Equation (2-30) as

V 2Xn = V 2s − 2V s V 2r cos δ2 + V 22r (2-305)

The natural power flow equations for the sending end in line 1 (“leader” line) can be rewritten by
substituting Psn with P2sn, Qsn with Q2sn, Vr with V2r, δr with δ2r, and X with X2 in Equations (2-281)
and (2-282) as
V s V 2r
P2sn = sin δs − δ2r (2-306)
X2
and
V s V 2r Vs
Q2sn = − cos δs − δ2r (2-307)
X2 V 2r
192 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

V1s′sA I1A V2s′sA I2A

VsA

a11 I1B V1s′A a21 V2s′A

1 1
2 2 I2B
VsB 3 3

4
4 4

3
b11 b21

2
2
1
0

0
I1C V1s′B I2C V2s′B

4
3
VsC

2
c11 c21

1
0

0
V1s′C V2s′C
V1s′sB V2s′sB
0 0

A a12 1
2
a22 2
3

4
4 4

2
2
b12 b22

1
0

0
4

4
3

3
2

2
c12 c22

1
V1s′sC V2s′sC
0 0
B a13 a23 1
C 4 2
3
2

4
4 4
3

3
b13
2

2
b23
1

1
4

4
3
2

2
c13 c23
1
0

0
Exciter Unit Compensating-Voltage Unit 1 Compensating-Voltage Unit 2

Figure 2-72 Multiline Sen transformer (MST).

Figure 2-72 shows a basic MST with two STs that are connected at their common magnetic link.

2.4.3 Back-to-Back STATCOM

For a point-to-point transfer of power between two isolated networks or interconnection of two
lines with different voltages or phase angles (or frequencies), the magnitude and phase angle of
the line voltage can be controlled to specific values by a shunt-compensating voltage. The compen-
sating voltage exchanges active and reactive powers at the POC with the line. The need for the
exchanged active power demand can be met using a Shunt–Shunt configuration, consisting of at
least two DC-to-AC VSCs that are connected back to back at their common DC link. Hence, it
is called a BTB STATCOM. Each STATCOM is connected in shunt to an AC line. In a typical appli-
cation, the BTB-STATCOM transfers active power from one or more lines, referred to as “leader”
lines, to the others, referred to as “follower” lines. In addition, the BTB-STATCOM provides inde-
pendent reactive power compensation in each line to which it is connected and thereby regulates
the voltage of the line at the POC. In 2000, the VSC-based BTB-STATCOM was demonstrated to be
able to provide this operation as an “asynchronous tie” at Eagle Pass substation in Texas, USA,
connecting American Electric Power (AEP) in the USA with Comisión Federal de Electricidad
(CFE) in Mexico.
A two-generator/one-line power system network, integrated with a BTB STATCOM is shown in
Figure 2-73. The two VSCs are connected at their common DC link. The VSC1 (E1 = E1 ∠ δs + α1 ),
shown as Shunt Unit 1, is connected to the line voltage Vs = V s ∠δs with a tie-reactance (X1TIE).
The VSC2 (E2 = E 2 ∠ δs + α2 , shown as Shunt Unit 2, is connected to the line voltage
Vs = V s ∠δs with a tie-reactance (X2TIE). Shunt Unit 2 is operated as the “leader” unit in which
the shunt-compensator voltage (E2) is of any magnitude within its allowable limit and at any phase
angle with the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) to exchange active and reactive powers (P2sh and
Q2sh) with the line. Shunt Unit 1 is operated as the “follower” unit in which the shunt-compensator
 2.4 Interline Power Flow Concept 193

Ps′ , Qs′ Pr , Qr
P2sh
Ps , Qs VX
Q2sh I

X
Vs Vsʹ Vr
P1sh X1TIE X2TIE
Q1sh
E1 E2
Shunt Plink Shunt
Unit 1 Unit 2

BTB-STATCOM

Figure 2-73 Back-To-Back STATCOM (BTB-STATCOM), integrated in a two-generator/one-line power system

network.

voltage (E1) is of specific magnitude and phase angle with the sending-end voltage (Vs) to exchange
active and reactive powers (P1sh and Q1sh) at the POC. The net active power that flows through their
common DC link is Plink. Each Shunt Unit exchanges reactive power (Q1sh Q2sh) with its respec-
tive line independently as desired. In an actual installation, if the “leader” unit is designed to receive
P2sh, the “follower” unit is designed to supply P1sh, which is the sum of P2sh and the losses in both
the units.
Figure 2-74 shows a basic BTB-STATCOM with two VSCs that are connected at their common DC
link. The BTB-STATCOM consists of two HN-VSCs (VSC1 and VSC2), two magnetic circuits (MC1
and MC2), two shunt-coupling transformers (SHNTR1 and SHNTR2), two shunt breakers
(SHNBK1 and SHNBK2), a DC link switch (DCLS), current and voltage sensors, and a Control &
Protection Unit.

Figure 2-74 Back-to-Back STATCOM.

SHNBK1 SHNBK2
Vs Vs′

I1 I2

SHNTR1 SHNTR2
iDC1 iDC2
E1 DCLS E2

vDC

MC1 VSC1 VSC2 MC2

Control & Protection Unit

BTB-STATCOM
194 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

When the DCLS is open, the two VSCs can be used as independent reactive compensators
(STATCOMs). Each VSC is coupled with a transformer at its output. The STATCOM injects an
almost sinusoidal current, of variable magnitude, in shunt with the line. When the STATCOMs
operate as stand-alone compensators, they exchange almost exclusively reactive power with the
respective line.
When the DCLS is closed, the VSCs are connected at their common DC link. While operating
both the VSCs together as a BTB-STATCOM, the exchanged power at the terminal of each VSC
can be reactive as well as active. The shunt-compensating voltage can be at any phase angle with
respect to the current flowing through it. The exchanged active power at the terminal of one VSC
with the line flows to the terminal of the other VSC through their common DC link. However, the
reactive power, exchanged with each line, is independent of each other. Note that the BTB-STAT-
COM’s power circuit must be rated for the apparent power that is transmitted in the line.

2.4.4 Generalized Power Flow Controller

The VSC-based PFCs that have been mentioned thus far (UPFC, BTB-SSSC, and BTB-STATCOM)
make use of at least two units and they are connected in Shunt–Series, Series–Series, and Shunt–
Shunt configurations, respectively. In a multiline transmission network, it would be advantageous
to extend the functions of these PFCs to compensate more than two lines in an area, so that the
power flow management in all the compensated lines can be coordinated while interconnecting
lines with different voltages, phase angles, or frequencies. The Generalized Power Flow Controller
(GPFC), as shown in Figure 2-75, consists of a number of VSCs, each of which is connected in shunt

Line 1

Line m

Line m+1

Line m+n

Shunt Shunt Series Series

VSC VSC VSC VSC
1 m 1 n

DC link

Optical links
Control

Figure 2-75 Generalized power flow controller with a DC link.

 2.4 Interline Power Flow Concept 195

and/or series with a particular line through a coupling transformer. All the VSCs in the GPFC are
connected at their common DC link. The compensating voltages are controlled in such a way that
the active power can be transferred from one specific line to another specific line through their
common DC link. In addition, each VSC provides an independent reactive compensation at its
AC terminal.
The overall control scheme of a GPFC is such that if the active power exchanged by the mth
shunt-connected VSC and nth series-connected VSC with their AC lines are Pmsh and Pnse, respec-
tively, the following active power balance is maintained, ignoring the losses in the VSCs:
P1sh + P2sh + … + Pmsh + P1se + P2se + … + Pnse = 0 (2-308)
Each shunt-connected VSC may be connected to a line through a tie reactor or coupling trans-
former. If a coupling transformer is used, its leakage reactance can replace the reactance of the tie
reactor. In addition, a coupling transformer can keep the power electronics-based VSCs isolated
from the high-voltage transmission line and also provide voltage matching between the line and
the VSC, if needed. However, each series VSC in a DC link scheme must be connected through
a coupling transformer. The main purpose of the series-coupling transformer is to convert a
three-terminal (A-B-C) VSC into a six-terminal VSC with three isolated single-phase voltages that
can be connected in series with a three-phase line.
In an alternate approach, the intermediate link between the Shunt and Series Units may be an AC
link as shown in Figure 2-76.

Line 1

Line m

Line m+1

Line m+n

Shunt Shunt Series Series

BTB BTB BTB BTB
1 m 1 n

Magnetic Link

Optical Links
Control

Figure 2-76 Generalized power flow controller with an AC link.

196 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

2.5 Figure of Merits Among Various PFCs

The two most commonly-used control techniques for a transmission line power flow are voltage
regulation and phase angle regulation. The other control techniques, such as reactance regulation
and impedance regulation, can be thought of as a combination of both voltage regulation and phase
angle regulation. Using any regulation technique, except the impedance regulation, results in a
control of active and reactive power flows simultaneously. However, the impedance regulation
results in independent control of active and reactive power flows in the line. The merit of a PFC
stems from the evaluations of Reactive Power Index (RPI), Loss Index (LI), Apparent Power Rating
(APR), and so on, as described next. Each of these parameters is equivalent to a cost. The SMART
PFC provides a solution that meets the functional requirements while keeping the overall cost at
the lowest level.
A PFC, in its shunt–series form, modifies the sending-end voltage Vs = V s ∠δ to a modified
sending-end voltage Vs = V s ∠δ with a series-compensating voltage (Vs s) whose magnitude
is Vs s and the relative phase angle with respect to the sending-end voltage is β. A PFC can be oper-
ated as a VR, a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), a RR, and an IR. The electrical system data as given in
Table 2-1 is used for the analysis in this section.

2.5.1 VR
A VR regulates the line voltage while keeping its phase angle unchanged. By varying the line volt-
age, the power flow characteristics (Ps versus Qs ) and (Pr versus Qr) are shown in Figure 2-77c. The
limitation of the VR is that it is not designed to operate beyond the upper and lower voltage limits,
for example ±10%. The resulting useful range of power flow due to the use of a VR is bound by the
(Ps – Qs and Pr – Qr) characteristics in the practical operating region as shown in Figure 2-77c.
Considering the base case active power flow of one pu for a system with parameters given in
Table 2-1, the phasor diagrams for no power flow (Figure 2-77a), 100% power flow increase
(Figure 2-77b), and the related P-Q diagrams (Figure 2-77c) are shown in the figure, using a VR.

2.5.2 PAR (sym)

A PAR (sym) changes the phase angle of the line voltage while keeping its magnitude unchanged,
i.e. V s = V s. Figures 2-78 through 2-80 show three cases (case 1: 40%, case 2: 70%, and case 3: 100%)
of active power flow increase, which is defined as
ΔP = Pr − Prn = Ps − Psn (2-309)
The phasor diagram of a two-generator/one-line power system network, compensated with a
PAR (sym), is shown in Figure 2-78a for Case 1 with an increased active power flow of 40%.
Figure 2-78b shows the related P-Q characteristics. Note the reactive power (Qline1) absorbed by
the line for Case 1 is increased, compared to the reactive power (Qlinen) absorbed by an uncompen-
sated line.
The phasor diagram of a two-generator/one-line power system network, compensated with a
PAR (sym), is shown in Figure 2-79a for Case 2 with an increased active power flow of 70%.
Figure 2-79b shows the related P-Q characteristics. Note the reactive power (Qline2) absorbed by
the line for Case 2 is significantly increased, compared to the reactive power (Qline1) absorbed
by the line for Case 1. This operating point may be chosen as the maximum allowable power flow
 2.5 Figure of Merits Among Various PFCs 197

(a) (b) (c)

Q, V
(pu) 2
Vs′s Lower Vr δ' = 90°
Voltage Ps' vs Qs' Ps′ vs Qs′
Limit for VR * * for PAR
Vs Pr , Qr
δ′= 60° (sym)
VX Vs′ Vs′s VX δ = 30°
1

Vs'
δ Upper β = 0°
Voltage
δr δs δs′
Limit δ
Psn , Qsn
0
0.9 1 1.1 2 P (pu)
PAR (sym)
Line Practical Operating
Vr Region of a VR
Prn , Qrn

Vs β = 180°
–1 Pr vs Qr
δ = 30° for VR

δ′ = 60° Pr vs Qr
for PAR
δ
(sym)
δr δs δs′ δ′ = 90°
–2

Figure 2-77 Phasor diagram of VR for (a) no power flow, (b) 100% power flow increase, and (c) related P-Q
diagram, superimposed with the power flow characteristics of a PAR (sym).

limit due to the limitation of increased cost per unit of increased power delivery, called Sen Index,
which is discussed later in the chapter.
Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For a given Pr = 1 7 pu, calculate δmax
and δmin .
V sV r 1×1
From Equation (2-41), a = = = 2.
X 05
From Equation (2-46), Prn = a × sin δ = 2 × sin 30 = 1 pu.
Vs Vr 1×1
From Equation (2-61), a = = = 2.
X 05
From Equation (2-74), 1 7 = Pr = a sin δ = 2 × sin δ pu.
17
Therefore, the maximum modified power angle, δmax = sin − 1 = 58 211669 .
2
The phase-shift angle is given by
ψ = δmax − δ, (2-310)

which is 58.211669 − 30 = 28.211669 .

In order to keep the symmetry in the design of the PAR (sym), the minimum modified
power angle,
δmin = δ − ψ, (2-311)

which is 30 − 28.211669 = 1.788331 .

198 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

(b)
Q, V
(pu) 2
δ′ = 90°
Ps′ vs Qs′
for PAR
δ′ = 60° (sym)

δ = 30°
Vs'
1

* * β = 0°
Psn , Qsn Ps′, Qs′
(a) PAR
(sym) δ
Qline1
Vs′s Line 0 Qlinen
1 1.4 P (pu)
ΔP
VX
Vr Prn , Qrn * *
Pr , Qr
Vs
Vs′
β = 180°
–1
δ′
δ = 30°

ψ δ′ = 60° Pr vs Qr
for PAR
δ
(sym)
δr δs δs′ δ′ = 90°
–2

Figure 2-78 (a) Phasor diagram of a two-generator/one-line power system network with a PAR (sym) for Case
1 (40% enhancement of active power flow); (b) power flow characteristics at the modified sending end and the
receiving end.

The phasor diagram of a two-generator/one-line power system network, compensated with a

PAR (sym), is shown in Figure 2-80a for Case 3 with an increased active power flow of 100%.
Figure 2-80b shows the related P-Q characteristics. Note the reactive power (Qline3) absorbed by
the line for Case 3 is significantly increased, compared to the reactive power (Qline2) absorbed
by the line for Case 2.
The limitation of the PAR (sym) is that it is not designed to operate beyond the maximum mod-
ified power angle ( δmax), represented by the dashed line in the P-Q characteristic both at the sending
and receiving ends. Therefore, if the thermal limit of the line is at 2 pu, as it is in this example, it is
not possible to achieve the desired power flow using the PAR (sym). Note that the magnitude of the
voltage (Vs ) at the modified sending end remains unchanged during the entire operating range of
the PAR (sym).

2.5.3 PAR (asym)

A PAR (asym) changes primarily the phase angle of the line voltage with some increase in its mag-
nitude. The phasor diagram of a two-generator/one-line power system network, compensated with
a PAR (asym), is shown in Figure 2-81a for Case 1 with an increased active power flow of 40%.
 2.5 Figure of Merits Among Various PFCs 199

(b)
Q, V
(pu) 2

δ′ = 90° Ps′ vs Qs′

for PAR
(sym)
δ′ = 60°
δ = 30° Vs'
1
* *
Ps′, Qs′ δ′max

Psn , Qsn 𝛽 = 0°
(a) PAR
(sym) δ Qline1 Qline2
Line Qlinen
Vs′s 0
δ′min 1 1.4 1.7 2 P (pu)
ΔP
VX Vr Prn , Qrn

𝛽 = 180° * *
Vs′ Vs Pr , Qr
–1 δ′max
δ′
δ = 30°
δ′ = 60°
ψ Pr vs Qr
for PAR
δ (sym)
δ′ = 90°
δr δs δs′
–2

Figure 2-79 (a) Phasor diagram of a two-generator/one-line power system network with a PAR (sym) for Case
2 (70% enhancement of active power flow); (b) power flow characteristics at the modified sending end and the
receiving end.

(b)
Q, V
(pu) 2
δ′ = 90°

Ps′ vs Qs′
for PAR
δ′ = 60° (sym)

δ = 30°
Vs'
1
*, Q *
Ps′ δ′max
s′

β = 0°
Psn , Qsn
(a) PAR
(sym) δ Qline1 Qline2 Qline3
Line Qlinen
0
δ′min 1 1.4 1.7 2 P (pu)
ΔP
Vs′s ψ/2 VX
Vr Prn , Qrn

β = 180°
Vs P*r , Qr*
–1 δ′max
δ′
Vs′
δ = 30°

δ′ = 60° Pr vs Qr
ψ for PAR
δ (sym)
δr δs δs′ δ′ = 90°
–2

Figure 2-80 (a) Phasor diagram of a two-generator/one-line power system network with a PAR (sym) for Case
3 (100% enhancement of active power flow); (b) power flow characteristics at the modified sending end and the
receiving end.
200 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

(b)
Q, V
(pu) 2
δ′ = 90°
Ps' vs Qs'
for PAR
(sym)
δ′ = 60°
δ = 30°
Vs'
1
δ′max

* * Ps' vs Qs'
Ps′, Qs′
Psn , Qsn β = 0° for PAR
(a) PAR PAR (asym)
(sym) (asym) δ
Vs′s Line Line Qlinen Qline1
0
δ′min 1 1.4 P (pu)
ΔP
VX * *
Pr , Qr
Vr Prn , Qrn

Vs′ Vs Pr vs Qr
for PAR
δ′ –1 β = 180°
(asym) δ′max
δ = 30°

ψ δ′ = 60° Pr vs Qr
for PAR
δ (sym)
δr δs δs′ δ′ = 90°
–2

Figure 2-81 (a) Phasor diagram of a two-generator/one-line power system network with a PAR (asym) for
Case 1 (40% enhancement of active power flow); (b) power flow characteristics at the modified sending end and
the receiving end, superimposed with the power flow characteristics of a PAR (sym).

Figure 2-81b shows the related P-Q characteristics. Note the reactive power (Qline1), absorbed by the
line, for Case 1 is increased, compared to the reactive power (Qlinen) absorbed by an uncompen-
sated line.
The phasor diagram of a two-generator/one-line power system network, compensated with a
PAR (asym), is shown in Figure 2-82a for Case 2 with an increased active power flow of 70%.
Figure 2-82b shows the related P-Q characteristics. Note the reactive power (Qline2), absorbed by
the line, for Case 2 is significantly increased, compared to the reactive power (Qline1) absorbed
by the line for Case 1.
The phasor diagram of a two-generator/one-line power system network, compensated with a
PAR (asym), is shown in Figure 2-83a for Case 3 with an increased active power flow of 100%.
Figure 2-83b shows the related P-Q characteristics. Note the reactive power (Qline3), absorbed by
the line, for Case 3 is significantly increased, compared to the reactive power (Qline2) absorbed
by the line for Case 2. However, the Qline3 in the case of a PAR (asym) is less than the Qline3 in
the case of a PAR (sym). Therefore, if the active power flow needs to be increased by 100%, the
use of a PAR (asym) is preferred over the use of a PAR (sym) in this example. Note that the mag-
nitude of the voltage (Vs ) at the modified sending end always increases in the case of a PAR (asym)
whether the power flow is increased or decreased.
 2.5 Figure of Merits Among Various PFCs 201

(b)
Q, V
(pu) 2
δ′ = 90°
Ps′ vs Qs′
for PAR
(sym)
δ′ = 60°
δ = 30°
Vs'
1
* * δ′max
Ps′ , Qs′
Ps′ vs Qs′
for PAR
Psn , Qsn β = 0°
(a) PAR PAR (asym)
(sym) (asym) δ Qline1 Qline2
Vs′s Line Line
0 Qlinen
δ′min 1 1.4 1.7 2 P (pu)
ΔP
VX
Vr Prn , Qrn
* *
Pr , Qr
Pr vs Qr
for PAR
Vs′ Vs (asym)
–1 β =180° δ′max
δ′
δ = 30°
δ′ = 60° Pr vs Qr
ψ for PAR
δ (sym)
δr δs δs′ δ′ = 90°
–2

Figure 2-82 (a) Phasor diagram of a two-generator/one-line power system network with a PAR (asym) for
Case 2 (70% enhancement of active power flow); (b) power flow characteristics at the modified sending end and
the receiving end, superimposed with the power flow characteristics of a PAR (sym).

(b)
Q, V
(pu) 2
δ′ = 90° Ps′ vs Qs′
* *
Ps′ , Qs′
for PAR
(sym)
δ′ = 60°
δ = 30°
Vs′
1
δ′max
Ps′ vs Qs′
for PAR
Psn , Qsn β = 0° (asym)
(a) PAR PAR
(sym) (asym) δ
Line Qline1 Qline2 Qline3
Vs′s Line Qlinen
0
δ′min 1 1.4 1.7 2 P(pu)
ΔP
VX
Vr Prn , Qrn * *
Vs′ Pr , Qr
Pr vs Qr
Vs for PAR
(asym)
–1 δ'max
β = 180°
δ′
δ = 30°
δ′ = 60° Pr vs Qr
ψ for PAR
δ (sym)

δr δs δs′ δ′ = 90°
–2

Figure 2-83 (a) Phasor diagram of a two-generator/one-line power system network with a PAR (asym) for
Case 3 (100% enhancement of active power flow); (b) power flow characteristics at the modified sending end
and the receiving end, superimposed with the power flow characteristics of a PAR (sym).
202 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

2.5.4 RR
A RR connects a series-compensating voltage (Vs s) that is in quadrature with the prevailing line
current (I). The ratio of the compensating voltage and the prevailing line current is the compensat-
ing reactance (Xse). The phasor diagram of a two-generator/one-line power system network, com-
pensated with a RR, is shown in Figure 2-84a for Case 1 with an increased active power flow of 40%.
Figure 2-84b shows the related P-Q characteristics. Note the reactive power (Qline1), absorbed by the
line, for Case 1 is increased, compared to the reactive power (Qlinen) absorbed by an uncompen-
sated line.
The phasor diagram of a two-generator/one-line power system network, compensated with a RR,
is shown in Figure 2-85a for Case 2 with an increased active power flow of 70%. Figure 2-85b shows
the related P-Q characteristics. Note the reactive power (Qline2), absorbed by the line, for Case 2 is
significantly increased, compared to the reactive power (Qline1) absorbed by the line for Case 1.
The phasor diagram of a two-generator/one-line power system network, compensated with a RR,
is shown in Figure 2-86a for Case 3 with an increased active power flow of 100%. Figure 2-86b shows
the related P-Q characteristics. Note the reactive power (Qline3), absorbed by the line, for Case 3 is
significantly increased, compared to the reactive power (Qline2) absorbed by the line for Case 2.
However, the Qline3 in the case of a RR is less than the Qline3 in the case of a PAR (sym or asym).
Therefore, if the active power flow needs to be increased by 100%, the use of a RR is preferred over
the use of a PAR (sym or asym) in this example. Note that the magnitude of the voltage (Vs ) at the
modified sending end increases in the case of a RR when power flow increases over the natural
value and vice versa.

(b)
Q, V
(pu) 2
δʹ = 90º Psʹ vs Qsʹ
for PAR
(sym)
δʹ = 60º

δ = 30° Vs'
1
* * δ′max
Ps′, Qs′
Ps′ vs Qs′ for RR
Psn , Qsn β = 0°
(a)
–90° PAR
Vq (sym) δ Qline1
VX
Line 0 Qlinen

Vr δʹmin 1 1.4 * * 2 P (pu)

Vs′s Vs VXeff ΔP Pr , Qr

Prn , Qrn
Vs′ δ
Pr vs Qr
2 for RR
–1 δʹmax
δ′ β =180°
δ = 30°
δ′ = 60º Pr vs Qr
ψ for PAR
δ (sym)
δr δs δs′ δ′ = 90º
–2

Figure 2-84 (a) Phasor diagram of a two-generator/one-line power system network with a RR for Case 1 (40%
enhancement of active power flow); (b) power flow characteristics at the modified sending end and the
receiving end, superimposed with the power flow characteristics of a PAR (sym).
 2.5 Figure of Merits Among Various PFCs 203

(b)
Q, V
(pu) 2
δ′ = 90°
Ps′ vs Qs'
for PAR
(sym)
δ′ = 60° * *
Ps′ , Qs′
δ = 30° Vs′
1
Ps′ vs Qs′ δ′max
for RR
β =0°
(a) Psn , Qsn
–90°
Vq PAR δ Qline1 Qline2
VX (sym) Qlinen
0
Line 1 1.4 2 P(pu)
VXeff Vr δ′min 1.7
Vs′s Vs ΔP
* *
Prn , Qrn Pr , Qr
Vs′ δ Pr vs Qr
2 for RR
δ′max
δ′ –1 β = 180°
δ = 30°
δ′ = 60° Pr vs Qr
ψ for PAR
δ (sym)
δr δs δs′ δ′ = 90°
–2

Figure 2-85 (a) Phasor diagram of a two-generator/one-line power system network with a RR for Case 2 (70%
enhancement of active power flow); (b) power flow characteristics at the modified sending end and the
receiving end, superimposed with the power flow characteristics of a PAR (sym).

(b)
Q, V
(pu) 2
δ′= 90º * *
Ps' , Qs'
Ps′ vs Qs′
for PAR
δ′= 60º (sym)

δ = 30° Vs'
1 δʹmax
Ps' vs Qs'
for RR
β = 0°
(a) Psn , Qsn
–90°
Vq PAR δ
Qline1 Qline2 Qline3
VX (sym) Qlinen
0
Line
δʹmin 1 1.4 1.7 2 P(pu)
Vs′s Vs VXeff Vr ΔP
* *
Vs′ Prn , Qrn P r , Qr
δ Pr vs Qr
2 for RR

δ′ –1 β = 180° δ′max
δ = 30°
δ′= 60º Pr vs Qr
ψ for PAR
δ (sym)
δr δs δs′ δ′= 90º
–2

Figure 2-86 (a) Phasor diagram of a two-generator/one-line power system network with a RR for Case 3
(100% enhancement of active power flow); (b) power flow characteristics at the modified sending end and the
receiving end, superimposed with the power flow characteristics of a PAR (sym).
204 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

2.5.5 IR
For the operation of an IR, a variable magnitude series-compensating voltage is applied during its
entire controllable range of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 . The P-Q characteristic at the modified sending end as
described in Section 2.2.2.3 (Power Flow at the Modified Sending End with a Series-Compensating
Voltage) is elliptical; the P-Q characteristics at the receiving end as described in Section 2.2.2.2
(Power Flow at the Receiving End with a Series-Compensating Voltage) is circular. The correspond-
ing phasor diagrams and the P-Q characteristics are as shown in Figures 2-87 through 2-89 for the
three cases. The phasor diagram of a two-generator/one-line power system network, compensated
with an IR, is shown in Figure 2-87a for Case 1 with an increased active power flow of 40%. Figure
2-87b shows the related P-Q characteristics. Note the reactive power (Qline1), absorbed by the line,
for Case 1 is increased, compared to the reactive power (Qlinen) absorbed by an uncompensated line;
however, the reactive power flow at the receiving end remains unchanged as Qrn.
The phasor diagram of a two-generator/one-line power system network, compensated with an
IR, is shown in Figure 2-88a for Case 2 with an increased active power flow of 70%. Figure
2-88b shows the related P-Q characteristics. Note the reactive power (Qline2), absorbed by the line,
for Case 2 is increased, compared to the reactive power (Qline1) absorbed by the line for Case 1; how-
ever, the reactive power flow at the receiving end remains unchanged as Qrn.
The phasor diagram of a two-generator/one-line power system network, compensated with an
IR, is shown in Figure 2-89a for Case 3 with an increased active power flow of 100%. The figure
also shows the variation of voltage magnitude at the modified sending end. Figure 2-89b shows

(b)
Q, V
(pu)2
δ′ = 90°

Ps′ vs Qs′
δ′ = 60° for PAR
Vs′ (sym)
δ = 30°
Ps′ vs Qs′
1
for IR δ′max
(a)
β * *
Psn, Qsn Ps′, Qs′ β = 0°

PAR δ Qline1
VX
(sym) 0 Qlinen
Vs′s Line 1 1.4
δ′min P(pu)
ΔP
Prn , Qrn
Vr * *
Pr , Qr
Vs′ Vs
Pr vs Qr
for IR δ′max
–1 β = 180°
δ′
δ = 30°
ψ Pr vs Qr
δ′ = 60°
for PAR
δ (sym)

δr δs δs′ δ′ = 90°
–2

Figure 2-87 (a) Phasor diagram of a two-generator/one-line power system network with an IR for Case 1 (40%
enhancement of active power flow); (b) power flow characteristics at the modified sending end and the
receiving end, superimposed with the power flow characteristics of a PAR (sym).
 2.5 Figure of Merits Among Various PFCs 205

(b)
Q, V
(pu) 2
δ′ = 90°

* *
Ps′, Qs′
Vs′ Ps′ vs Qs′
δ′ = 60° for PAR
δ = 30° Ps' vs Qs' (sym)
for IR
1
(a) δ′max

β
β = 0°
Psn , Qsn
PAR
VX δ Qline1 Qline2
(sym)
Vs′s Line 0 Qlinen

δ′min 1 1.4 1.7 2 P (pu)

ΔP
* *
Vr
Prn , Qrn Pr , Qr
Pr vs Qr
for IR

Vs′ Vs
–1 δ′max
δ′ β = 180°
δ = 30°

δ′ = 60° Pr vs Qr
ψ
for PAR
δ (sym)
δr δs δs′ δ′ = 90°
–2

Figure 2-88 (a) Phasor diagram of a two-generator/one-line power system network with an IR for Case 2 (70%
enhancement of active power flow); (b) power flow characteristics at the modified sending end and the
receiving end, superimposed with the power flow characteristics of a PAR (sym).

(a) (b)
Q, V
(pu) 2
δʹ = 90º
* *
Ps ′, Qs′
Psʹ vs Qsʹ
δʹ = 60º Vs' for PAR
(sym)
δ = 30°
Ps' vs Qs'
1
for IR δʹmax

β
β = 0°
Psn , Qsn
PAR
VX δ Qline1 Qline2 Qline3
Vsʹs (sym)
Line 0 Qlinen
δʹmin 1 2 P(pu)
β ΔP
* *
Vr Prn , Qrn Pr , Qr
Vsʹ
Pr vs Qr
Vs for IR
–1 δʹmax
δʹ β = 180°
δ = 30°
δʹ = 60º Pr vs Qr
ψ for PAR
δ (sym)

δr δs δsʹ δʹ = 90º
–2

Figure 2-89 (a) Phasor diagram of a two-generator/one-line power system network with an IR for the Case 3
(100% enhancement of active power flow); (b) power flow characteristics at the modified sending end and the
receiving end, superimposed with the power flow characteristics of a PAR (sym).
206 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

the related P-Q characteristics. Note the reactive power (Qline3), absorbed by the line, for Case 3 is
increased, compared to Qline2; however, the reactive power flow at the receiving end remains
unchanged as Qrn. Figure 2-89b shows that the active power delivery at the load end can be nearly
doubled from the natural power flow without any voltage compensation at the load end while
maintaining a unity power factor. This is only possible to achieve by using an IR. Note that the
magnitude of the voltage (Vs ) at the modified sending end may be increased or decreased during
the entire operating range.
Note that the entire power flow control range, shown in Figures 2-87 through 2-89, of an IR may
not be available for use due to system constraints of voltage limitation as shown in Figure 6.12.
A VSC-based UPFC cannot be fully utilized due to these voltage constraints. However, an
SPFC, such as an ST, can be designed for a limited voltage and limited angle (as shown in
Figures 6-65–6-70) operations per functional requirements to maximize its use at the lowest
APR that results in the lowest cost.

2.5.6 RPI, LI, and APR of a PFC

The cost of delivering active power through a line consists of (1) fixed costs, such as the cost of the
line and maintenance cost and (2) load-dependent variable costs, such as need for reactive power in
the line and power loss in the line. In order to increase power flow in the line, additional costs are
incurred as follows:

a) Need for additional reactive power in the line.

b) Additional power loss in the line.
c) Cost of the PFC, which is directly proportional to the APR of the PFC.

For an IR, Equation (2-309) can be rewritten using Equations (2-131), (2-132), and (2-149) as
VrVs s
ΔP = sin δ + β (2-312)
X
where ΔP is the change in power flow with respect to the natural power flow.
Therefore, the required rating of the series-compensating voltage for a desired power flow change
(ΔP) can be written as
X × ΔP
Vs s = (2-313)
V r sin δ + β
The minimum voltage rating of the IR for a given power flow change occurs when δ + β = 90 or
270 and the resulting series-compensating voltage rating is
X
Vs s = ΔP (2-314)
Vr
For a given power angle (δ), the relative phase angle of the series-compensating voltage is
given by
β = 90 − δ or β = 270 − δ (2-315)
From Equations (2-152), (2-135), and (2-315), the corresponding reactive power flow at the mod-
ified sending end and receiving end are given by

V 2s s
Qs = Qsn + + 2as sin δ (2-316)
X
 2.5 Figure of Merits Among Various PFCs 207

and
Qr = Qrn (2-317)
Knowing the natural active power flow (Prn) at the receiving end and the power flow change (ΔP),
the active power flow (Pr) at the receiving end can be determined using Equation (2-309). Then, the
apparent power (Sr) is given by

Sr = P2r + Q2r (2-76)

Therefore, the line current is given by

Sr
I= (2-77)
Vr
When the current (I) flows through the line, the line experiences a power loss, which is given by

Pline = I 2 R (2-318)
where R is the line resistance.
The reactive power, absorbed by the line, is given by

Qline = I 2 X (2-11b)
where X is the line reactance.
The reactive power absorbed by the line can also be given by
Qline = Qs − Qr (2-319)
Alternately,
Qline = Qs − Qr if the power factors at both ends of the line are either lagging or leading
(2-320a)
or
Qline = Qs + Qr if the power factor at one end is lagging and that at the other end is leading
(2-320b)
The Reactive Power Index (RPI), which is a measure of total reactive power (Qline), needed by the
line for a unit of active power (Pr) transmitted, is defined as
Qline Qline
RPI = = (2-321)
Pr Prn + ΔP
using Equation (2-309).
The power loss in the uncompensated line, carrying the natural current (In), is given as baseline
loss by

Plinen = I 2n Rn (2-322)

where Rn is the natural line resistance.

The reactive power absorbed by the line, carrying the natural current (In), is given as baseline
reactive power by

Qlinen = I 2n X (2-323)
208 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

The Loss Index (LI), which is a measure of line loss as a multiple of baseline loss, is defined as

I2
LI = k R (2-324)
I 2n

where
R
kR = , (2-325)
Rn
the line resistance is R at line current (I) and the natural line resistance is Rn at natural line current
(In). Note that as the line current (I) increases, the loss increases, which increases the temperature
and, in turn, the resistance of the conductor.
The Apparent Power Rating (APR) of the PFC is defined as
APR = V s s I (2-326)
when the PFC is used to increase power flow with a prevailing line current (I);
APR = V s s I n (2-327)
when the PFC is used to decrease power flow from a natural line current (In).
Therefore, Table 2-1 can be expanded to include the base case power flow data as shown in
Table 2-25.
Considering the base case active power flow of one pu, the phasor diagrams for no power flow and
100% power flow increase, and the related P-Q diagrams are shown in Figures 2-90 through 2-93
using a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), a RR, and an IR, respectively. In all cases, when ψ = − δ, δ = 0
and the active power flow stops. However, the reactive power only stops in the case of a PAR (sym)
since V s V r = V r V s = 1 = cos δ , but continues to flow from the modified sending end in the
case of a PAR (asym) and from the receiving end in the case of an IR due to unequal voltages
at the modified sending end and receiving end (V s V r 1, V r V s 1 , which are shown in

Table 2-25 Electrical system data and base power flow data.

Parameters Values

Sending-end voltage (Vs) at reference phase angle 1∠0 pu

Receiving-end voltage (Vr) and power angle (−δ) 1∠−30 pu
Line reactance (X) 0.5 pu
Natural transmitted active power Psn = Prn 1 pu
Reactive power (Qsn) at source end 0.267949 pu
Reactive power (Qrn) at load end −0.267949 pu
Natural line current (In) 1.035276 pu
Natural line current2 (In2) 1.071797 pu
Reactive power Qlinen = I 2n X , absorbed by an uncompensated line 0.535898 pu
Reactive Power Index, RPI = Qlinen Prn + ΔP 0.535898
2
Loss Index, LI = k R × I I 2n at natural line current (i.e. I = In); kR = 1 1 0717097 1 0717097 = 1
 2.5 Figure of Merits Among Various PFCs 209

(a) (c)

ψ/2 PAR (sym)

Line
Vsʹs Q, V
Vr (pu)
2
δʹ = 90º
Psʹ vs Qsʹ
Vs Vsʹ for PAR
(sym)
δʹ = 60º
ψ δʹ = 0 δ = 30º Vsʹ
1 δʹmax
δ

δr δs δsʹ
Psn , Qsn β = 0º
(b) δ PAR δ
(sym) Qlinem
0 Qlinen
Line
δʹmin 1 ∆P 2 P (pu)
Vsʹs ψ/2 VX Vr
Prn , Qrn

Vs
–1 β = 180º δʹmax
Vsʹ δʹ
δ = 30º
δʹ = 60º Pr vs Qr
ψ for PAR
δ (sym)

δr δs δsʹ δʹ = 90º
–2

Figure 2-90 Phasor diagram of a PAR (sym) for (a) no power flow, (b) 100% power flow increase, and (c) related
P-Q diagram.

Figures 2-91 and 2-93. The reactive power absorbed by the entire line is the difference between Qs
and Qr. This is how a var compensator (SynCon, SVC, or STATCOM) operates.

Example 2-42

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For a PAR (sym) operating at ψ = −30 ,
calculate Ps , Qs , Pr, Qr, Rse, and Xse.
Answer 2-42

For a PAR (sym), V s = V s .

ψ −30
From Equation (2-198), V s s = 2V s sin = 2 × 1 × sin = − 0 517638 pu.
2 2
ψ
From Equation (2-200), β = + 270 for ψ < 0; β = 255 .
2
From Equation (2-51a), δ = δ + ψ = 30 − 30 = 0 .
V sV r 1×1
From Equation (2-41), a = = = 2.
X 05
From Equation (2-201), Ps = a × sin δ = 2 × sin 0 = 0 pu.
Vs 1
From Equation (2-202), Qs = a − cos δ = 2 − cos 0 = 0 pu.
Vr 1
(a) (c)
β = – 90º
PAR (asym) Line Vsʹs

Vsʹ
VX
Q, V
Vr (pu) 2

Vs P*sʹ , Q*sʹ

ψ δʹ = 0 δ = 30º Vs'
1
δ Psʹ vs Qsʹ
for PAR
δr δs δsʹ (asym)
β = 0º
Psn , Qsn
(b) δ δ
β = + 90º Qlinem
Vsʹs Qlinen
0
PAR (asym) Line 1 2 P (pu)
Vsʹ ∆P
VX
Vr Prn , Qrn
P*r , Q*r
Vs
Pr vs Qr
δʹ −1
β = 180º
for PAR
δ = 30º (asym)

ψ
δ

δr δs δsʹ
−2

Figure 2-91 Phasor diagram of PAR (asym) for (a) no power flow, (b) 100% power flow increase, and (c) related
P-Q diagram.

(a) (c)
–90º
Vsʹs
Vq

Vs VXeff Vr Q, V
Vsʹ (pu)
2
δ
2 P*sʹ , Q*sʹ

δʹ = 0
δ = 30º Vsʹ
ψ
1
δ Psʹ vs Qsʹ
for RR
δr δs δsʹ
β = 0º
(b) Psn , Qsn
–90º
Vq δ Qlinem
VX Qlinen
0
1 2 P (pu)
Vsʹs Vs VXeff Vr ∆P
P*r , Q*r
Vsʹ Prn , Qrn
δ
Pr vs Qr
2
for RR
δʹ –1
β = 180º
δ = 30º

ψ δ

δr δs δsʹ
–2

Figure 2-92 Phasor diagram of a RR for (a) no power flow, (b) 100% power flow increase, and (c) related P-Q
diagram.
 2.5 Figure of Merits Among Various PFCs 211

(a) β (c)
δ

VX Q, V
Vsʹs Vr (pu)
2
Vsʹ
Vs P*sʹ , Q*sʹ

Psʹ vs Qsʹ
for IR
ψ δʹ = 0 δ = 30º Vsʹ
1
δ
(b)
δr δs δsʹ
Psn , Qsn β = 0º
Vsʹ β δ Qlinem
Vsʹs Qlinen
VX 0 δ P (pu)
1 2
∆P P*r , Q*r
Vr Prn , Qrn Pr vs Qr
for IR

Vs
–1
δʹ β = 180º
δ = 30º

ψ
δ

δr δs δsʹ
–2

Figure 2-93 Phasor diagram of an IR for (a) no power flow, (b) 100% power flow increase, and (c) related P-Q
diagram.

From Equation (2-203), Pr = a × sin δ = 2 × sin 0 = 0 pu.

Vr 1
From Equation (2-204), Qr = a cos δ − = 2 cos 0 − = 0 pu.
Vs 1
From Equation (2-54b), V X = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r = 12 − 2 × 1 × 1 × cos 0 + 12 = 0 pu.
From Equation (2-253a), the series-compensating resistance (Rse) can be calculated as
Vs s Vs ψ Vr ψ 0 517638
Rse = X cos − cos δ + =05×
VX VX 2 VX 2 0
1 −30 1 30
cos − cos 30 − = ∞
0 2 0 2
From Equation (2-253b), the series-compensating reactance (Xse) can be calculated as
Vs s Vs ψ Vr ψ Vs s 0 517638
X se = X − sin + sin δ + + =05
VX VX 2 VX 2 VX 0
1 −30 1 30 0 517638
− sin + sin 30 − + = ∞
0 2 0 2 0
212 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Example 2-43

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For a PAR (sym) operating at ψ = 60 ,
calculate Ps , Qs , Pr, Qr, Rse, Xse, RPI, LI for k R = 1, and APR. Adjusting the control parameter
(ψ), tabulate RPI, LI, and APR of a PAR (sym) for power flow increases in three cases: Case 1
(40%), Case 2 (70%), and Case 3 (100%).
Answer 2-43

For a PAR (sym), V s = V s .

ψ 60
From Equation (2-198), V s s = 2V s sin = 2 × 1 × sin = 1 pu.
2 2
ψ
From Equation (2-200), β = + 90 for ψ > 0; β = 120 .
2
From Equation (2-51a), δ = δ + ψ = 30 + 60 = 90 .
V sV r 1×1
From Equation (2-41), a = = = 2.
X 05
From Equation (2-201), Ps = a × sin δ = 2 × sin 90 = 2 pu.
Vs 1
From Equation (2-202), Qs = a − cos δ = 2 − cos 90 = 2 pu.
Vr 1
From Equation (2-203), Pr = a × sin δ = 2 × sin 90 = 2 pu.
Vr 1
From Equation (2-204), Qr = a cos δ − = 2 cos 90 − = −2 pu.
Vs 1
From Equation (2-76), Sr = P2r + Q2r = 22 + 22 = 2 828427 pu.
Sr 2 828427
From Equation (2-77), I = = = 2 828427 pu.
Vr 1
From Equation (2-11b), Qline = I 2 X = 8 × 0 5 = 4 pu, which is the same as Qs − Qr =
2 − −2 = 4 pu, according to Equation (2-319).
From Equation (2-30), V Xn = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r = 12 − 2 × 1 × 1 × cos 30 + 12
= 0 517638 pu.
V Xn 0 517638
From Equation (2-33), I n = = = 1 035276 pu.
X 05
Q 4
From Equation (2-321), RPI = line = = 2 pu.
Pr 2
I2 2 8284272
From Equation (2-324), LI = k R 2 = 1 × = 7 464102.
In 1 0352762
From Equation (2-326), APR = V s s I = 1 × 2 828427 = 2 828427 pu.
From Equation (2-54b), V X = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r = 12 − 2 × 1 × 1 × cos 90 + 12
= 1 414214 pu.
From Equation (2-253a), the series-compensating resistance (Rse) can be calculated as
Vs s Vs ψ Vr ψ 1
Rse = X cos − cos δ + =05×
VX VX 2 VX 2 1 414214
1 60 1 60
cos − cos 30 + = 0 091506 pu
1 414214 2 1 414214 2
 2.5 Figure of Merits Among Various PFCs 213

Table 2-26 RPI, LI, and APR of a PAR (sym) for power flow increases in three cases: Case 1 (40%), Case 2 (70%),
and Case 3 (100%).

Parameters Base case Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

Modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) 1 pu 1 pu 1 pu 1 pu

Phase-shift angle (ψ) 0 14.427 28.2117 60
Series-compensating voltage (Vs s) 0 0.2511 pu 0.4874 pu 1 pu
Relative phase angle (β) 0 97.2135 104.1058 120
Active power Ps = Pr ) 1 pu 1.4 pu 1.7 pu 2 pu
Reactive power (Qs ) at modified sending end 0.2679 pu 0.5717 pu 0.9464 pu 2 pu
Reactive power (Qr) at receiving end −0.2679 pu −0.5717 pu −0.9464 pu −2 pu
Line current (I) 1.0353 pu 1.5122 pu 1.9457 pu 2.8284 pu
2 0.5359 pu 1.1434 pu 1.8929 pu 4 pu
Line reactive power Qline = I X
Series-compensating Resistance (Rse) 0 0.043 pu 0.0648 pu 0.0915 pu
Series-compensating Reactance (Xse) 0 0.1604 pu 0.242 pu 0.3415 pu
Reactive Power Index, RPI = Qline Pr 0.5359 0.8167 1.1135 2
2
Loss Index, LI = k R × I I 2n at natural line current 1 2.1337 3.5321 7.4641
(i.e. I = In); kR = 1
APR = V s s I 0 0.3798 pu 0.9484 pu 2.8284 pu

From Equation (2-253b), the series-compensating reactance (Xse) can be calculated as

Vs s Vs ψ Vr ψ Vs s
X se = X − sin + sin δ + +
VX VX 2 VX 2 VX
1 1 60 1 60 1
=05× − sin + sin 30 + +
1 414214 1 414214 2 1 414214 2 1 414214
= 0 341506 pu

Table 2-26 shows the RPI, LI, and APR of a PAR (sym) for power flow increases in three cases:
Case 1 (40%), Case 2 (70%), and Case 3 (100%).

Example 2-44

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For a PAR (asym) operating at
V s s = − 0 577350 pu, calculate Ps , Qs , Pr, Qr, Rse, and Xse.
Answer 2-44

2
From Equation (2-270), V s = V 2s + V 2s s = 12 + − 0 577350 = 1 154701 pu.
Vs s − 0 577350
From Equation (2-271a), ψ = tan − 1 = tan − 1 = −30 .
Vs 1
From Equation (2-51a), δ = δ + ψ = 30 − 30 = 0 .
214 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Vs Vr 1 154701 × 1
From Equation (2-61), a = = = 2 309402.
X 05
From Equation (2-59), Ps = a sin δ = 2 309402 × sin 0 = 0 pu.
Vs 1 154701
From Equation (2-60), Qs = a − cos δ = 2 309402 − cos 0 = 0 357266 pu.
Vr 1
From Equation (2-74), Pr = a sin δ = 2 309402 × sin 0 = 0 pu.
Vr 1
From Equation (2-75), Qr = a cos δ − = 2 309402 cos 0 − = 0 309401 pu.
Vs 1 154701
From Equation (2-76), Sr = P2r + Q2r = 02 + 0 3094012 = 0 309401 pu.
Sr 0 309401
From Equation (2-77), I = = = 0 309401 pu.
Vr 1
From Equation (2-54b), V X = V 2s −2Vs Vr cosδ + V 2r = 1 1547012 −2 × 1 154701 × 1 × cos0 + 12
= 0 154701pu
From Equation (2-251a), the series-compensating resistance (Rse) can be calculated as
V s s V s − V r cos δ − 0 577350 1 − 1 × cos 30
Rse = X =05× = − 1 616025 pu
VX VX 0 154701 0 154701
From Equation (2-251b), the series-compensating reactance (Xse) can be calculated as
V s s V r sin δ + V s s − 0 577350 1 × sin 30 − 0 577350
X se = X =05× = 0 933013 pu
VX VX 0 154701 0 154701
Additional Discussion

From Equation (2-11b), Qline = I 2 X = 0 3094012 × 0 5 = 0 047865 pu, which is the same as
Qline = Qs − Qr = 0 357266 − 0 309401 = 0 047865 pu from Equation (2-319). Note that both Qs
and Qr are positive numbers, meaning reactive power flows through the line from the higher volt-
age sending end to the lower voltage receiving end. This is how a STATCOM works, which is
explained in Figure 2-54.

Example 2-45

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For a PAR (asym) operating at
V s s = 0 577350 pu, calculate Ps , Qs , Pr, Qr, Rse, Xse, RPI, LI for k R = 1, and APR. Adjusting the con-
trol parameter, Vs s, tabulate RPI, LI, and APR of a PAR (asym) for power flow increases in three
cases: Case 1 (40%), Case 2 (70%), and Case 3 (100%).
Answer 2-45
From Equation (2-270), V s = V 2s + V 2s s = 12 + 0 5773502 = 1 154701 pu.
Vs s 0 577350
From Equation (2-271a), ψ = tan− 1 = tan − 1 = 30 .
Vs 1
From Equation (2-51a), δ = δ + ψ = 30 + 30 = 60 .
Vs Vr 1 154701 × 1
From Equation (2-61), a = = = 2 309402.
X 05
From Equation (2-59), Ps = a sin δ = 2 309402 × sin 60 = 2 pu.
Vs 1 154701
From Equation (2-60), Qs = a − cos δ = 2 309402 − cos 60 = 1 511967 pu.
Vr 1
 2.5 Figure of Merits Among Various PFCs 215

From Equation (2-74), Pr = a sin δ = 2 309402 × sin 60 = 2 pu.

Vr 1
From Equation (2-75), Qr = a cos δ − = 2 309402 cos 60 − = − 0 845299 pu.
Vs 1 154701
From Equation (2-76), Sr = P2r + Q2r = 22 + 0 8452992 = 2 171297 pu.
Sr 2 171297
From Equation (2-77), I = = = 2 171297 pu.
Vr 1
2
From Equation (2-11b), Qline = I X = 2 1712972 × 0 5 = 2 357266 pu, which is same as
Qs − Qr = 1 511967 − − 0 845299 = 2 357266 pu, according to Equation (3-19).
From Equation (2-30), V Xn = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r = 12 − 2 × 1 × 1 × cos 30 + 12
= 0 517638 pu.
V Xn 0 517638
From Equation (2-33), I n = = = 1 035276 pu.
X 05
Q 2 357266
From Equation (2-321), RPI = line = = 1 178633 pu.
Pr 2
I2 2 1712972
From Equation (2-324), LI = k R 2 = 1 × = 4 398717.
In 1 0352762
From Equation (2-326), APR = V s s I = 0 577350 × 2 171297 = 1 253599 pu.
From Equation (2-54b),

VX = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r = 1 1547012 − 2 × 1 154701 × 1 × cos 60 + 12 = 1 085649 pu

From Equation (2-251a), the series-compensating resistance (Rse) can be calculated as

V s s V s − V r cos δ 0 577350 1 − 1 × cos 30
Rse = X =05× = 0 032814 pu
VX VX 1 085649 1 085649
From Equation (2-251b), the series-compensating reactance (Xse) can be calculated as
V s s V r sin δ + V s s 0 577350 1 × sin 30 + 0 577350
X se = X =05× = 0 263869 pu
VX VX 1 085649 1 085649
Table 2-27 shows the RPI, LI, and APR of a PAR (asym) for power flow increases in three cases:
Case 1 (40%), Case 2 (70%), and Case 3 (100%).

Example 2-46

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For a RR operating at V s s = − 0 517638 pu,
calculate Pr, Qr, Ps , Qs , Rse, and Xse.
Answer 2-46

From Equation (2-229),

V s − V r cos δ
Vs = V 2s + V 2s s + 2V s V s s
V Xn
2 1 − 1 × cos 30
= 12 + − 0 517638 + 2 × 1 × − 0 517638 = 1 0 pu
0 517638
216 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Table 2-27 RPI, LI, and APR of a PAR (asym) for power flow increases in three cases: Case 1 (40%), Case 2
(70%), and Case 3 (100%).

Parameters Base case Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

Modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) 1 pu 1.0263 pu 1.0786 pu 1.1547 pu

Phase-shift angle (ψ) 0 13 22 30
Series-compensating voltage (Vs s) 0 0.2309 pu 0.4041 pu 0.5774 pu
Relative phase angle (β) 0 90 90 90
Active power Ps = Pr 1 pu 1.4 pu 1.7 pu 2 pu
Reactive power (Qs ) at modified sending end 0.2679 pu 0.6056 pu 0.9988 pu 1.512 pu
Reactive power (Qr) at receiving end −0.2679 pu −0.4989 pu −0.6721 pu −0.8453 pu
Line current (I) 1.0353 pu 1.4862 pu 1.8280 pu 2.1713 pu
2 0.5359 pu 1.1044 pu 1.6709 pu 2.3573 pu
Line reactive power Qline = I X
Series-compensating Resistance (Rse) 0 0.0280 pu 0.0324 pu 0.0328 pu
Series-compensating Reactance (Xse) 0 0.1528 pu 0.2187 pu 0.2639 pu
Reactive Power Index, RPI = Qline Pr 0.5359 0.7889 0.9829 1.1786
2
Loss Index, LI = k R × I I 2n
at natural line 1 2.0609 3.1179 4.3987
current (i.e. I = In); kR = 1
APR = V s s I 0 0.3432 pu 0.7388 pu 1.2536 pu

From Equation (2-230),

V s s V r sin δ
ψ = tan − 1
V s V Xn + V s s V s − V r cos δ
− 0 517638 × 1 × sin 30
= tan − 1 = − 30
1 × 0 517638 + − 0 517638 × 1 − 1 × cos 30

From Equation (2-51a), δ = δ + ψ = 30 − 30 = 0 .

Vs s − 0 517638
From Equation (2-235), Pr = 1 + Prn = 1 + × 1 = 0.
V Xeff 0 517638
Vs s − 0 517638
From Equation (2-236), Qr = 1 + Qrn = 1 + × − 0 267949 = 0.
V Xeff 0 517638
From Equation (2-76), Sr = P2r + Q2r = 02 + 02 = 0.
Sr 0
From Equation (2-77), I = = = 0.
Vr 1
From Equation (2-11b), Qline = I 2 X = 02 × 0 5 = 0.
Vs s − 0 517638
From Equation (2-238), Ps = 1 + Prn = 1 + × 1 = 0.
V Xeff 0 517638
From Equation (2-78a), Qs = Qr + Qline = 0 + 0 = 0.
From Equation (2-260), V X = V Xn + V s s = 0 517638 + − 0 517638 = 0.
From Equation (2-257), Rse = 0.
Vs s − 0 517638
From Equation (2-262), X se = X =05× = ∞
VX 0
 2.5 Figure of Merits Among Various PFCs 217

Example 2-47

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For a RR operating at V s s = 0 5 pu, cal-
culate Pr, Qr, Ps , Qs , Rse, Xse, RPI, LI for k R = 1, and APR. Adjusting the control parameter, Vs s,
tabulate RPI, LI, and APR of a RR for power flow increases in three cases: Case 1 (40%), Case 2
(70%), and Case 3 (100%).
Answer 2-47
From Equation (2-229),

V s − V r cos δ
Vs = V 2s + V 2s s + 2V s V s s
V Xn
1 − 1 × cos 30
= 12 + 0 5176382 + 2 × 1 × 0 517638 = 1 239314 pu
0 517638

From Equation (2-230),

V s s V r sin δ
ψ = tan − 1
V s V Xn + V s s V s − V r cos δ
0 517638 × 1 × sin 30
= tan − 1 = 23 793977
1 × 0 517638 + 0 517638 × 1 − 1 × cos 30

From Equation (2-51a), δ = δ + ψ = 30 + 23 793977 = 53 793977 .

Vs s 0 517638
From Equation (2-235), Pr = 1 + Prn = 1 + × 1 = 2 pu.
V Xeff 0 517638
Vs s 0 517638
From Equation (2-236), Qr = 1+ Qrn = 1+ × −0 267949 = −0 535898 pu.
V Xeff 0 517638
2
From Equation (2-76), Sr = P2r + Q2r = 22 + − 0 535898 = 2 070552 pu.
Sr 2 070552
From Equation (2-77), I = = = 2 070552 pu.
Vr 1
2
From Equation (2-11b), Qline = I X = 2 0705522 × 0 5 = 2 143594 pu.
Vs s 0 517638
From Equation (2-238), Ps = 1 + Prn = 1 + × 1 = 2 pu.
V Xeff 0 517638
From Equation (2-78a), Qs = Qr + Qline = − 0 535898 + 2 143594 = 1 607695 pu.
From Equation (2-260), V X = V Xn + V s s = 0 517638 + 0 517638 = 1 035276, pu.
From Equation (2-257), Rse = 0.
Vs s 0 517638
From Equation (2-262), X se = X =05× = 0 25 pu.
VX 1 035276
Table 2-28 shows the RPI, LI, and APR of a RR for power flow increases in three cases: Case 1
(40%), Case 2 (70%), and Case 3 (100%).
218 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Table 2-28 RPI, LI, and APR of a RR for power flow increases in three cases: Case 1 (40%), Case 2 (70%), and
Case 3 (100%).

Parameters Base case Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

Modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) 1 pu 1.0724 pu 1.1484 pu 1.2393 pu

Phase-shift angle (ψ) 0 10.7484 17.7442 23.794
Series-compensating voltage (Vs s) 0 0.207055 pu 0.362347 pu 0.517638 pu
Relative phase angle (β) 0 75 75 75
Active power Ps = Pr 1 pu 1.4 pu 1.7 pu 2 pu
Reactive power (Qs ) at modified sending end 0.2679 pu 0.6752 pu 1.0932 pu 1.6077 pu
Reactive power (Qr) at receiving end −0.2679 pu −0.3751 pu −0.4556 pu −0.5359 pu
Line current (I) 1.0353 pu 1.4494 pu 1.76 pu 2.0706 pu
2 0.5359 pu 1.0504 pu 1.5487 pu 2.1436 pu
Line reactive power Qline = I X
Series-compensating Resistance (Rse) 0 0.0 pu 0.0 pu 0.0 pu
Series-compensating Reactance (Xse) 0 0.1429 pu 0.2059 pu 0.25 pu
Reactive Power Index, RPI = Qline Pr 0.5359 0.7502 0.911 1.0718
2
Loss Index, LI = k R × I I 2n
at natural line 1 1.96 2.89 4
current (i.e. I = In); kR = 1
APR = V s s I 0 0.300 pu 0.6377 pu 1.0718 pu

Example 2-48

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For an IR operating at V s s = 0 5 pu and
β = 240 , calculate Ps , Qs , Pr, Qr, Rse, and Xse.

Answer 2-48

From Equation (2-97),

Vs = V 2s + V 2s s + 2V s V s s cos β = 12 + 0 52 + 2 × 1 × 0 5 × cos 240 = 0 866025 pu

V s s sin β 0 5 × sin 240

From Equation (2-98), ψ = tan − 1 = tan − 1 = −30 .
V s + V s s cos β 1 + 0 5 × cos 240
From Equation (2-51a), δ = δ + ψ = 30 − 30 = 0 .
Vs Vr 0 866025 × 1
From Equation (2-61), a = = = 1 732051.
X 05
From Equation (2-59), Ps = a sin δ = 1 732051 × sin 0 = 0 pu.
Vs 0 866025
From Equation (2-60), Qs = a − cos δ = 1 732051 − cos 0 = − 0 232051 pu.
Vr 1
From Equation (2-74), Pr = a sin δ = 1 732051 × sin 0 = 0 pu.
Vr 1
From Equation (2-75), Qr = a cos δ − = 1 732051 cos 0 − = − 0 267949 pu.
Vs 0 866025
 2.5 Figure of Merits Among Various PFCs 219

From Equation (2-76), Sr = P2r + Q2r = 02 + 0 2679492 = 0 267949 pu.

Sr 0 267949
From Equation (2-77), I = = = 0 267949 pu.
Vr 1
From Equation (2-54b),

VX = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r = 0 8660252 − 2 × 0 866025 × 1 × cos 0 + 12 = 0 133975 pu

From Equation (2-247a), the series-compensating resistance (Rse) can be calculated as

V s s V s sin β − V r sin δ + β 05 1 × sin 240 − 1 × sin 30 + 240

Rse = X =05×
VX VX 0 133975 0 133975
= 1 866025 pu

From Equation (2-247b), the series-compensating reactance (Xse) can be calculated as

V s s V s cos β − V r cos δ + β + V s s
X se = X =05
VX VX
05 1 × cos 240 − 1 × cos 30 + 240 +05
× =0
0 133975 0 133975

Additional Discussion

From Equation (2-11b), Qline = I 2 X = 0 2679492 × 0 5 = 0 035898 pu, which is same as Qline =
Qs − Qr = − 0 232051 − − 0 267949 = 0 035898 pu from Equation (2-319). Note that both Qs
and Qr are negative numbers, meaning reactive power flows through the line from the higher volt-
age receiving end to the lower voltage sending end. This is how a STATCOM works, which is
explained in Figure 2-54.

Example 2-49

Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. For an IR operating at V s s = 0 5 pu and
β = 60 , calculate Ps , Qs , Pr, Qr, Rse, Xse, RPI, LI for k R = 1, and APR. Adjusting the control param-
eter (Vs s), while β = 60 , tabulate RPI, LI, and APR of an IR for power flow increases in three cases:
Case 1 (40%), Case 2 (70%), and Case 3 (100%).
Answer 2-49

From Equation (2-97), V s = V 2s + V 2s s + 2V s V s s cos β = 12 + 0 52 + 2 × 1 × 0 5 × cos 60

= 1 322876 pu.
V s s sin β 0 5 × sin 60
From Equation (2-98), ψ = tan − 1 = tan − 1 = 19 106605 .
V s + V s s cos β 1 + 0 5 × cos 60
From Equation (2-51a), δ = δ + ψ = 30 + 19 106605 = 49 106605 .
Vs Vr 1 322876 × 1
From Equation (2-61), a = = = 2 645751 pu.
X 05
From Equation (2-59), Ps = a sin δ = 2 645751 × sin 49 106605 = 2 pu.
220 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Vs 1 322876
From Equation (2-60), Qs = a − cos δ = 2 645751 − cos 49 106605
Vr 1
= 1 767949 pu.
From Equation (2-74), Pr = a sin δ = 2 645751 × sin 49 106605 = 2 pu.
Vr 1
From Equation (2-75), Qr = a cos δ − = 2 645751 cos 49 106605 −
Vs 1 322876
= − 0 267949 pu.
From Equation (2-76), Sr = P2r + Q2r = 22 + 0 2679492 = 2 017869 pu.
Sr 2 017869
From Equation (2-77), I = = = 2 017869 pu.
Vr 1
From Equation (2-11b), Qline = I 2 X = 2 0178692 × 0 5 = 2 035898 pu, which is same as
Qline = Qs − Qr = 1 767949 − − 0 267949 = 2 035898 pu from Equation (2-319). Note that Qs is
a positive number and Qr is a negative number, meaning reactive power flows into the line from
its both ends.
From Equation (2-30), V Xn = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r = 12 − 2 × 1 × 1 × cos 30 + 12
= 0 517638 pu.
V Xn 0 517638
From Equation (2-33), I n = = = 1 035276 pu.
X 05
Q 2 035898
From Equation (2-321), RPI = line = = 1 017949.
Pr 2
I2 2 0178692
From Equation (2-324), LI = k R 2 = 1 × = 3 799038.
In 1 0352762
From Equation (2-326), APR = V s s I = 0 5 × 2 017869 = 1 008935 pu.
From Equation (2-54b),

VX = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r = 1 3228752 − 2 × 1 322875 × 1 × cos 49 106605 + 12

= 1 008935 pu

From Equation (2-247a), the series-compensating resistance (Rse) can be calculated as

V s s V s sin β − V r sin δ + β 05 1 × sin 60 − 1 × sin 30 + 60
Rse = X =05×
VX VX 1 008935 1 008935
= − 0 032903 pu

From Equation (2-247b), the series-compensating reactance (Xse) can be calculated as

V s s V s cos β − V r cos δ + β + V s s 05
X se = X =05×
VX VX 1 008935
1 × cos 60 − 1 × cos 30 + 60 + 0 5
= 0 245592 pu
1 008935

Table 2-29 shows the RPI, LI, and APR of an IR for power flow increases in three cases: Case 1
(40%), Case 2 (70%), and Case 3 (100%).
Figure 2-94 shows the voltage magnitude at the modified sending end for the range of active
power flow from 0 to 2 pu in the cases of a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), a RR, and an IR. While
the voltage magnitude stays constant for a PAR (sym), it always increases from the uncompensated
 2.5 Figure of Merits Among Various PFCs 221

Table 2-29 RPI, LI, and APR of an IR for power flow increases in three cases: Case 1 (40%), Case 2 (70%), and
Case 3 (100%).

Parameters Base case Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

Modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) 1 pu 1.1136 pu 1.2135 pu 1.3229 pu

ο ο
Phase-shift angle (ψ) 0 8.9483 14.465 19.1066
Series-compensating voltage (Vs s) 0 0.2 pu 0.35 pu 0.5 pu
Relative phase angle (β) 0 60 60 60
Active power Ps = Pr 1 pu 1.4 pu 1.7 pu 2 pu
Reactive power (Qs ) at modified sending end 0.2679 pu 0.7479 pu 1.213 pu 1.7679 pu
Reactive power (Qr) at receiving end −0.2679 pu −0.2679 pu −0.2679 pu −0.2679 pu
Line current (I) 1.0353 pu 1.4254 pu 1.721 pu 2.0179 pu
2 0.5359 pu 1.0159 pu 1.4809 pu 2.0359 pu
Line reactive power Qline = I X
Series-compensating Resistance (Rse) 0 −0.0264 pu −0.0317 pu −0.0329 pu
Series-compensating Reactance (Xse) 0 0.1378 pu 0.2009 pu 0.2456 pu
Reactive Power Index, RPI = Qline Pr 0.5359 0.7256 0.8711 1.0179
2
Loss Index, LI = k R × I I 2n
at natural line 1 1.8957 2.7634 3.799
current (i.e. I = In); kR = 1
APR = V s s I 0 0.2851 pu 0.6023 pu 1.0089 pu

PAR
(asym) IR
Vsʹ
(pu)
1
RR PAR
(sym)

P (pu)
0
0 1 ∆P 2

Figure 2-94 Voltage magnitude at the modified sending end for the range of active power flow from 0 to 2 pu
in the cases of a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), a RR, and an IR.

value for a PAR (asym); for a RR and an IR, the voltage magnitude is less than the uncompensated
value when the power flow is less than the uncompensated value and vice versa.
The power flow characteristics at the modified sending end and receiving end for the range of
active power flow from 0 to 2 pu in the cases of a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), a RR, and an IR
are shown in Figures 2-95 and 2-96, respectively. For a power flow from 1 to 2 pu, the characteristics
222 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Q
(pu) P*sʹ , Q*sʹ
2
P*sʹ , Q*sʹ

P*sʹ , Q*sʹ P*sʹ , Q*sʹ

Psʹ vs Qsʹ
Psʹ vs Qsʹ
for IR
δ = 30º for PAR
Psʹ vs Qsʹ (asym)
1
for RR ψmax

Ps' vs Qs'
Psn , Qsn for PAR
(sym)

0 P (pu)
ψmin 1 2
∆P

Figure 2-95 Power flow characteristics at the modified sending end for the range of active power flow from 0
to 2 pu in the cases of a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), a RR, and an IR.

Q
(pu)

P (pu)
0
ψmin 1 2 Pr*, Qr*
∆P
Pr vs Qr for IR
Prn , Qrn
Pr vs Qr Pr*, Qr*
for RR

ψmax Pr , Qr
* *
–1 Pr vs Qr
for PAR
δ = 30º
(asym)
Psʹ vs Qsʹ
for PAR
(sym)

Pr*, Qr*
–2

Figure 2-96 Power flow characteristics at the receiving end for the range of active power flow from 0 to 2 pu
in the cases of a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), a RR, and an IR.
 2.5 Figure of Merits Among Various PFCs 223

are similar at the modified sending end as shown in Figure 2-95; however, they are very different at
the receiving end as shown in Figure 2-96.
While the active power flow at the receiving end varies, the reactive power flow at the receiving
end must vary when either a PAR (sym or asym) or a RR is used; however, the reactive power flow at
the receiving end may be chosen to remain the same as the natural reactive power flow in the case of
an IR. In fact, the reactive power flow at the receiving end may be set to zero, if so desired. The
superior characteristics of the IR are quite evident when RPI, LI, and APR are examined in
Figures 2-97 through 2-99.
Table 2-25 can be expanded to include the comparison of APR of a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), a
RR, and an IR for 100% power flow decrease as shown in Table 2-30.
Table 2-25 can be expanded to include the comparison of RPI, LI, and APR of a PAR (sym), a PAR
(asym), a RR, and an IR for 100% power flow increase as shown in Table 2-31.
The phase angle regulation method, in symmetric form, regulates the phase angle of the line volt-
age without any change in its magnitude and, in asymmetric form, regulates mainly the phase angle
of the line voltage with some increase in its magnitude. In both forms, a compensating voltage with
variable magnitude and predetermined phase angle (90 or −90 ) is connected in series with
the line.
In contrast, in the impedance regulation method, a compensating voltage with variable magni-
tude and variable phase angle, in the entire controllable range of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 , is connected in
series with the line. The prevailing line current, being at any phase angle with respect to the com-
pensating voltage emulates a four-quadrant, compensating impedance Zse = Rse − jX se that con-
sists of a resistance Rse = +R or −R and a reactance X se = X C or − X L in series with the line.
By changing the emulated impedance within its design limit, it can be made to be resistive, reactive,
or a combination of the two.
The emulated, four-quadrant impedance modifies the effective impedance (both resistance and
reactance) of the line between its two ends, which, in turn, modifies the sending-end voltage to be of

Table 2-30 Comparison of APR of a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), a RR, and an IR for 100% power flow decrease.

PAR
Parameters Base case (sym) PAR (asym) RR IR

Modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) 1 pu 1 pu 1.1547 pu 1 pu 0.8660 pu

Phase-shift angle (ψ) 0 −30 −30 −30 −30
Series-compensating voltage (Vs s) 0 0.5176 pu 0.5774 pu 0.5176 pu 0.5 pu
Relative phase angle (β) 0 255 −90 255 240
Active power Ps = Pr 1 pu 0 0 0 0
Reactive power (Qs ) at modified 0.2679 pu 0 0.3573 pu 0 −0.2321 pu
sending end
Reactive power (Qr) at receiving end −0.2679 pu 0 0.3094 pu 0 −0.2679 pu
Line current (I) 1.0353 pu 0 0.3094 pu 0 0.2679 pu
2 0.5359 pu 0 0.0479 pu 0 0.0359 pu
Line reactive power Qline = I X
Series-compensating Resistance (Rse) 0 ∞ −1.6160 pu 0 1.8660 pu
Series-compensating Reactance (Xse) 0 ∞ 0.9330 pu ∞ 0 pu
APR = V s s I n 0 0.5359 pu 0.5977 pu 0.5359 pu 0.5176 pu
224 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Table 2-31 Comparison of RPI, LI, and APR of a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), a RR, and an IR for 100% power flow
increase.

PAR
Parameters Base case (sym) PAR (asym) RR IR

Modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) 1 pu 1 pu 1.1547 pu 1.2393 pu 1.3229 pu

Phase-shift angle (ψ) 0 60 30 23.794 19.1066
Series-compensating voltage (Vs s) 0 1 pu 0.5774 pu 0.5176 pu 0.5 pu
Relative phase angle (β) 0 120 90 75 60
Active power Ps = Pr 1 pu 2 pu 2 pu 2 pu 2 pu
Reactive power (Qs ) at modified 0.2679 pu 2 pu 1.512 pu 1.6077 pu 1.7679 pu
sending end
Reactive power (Qr) at receiving end −0.2679 pu −2 pu −0.8453 pu −0.5359 pu −0.2679 pu
Line current (I) 1.0353 pu 2.8284 pu 2.1713 pu 2.0706 pu 2.0179 pu
Line reactive power Qline = I 2 X 0.5359 pu 4 pu 2.3573 pu 2.1436 pu 2.0359 pu
Series-compensating Resistance 0 0.0915 pu 0.0328 pu 0 −0.0329 pu
(Rse)
Series-compensating Reactance 0 0.3415 pu 0.2639 pu 0.25 pu 0.2456 pu
(Xse)
Reactive Power Index, 0.5359 2 1.1786 1.0718 1.0179
RPI = Qline Pr
Loss Index, LI = k R × I 2 I 2n at 1 7.4641 4.3987 4 3.799
natural line current (i.e.
I = In); kR = 1
APR = V s s I 0 2.8284 pu 1.2536 pu 1.0718 pu 1.0089 pu

a specific magnitude and a phase angle that results in an independent control of active and reactive
power flows in the line.
The direct benefit of independent control is to optimize both the active and reactive power flows
so that the revenue-generating active power flow can be maximized. While maintaining the voltage
stability, if the reactive power flow is minimized, it results in lower losses and higher efficiency in
the electric transmission system, and lower wholesale electric market costs to loads.
Among all the PFCs, the IR requires lower overall reactive power, causes lower losses in the line,
and requires lower APR than the PAR and the RR as shown in Figures 2-97 through 2-99.
Considering the line resistance (R) to be zero, the RPI per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted is
given by

RPI Q I2X V 2Xn X R2se + X 2eff

= line
2 = 2 = (B-151b)
Pr Pr Pr V 2s V 2r Vr 2
Rse cos δ − + X eff sin δ
Vs
The LI per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted is given by

LI I2 V2 1 1 X2
= k R 2 = k R 2 Xn = kR
Pr I n Pr InV sV r Vr V sV r Vr
Rse cos δ − + X eff sin δ Rse cos δ − + X eff sin δ
Vs Vs
(B-152b)
 2.5 Figure of Merits Among Various PFCs 225

Figure 2-97 Reactive Power Index (RPI) versus RPI

active power (Pr) flow at the receiving end of
the line. 2.0 PAR
(sym)
1.5 PAR
(asym)
1.0
RR
0.5 IR
Pr (pu)
0
1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00

LI
8.0 PAR
(sym)
6.0 PAR
(asym)
4.0

2.0 RR
IR
Pr (pu)
0
1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00

Figure 2-98 Loss Index (LI) versus active power (Pr) flow at the receiving end of the line.

APR
(pu)
3.0 PAR
(sym)
2.0
PAR
RR
(asym)
1.0
IR Pr (pu)
0
1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00

Figure 2-99 Apparent Power Rating (APR) versus active power (Pr) flow at the receiving end of the line.

The APR per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted is given by

APR Vs s I R2se + X 2se I 2 V 2Xn R2se + X 2se

= = = (B-153b)
Pr Pr Pr V sV r Vr
Rse cos δ − + X eff sin δ
Vs
Equations (B-151b), (B-152b), and (B-153b) apply to a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), and an IR, since
all three PFCs emulate a four-quadrant, series-compensating impedance Zse = Rse − jX se that
226 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

consists of a resistance Rse = + R or −R and a reactance X se = X C or − X L in series with the line.

However, for a RR, Rse = 0 . Therefore, the Equations (B-151b), (B-152b), and (B-153b) can be
rewritten as follows.
The RPI per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted is given by

RPI Q I2X V 2Xn X 1 V 2Xn 1

= line
2 = 2 = 2 2 2 = (B-151c)
Pr Pr Pr V s V r sin δ P2rn X

using Equations (2-41) and (2-46).

The LI per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted is given by

LI I2 V2 1 1 X2 1 X
= k R 2 = k R 2 Xn = kR = kR (B-152c)
Pr I n Pr I n V s V r X eff sin δ V s V r X eff sin δ Prn X eff

using Equations (2-33), (2-41), and (2-46).

The APR per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted is given by

APR Vs s I X se I 2 X se V 2Xn X eff V2 X se

= = = = Xn (B-153c)
Pr Pr Pr X eff V s V r sin δ
2
V s V r X eff sin δ

using (2-234d), (2-207), and (2-209). Note that V Xn = V Xeff .

Table 2-25 can be expanded to include the comparison of RPI, LI, and APR per unit of active
power (Pr) transmitted for a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), a RR, and an IR in the case of a 100% power
flow increase at the receiving end of the line is shown in Table 2-32. Among all the PFCs, the IR
requires the lowest RPI, LI, and APR per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted.
The limitation of the PAR (sym) is that it is not designed to operate beyond the maximum mod-
ified power angle (δmax), represented by the dashed line. Therefore, if the thermal limit of the line is
at 2 pu, as it is in this example, it is not possible to achieve the desired power flow using the PAR
(sym). Although the IR being the best-performing PFC with the lowest increase of the RPI, LI, and
APR as the active power flow in the line increases, its performance may be restricted up to 1.7 pu
active power flow in the line, so the performance of the PAR (sym) may be compared up to its max-
imum modified power angle (δmax). For a 70% increase in active power flow (0.7 pu of active power
flow enhancement over the natural active power flow of 1 pu) in the line, the APR of the IR is
0.6023 pu as shown in Table 2-29, whereas that of the PAR (sym) is 0.9484 pu as shown in

Table 2-32 Comparison of RPI, LI, and APR per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted for a PAR (sym), a PAR
(asym), a RR, and an IR in the case of a 100% power flow increase at the receiving end of the line.

Parameters Base case PAR (sym) PAR (asym) RR IR

Active power Ps = Pr 1 pu 2 pu 2 pu 2 pu 2 pu
Series-compensating Resistance (Rse) 0 0.0915 pu 0.0328 pu 0 −0.0329 pu
Series-compensating Reactance (Xse) 0 0.3415 pu 0.2639 pu 0.25 pu 0.2456 pu
Effective Line Reactance, X eff = X − X se 0.5 pu 0.1585 pu 0.2361 pu 0.25 pu 0.2544 pu
RPI/Pr 0.5359 1 0.5893 0.5359 0.509
LI/Pr 1 3.7321 2.1994 2 1.9
APR/Pr 0 1.4142 0.6268 0.5359 0.5045
 2.5 Figure of Merits Among Various PFCs 227

Table 2-26. For a 200 MW active power flow enhancement, the rating of the IR is
200 0 7 × 0 6023 = 172 MVA, whereas the rating of the PAR (sym) is 200 0 7 × 0 9484 = 271
MVA. Besides, the lowest-rated initial equipment cost, the IR also provides the lowest expenses
for the reactive power support and the line loss during its decades of operation.

Example 2-50

Consider two identical lines that are connected in parallel as shown in Figure 2-68. Using the electrical
system data for each line as given in Table 2-1, use a BTB-SSSC with a series-compensating voltage
(V1s s) to make P1r = 2 × P1rn and Q1r = Q1rn. Calculate V1s s, β1, P1se, and Q1se. For the second line
with a given series-compensating voltage (V2s s) when Plink = 0 and Q2se = 0, calculate V2s s and β2.
Answer 2-50

From Table 2-1 data, V s = 1 pu, V 1r = V 2r = 1 pu, X 1 = X 2 = 0 5 pu, and δ1 = δ2 = 30 .

Vr
Applying Equation (2-46): Prn = a × sin δ and Equation (2-48): Qrn = a cos δ − , the natural
Vs
transmitted active power, P1sn = P1rn = 1 pu = P2sn = P2rn and natural reactive powers at the send-
ing end, Q1sn = 0 267949 pu = Q2sn and that the receiving end Q1rn = − 0 267949 pu = Q2rn in the
uncompensated lines 1 (“leader” line) and 2 (“follower” line).
With a given series-compensating voltage (V1s s), P1r = 2 pu, Q1r = − 0 267949 pu.
From Equation (2-289), the magnitude (V1s ) of the modified sending-end voltage (V1s ) in line 1,
2 2
X1 V 21r 05 12
V 1s = P21r + Q1r + = 22 + − 0 267949 + = 1 322876 pu
V 1r X1 1 05

From Equation (2-291), the phase-shift angle of the modified sending-end voltage in line 1,
P1r 2
ψ 1 = tan − 1 − δ1 = tan − 1 − 30 = 19 106605
V 21r 12
Q1r + − 0 267949 +
X1 05
From Equation (2-292), the magnitude (V1s s) and from Equation (2-293), the relative phase angle
(β1) of the series-compensating voltage in line 1,

V 1s s = V 21s + V 2s − 2V 1s V s cos ψ 1 = 1 3228762 + 12 − 2 × 1 322876 × 1 × cos 19 106605

= 0 5 pu and
V 1s sin ψ 1 1 322876 × sin 19 106605
β1 = tan − 1 = tan − 1 = 60
V 1s cos ψ 1 − V s 1 322876 × cos 19 106605 − 1
From Equation (2-297), the natural voltage (V1Xn) across the line 1,

V 1Xn = V 2s − 2V s V 1r cos δ1 + V 21r = 12 − 2 × 1 × 1 × cos 30 + 12 = 0 517638 pu

V 1s s V 1Xn 0 5 × 0 517638
From Equation (2-296), a1se = = = 0 517638 pu.
X1 05
From Equation (2-294), the exchanged active power (P1se) and from Equation (2-295), the
exchanged reactive power (Q1se) between line 1 to line 2,
P1sn 1
P1se = a1se sin β1 − tan − 1 = 0 517638 × sin 60 − tan − 1 = − 0 133974 pu
Q1sn 0 267649
228 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

V21s s P1sn 0 52
Q1se = − − a1se cos β1 − tan − 1 = − − 0 517638
X1 Q1sn 05
1
× cos 60 − tan − 1 = − 1 pu
0 267649
For an ideal BTB-SSSC (neglecting its internal power losses), Plink = 0. Also, Q1se and Q2se are
independent of each other. It is also given that Q2se = 0 pu.
From Equation (2-300), P1se + P2se = Plink = 0; therefore, P2se = − P1se = + 0 133974 pu.
From Equation (2-305), the natural voltage (V2Xn) across line 2,
V 2Xn = V 2s − 2V s V 2r cos δ2 + V 22r = 12 − 2 × 1 × 1 × cos 30 + 12 = 0 517638 pu.
From Equation (2-303), the magnitude (V2s s) and from Equation (2-304), the relative phase angle
(β2) of the series-compensating voltage in line 2,

2
V 22Xn V 22Xn
V 2s s = + − X 2 Q2se − − X 2 Q2se − X 22 P22se + Q22se
2 2

2
0 5176382 0 5176382
= + −0 5 × 0 − −0 5 × 0 − 0 52 0 1339742 + 02
2 2
= 0 133974 pu
P2sn P2se 1 0 133974
β2 = tan − 1 − tan − 1 = tan − 1 − tan − 1 =0
Q2sn V 22s s 0 267649 0 1339742
Q2se +
X2 05

2.6 Comparison Between Shunt-Compensating Reactance and

Series-Compensating Reactance

Consider a two-generator/one-line power system network, shown in Figure 2-100, with the mag-
nitudes (Vs and Vr) of the sending- and receiving-end voltages to be equal to V (one pu), the power
angle, δ = δs − δr = 90 , and the line reactance, X = 1 pu.
Rewriting Equations (2-40), (2-46), (2-43), and (2-48) using Equation (2-41), the active and reac-
tive power flows at the sending and receiving ends of the line are given by

V sV r V2
Psn = Prn = sin δ = sin δ (2-328)
X X
V sV r V2
Qsn = 1 − cos δ = 1 − cos δ (2-329)
X X
V sV r V2
Qrn = cos δ − 1 = cos δ − 1 (2-330)
X X

Equation (2-319) can be rewritten for an uncompensated line as

V2
Qlinen = Qsn − Qrn = 2 1 − cos δ (2-331)
X
 2.6 Comparison Between Shunt-Compensating Reactance and Series-Compensating Reactance 229

Psn , Qsn Prn , Qrn

VXn
In In

Vs X Vr
In

VXn 90º
Vs Vm Vr

δ
V
(pu)1
Vr
Vs

Vm
0.5

b
0
0 0.5 1

Figure 2-100 Two-generator/one-line power system network without any compensation and its related
phasor diagram.

Equation (2-30) can be rewritten as

V Xn = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r = V 2 − 2V 2 cos δ + V 2

δ
V Xn = 2V sin (2-332)
2
From Equations (2-38) and (2-332), the voltage at any point in the line is given by

2
δ δ
V x = V cos 1+ 2b − 1 tan (2-333)
2 2

where b = multiplier of V Xn from 0 to 1 and x = s, 1, m, 2, r, and so on as shown in Figure 2-8.

230 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Digress:
2
V s V r sin δ bV 2Xn − V s V s − V r cos δ
Vx = 1+
V Xn V s V r sin δ
2
δ δ δ
V 2 2 sin cos b × 4V 2 sin2 − V 2 1 − cos δ
2 2 2
= 1+
δ V 2 sin δ
2V sin
2
2
δ δ
b × 4 sin2 − 2 sin2
δ 2 2
= V cos 1+
2 δ δ
2 sin cos
2 2
2
δ δ
2b × sin − sin 2
δ 2 2 δ δ
= V cos 1+ = V cos 1+ 2b − 1 tan
2 δ 2 2
cos
2

Using Equation (2-333), the plot of the magnitude of voltage (voltage profile) along the line is
shown in Figure 2-100. If a load is to be connected along the midpoint in the line, the line voltage
of 0.707 pu is not suitable for the load, since it is below the allowable lower limit.

2.6.1 Shunt-Compensating Reactance

The voltage at any point along the line can be restored to its desired nominal value of one pu by
using a shunt-compensating reactance.

2.6.1.1 Restoration of Voltage at the Midpoint of the Line

Figure 2-101 shows a scheme that can be used to restore the line voltage at one pu. Following Figure 2-
100, the left half of the line with reactance of X/2 may be treated as a line with its sending- and receiving-
end voltages, V s = 1 pu and V r = 1 pu with a power angle of δ/2. The line current (Is) lags the send-
ing-end voltage (Vs) by δ/4 and leads the midpoint voltage (Vm) by δ/4. Similarly, the right half of
the line with reactance of X/2 may be treated as a line with its sending- and receiving-end voltages
to be one pu with a power angle of δ/2. The line current (Ir) lags the midpoint voltage (Vm) by δ/4
and leads the receiving-end voltage (Vr) by δ/4. The compensator current (Iq) is the difference
between the currents in the left half of the line and the right half of the line and is given by
Iq = Is − Ir (2-334)
ο
Since the compensator current (Iq) leads the midpoint voltage by 90 , the compensator must be
capacitive, which was demonstrated at the beginning of this chapter. Using Equation (2-333), the
plot of the magnitude of the voltage along the line is shown in Figure 2-101.
Rewriting Equations (2-328), (2-329), and (2-330), the active and reactive power flows at the send-
ing and receiving ends of the line are given by
V2 δ 2V 2 δ
Ps = Pr = sin = sin (2-335)
X 2 2 X 2
V2 δ 2V 2 δ
Qs = 1 − cos = 1 − cos (2-336)
X 2 2 X 2
V2 δ 2V 2 δ
Qr = cos −1 = cos −1 (2-337)
X 2 2 X 2
 2.6 Comparison Between Shunt-Compensating Reactance and Series-Compensating Reactance 231

Ps , Qs Pr , Qr
VX/2 VX/2
Is Ir
∿ ∿
Vs X/2 Iq Vm X/2 Vr

Shunt
Comp
Iq

Vm
VX/2 VX/2

Vs Vr

Is Ir

δ
V
(pu)1
Vs Vm Vr

0.5

b
0
0 0.5 1

Figure 2-101 Two-generator/one-line power system network with shunt compensation and its related
phasor diagram.

From Equation (2-331), the reactive power needed by each of the two segments of the line is
given by

2V 2 δ V2 δ
Qline = Qs − Qr = 2 × 1 − cos =4 1 − cos (2-338)
X 2 X 2
The shunt compensator provides reactive power to the right half of the left half of the line and to
the left of the right half of the line. Therefore, the rating of the shunt compensator is given by

V2 δ
Qsh = Qline = 4 1 − cos (2-339)
X 2
Increasing the voltage along the line at various points increases the Available Transfer Capability
(ATC) of the line. This is significant for lines that operate with a large power angle (δ). Considering
232 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

V s = V r = 1 pu and X = 1 pu, if Vm is raised to be one pu, the ATC changes from sin δ to 2 × sin
(δ/2). For a δ = 30 , it is a 3.53% increase of active power flow. However, in an extreme case, δ = 90
would result in an increase of 41.4% in active power flow.

2.6.1.2 Restoration of Voltage at the One-Third and Two-Third Points of the Line
The voltage at one-third and two-third points of the line can be restored to its desired one pu value
by using two shunt-connected reactance compensators as shown in Figure 2-102.
The sum of the compensator currents, Iq1 + Iq2, is the difference between the currents in the left
one-third of the line and the right one-third of the line and is given by
Iq1 + Iq2 = Is − Ir (2-340)

Ps , Qs Pr , Qr
VX/3 VX/3 VX/3
Is Ir
∿ ∿
Vs X/3 I X/3 I X/3 Vr
q1 V q2 V2
1
Shunt Shunt
Comp 1 Comp 2
Iq2
Iq1
VX/3

VX/3 VX/3
V1 V2
Vs Vr

Is Ir

V
(pu)1 Vr
Vs V1 V2

0.5

b
0
0 0.5 1

Figure 2-102 Two-generator/one-line power system network with two shunt compensations and its related
phasor diagram.
 2.6 Comparison Between Shunt-Compensating Reactance and Series-Compensating Reactance 233

Using Equation (2-333), the plot of the magnitude of voltage along the line is shown in
Figure 2-102. Rewriting Equations (2-328), (2-329), and (2-330), the active and reactive power flows
at the sending and receiving ends of the line are given by

V2 δ 3V 2 δ
Ps = Pr = sin = sin (2-341)
X 3 3 X 3
V2 δ 3V 2 δ
Qs = 1 − cos = 1 − cos (2-342)
X 3 3 X 3
V2 δ 3V 2 δ
Qr = cos −1 = cos −1 (2-343)
X 3 3 X 3
From Equation (2-331), the reactive power needed by each of the three segments of the line is
given by

3V 2 δ V2 δ
Qline = Qs − Qr = 2 × 1 − cos =6 1 − cos (2-344)
X 3 X 3
Each shunt compensator provides reactive power to the right half of the left third of the line and
to the left half of the right third of the line. Therefore, the rating of each shunt compensator is
given by

V2 δ
Qsh = Qline = 6 1 − cos (2-345)
X 3

2.6.1.3 Restoration of Voltage at the One-Fourth, Half, and Three-Fourth Points of the Line
The voltage at one-fourth, half, and three-fourth points of the line can be restored to its desired one
pu value by using three shunt-connected reactance compensators as shown in Figure 2-103.
The sum of the compensator currents, Iq1 + Iq2 + Iq3, is the difference between the currents in the
left one-fourth of the line and the right one-fourth of the line and is given by
Iq1 + Iq2 + Iq3 = Is − Ir (2-346)

Using Equation (2-333), the plot of the magnitude of voltage along the line is shown in
Figure 2-103. Rewriting Equations (2-328), (2-329), and (2-330), the active and reactive power flows
at the sending and receiving ends of the line are given by

V2 δ 4V 2 δ
Ps = Pr = sin = sin (2-347)
X 4 4 X 4
V2 δ 4V 2 δ
Qs = 1 − cos = 1 − cos (2-348)
X 4 4 X 4
V2 δ 4V 2 δ
Qr = cos −1 = cos −1 (2-349)
X 4 4 X 4
From Equation (2-331), the reactive power needed by each of the four segments of the line is
given by

4V 2 δ V2 δ
Qline = Qs − Qr = 2 × 1 − cos =8 1 − cos (2-350)
X 4 X 4
234 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Ps , Qs Pr , Qr
VX/4 VX/4 VX/4 VX/4
Is Ir
∿ ∿
Vs X/4 X/4 I X/4 X/4 Vr
Iq1 V q2 V2 Iq3 V3
1
Shunt Shunt Shunt
Comp 1 Comp 2 Comp 3
Iq2 Iq3
Iq1 VX/4 VX/4
VX/4 VX/4
V2
V1 V3
Vs Vr

Is Ir

V
(pu)1
Vs V1 V2 V3 Vr

0.5

b
0
0 0.5 1

Figure 2-103 Two-generator/one-line power system network with three shunt compensations and its related
phasor diagram.

Each shunt compensator provides reactive power to the right half of the left fourth of the line and
to the left half of the right fourth of the line. Therefore, the rating of each shunt compensator is
given by

V2 δ
Qsh = Qline = 8 1 − cos (2-351)
X 4
Each capacitive compensation unit at the POC with the line supplies reactive power to the right
half of the left quarter of the line and to the left half of the right quarter of the line. In this case, the
sending- and the receiving-end voltages supply reactive power to the left half of the first quarter and
the right half of the fourth quarter of the line, respectively. Note that if a line is compensated at ¼,
½, and 3/4 points to maintain the nominal voltage at each compensating point, the ATC changes
from sinδ to 4×sin(δ/4). For a δ = 90 , that is a 53% increase in active power flow.
 2.6 Comparison Between Shunt-Compensating Reactance and Series-Compensating Reactance 235

2.6.1.4 Restoration of Voltage at n Points of the Line

In general, the active and reactive power flows at the sending and receiving ends of the line are
given by

n + 1 V2 δ
Ps = Pr = sin (2-352)
X n+1
n + 1 V2 δ
Qs = 1 − cos (2-353)
X n+1
n + 1 V2 δ
Qr = cos −1 (2-354)
X n+1
V2 δ
Qsh = Qline = 2 n + 1 1 − cos (2-355)
X n+1
where n is the number of shunt compensators, each placed at equal distance. Note that Qline in
Equation (2-355) refers to the reactive power in each segment of the line, thus the rating (Qsh)
of each shunt compensator. The combined APR (Ssh) of all the shunt compensators is given by

V2 δ
APR = Ssh = n × Qsh = 2n n + 1 1 − cos (2-356)
X n+1
Using Equation (2-355), the RPI, which is a measure of total reactive power needed by the line for
a unit of active power transmitted, is given by

Qline 2 V2 δ
RPI = n + 1 = n+1 2 1 − cos (2-357)
Pr Pr X n+1
For a large value of n,
δ δ
sin (2-358a)
n+1 n+1
and
δ
cos cos 0 = 1 (2-358b)
n+1
Therefore, using Equations (2-358a) and (2-358b), (2-352), (2-353), and (2-354) can be approxi-
mated as

n + 1 V2 δ V2
Ps = Pr = or Ps = Pr = δ (2-359)
X n+1 X
and
Qs = 0 = Qr (2-360)
Using Equation (2-352), Table 2-33 shows the active power (Pr) at the sending and receiving ends
of the line as a function of the number (n) of shunt compensators used for a power angle of δ = 30 .
Also included in Table 2-33 are the reactive power (Qr) at the receiving end from Equation (2-354),
line current (I) from Equations (2-76) and (2-77), reactive power (Qline) needed by each segment of
the line from Equation (2-355), RPI from Equation (2-357), LI from Equation (2-324), and APR (Ssh)
from Equation (2-356).
236 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Table 2-33 Figure of merits of shunt compensation with a power angle of δ = 30 .

n Ps = Pr (pu) Qr (pu) I (pu) Qline (pu) RPI LI APR (Ssh)

0 0.500000 −0.133975 0.517638 0.267949 0.535898 1.000000 0.000000

1 0.517638 −0.068148 0.522105 0.136297 0.526610 1.017332 0.136297
2 0.520945 −0.045577 0.522934 0.091153 0.524932 1.020568 0.182307
3 0.522105 −0.034221 0.523225 0.068441 0.524348 1.021703 0.205323
4 0.522642 −0.027391 0.523360 0.054781 0.524078 1.022228 0.219124
5 0.522934 −0.022832 0.523433 0.045664 0.523931 1.022514 0.228318
∞ π/6 0 π/6 0

Table 2-34 Figure of merits of shunt compensation with a power angle of δ = 60 .

n Ps = Pr (pu) Qr (pu) I (pu) Qline (pu) RPI LI APR (Ssh)

0 0.866025 −0.500000 1.000000 1.000000 1.154701 1.000000 0.000000

1 1.000000 −0.267949 1.035276 0.535898 1.071797 1.071797 0.535898
2 1.026060 −0.180922 1.041889 0.361844 1.057962 1.085533 0.723689
3 1.035276 −0.136297 1.044210 0.272593 1.053220 1.090374 0.817780
4 1.039558 −0.109262 1.045285 0.218524 1.051042 1.092620 0.874096
5 1.041889 −0.091153 1.045869 0.182307 1.049864 1.093842 0.911535
∞ π/3 0 π/3 0

Table 2-35 Figure of merits of shunt compensation with a power angle of δ = 90 .

n Ps = Pr (pu) Qr (pu) I (pu) Qline (pu) RPI LI APR (Ssh)

0 1.000000 −1.000000 1.414214 2.000000 2.000000 1.000000 0.000000

1 1.414214 −0.585786 1.530734 1.171573 1.656854 1.171573 1.171573
2 1.500000 −0.401924 1.552914 0.803848 1.607695 1.205771 1.607695
3 1.530734 −0.304482 1.560723 0.608964 1.591229 1.217927 1.826891
4 1.545085 −0.244717 1.564345 0.489435 1.583844 1.223587 1.957739
5 1.552914 −0.204445 1.566314 0.408890 1.579830 1.226670 2.044450
∞ π/2 0 π/2 0

Table 2-34 is a repetition of Table 2-33 with a power angle of δ = 60 .

Table 2-35 is a repetition of Table 2-33 with a power angle of δ = 90 .
The active power flow as a function of number of shunt compensators is shown in Figure 2-104.
As the number of compensators increases, the power flow reaches to the theoretical limit of
π 6 = 0 5229 when δ = 30 , π 3 = 1 0419 when δ = 60 , and π 2 = 1 57079 when δ = 90 . The
 2.6 Comparison Between Shunt-Compensating Reactance and Series-Compensating Reactance 237

1.60
1.40 1.5000 1.5307 1.5451 1.5529
1.4142
1.20
1.00
Pr (pu)

1.0000 1.0000 1.0261 1.0353 1.0396 1.0419

0.80
0.8660
0.60
0.40 0.5176 0.5209 0.5221 0.5226 0.5229
0.5000
0.20
0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5
n

delta = 30 delta = 60 delta = 90

Figure 2-104 Active power at the sending and receiving ends versus number of shunt compensators.

justification of multiple shunt compensators can only be made if the power angle is large enough.
Even with a large power angle, such as when δ = 90 , Table 2-35 shows that the active power flow
increases by 41.42% with just the use of first shunt compensator. With the use of the second shunt
compensator, the active power flow increases only by another 8.58%. Therefore, care must be taken
in selecting the number of shunt compensators for use.
In a shunt-compensated line, the RPI as a function of number of shunt compensators is shown in
Figure 2-105.

2.50

2.00
2.0000
1.50
1.6569 1.6077 1.5913 1.5838 1.5798
RPI

1.00
1.1547 1.0718 1.0580 1.0532 1.0510 1.0499
0.50
0.5359 0.5266 0.5249 0.5243 0.5241 0.5239
0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5

n
delta = 30 delta = 60 delta = 90

Figure 2-105 RPI versus number of shunt compensators.

238 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

In a shunt-compensated line, the LI as a function of number of shunt compensators is shown in

Figure 2-106.
In a shunt-compensated line, the total APR of the shunt compensators as a function of number of
shunt compensators is shown in Figure 2-107.
Even though the power flow in a line increases as the number of shunt compensators increases,
there is a theoretical limit of power flow increase, which is related to the power angle of the line.
However, the power flow of the line can be greatly increased with a series compensation up to the
thermal limit of the line.

1.25

1.20 1.2179 1.2236 1.2267

1.2058
1.15 1.1716
1.10
LI

1.0855 1.0904 1.0926 1.0938

1.05 1.0718
1.00 1.0206 1.0217 1.0222 1.0225
1.0173
1.0000
0.95
0 1 2 3 4 5
n
delta = 30 delta = 60 delta = 90

Figure 2-106 LI versus number of compensators.

2.50
1.9577 2.0445
2.00 1.8269
1.6077
1.50
1.1716
APR

0.8741 0.9115
1.00 0.8178
0.7237
0.5359
0.50 0.2053 0.2191 0.2283
0.1363 0.1823
0.0000
0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5
n
delta = 30 delta = 60 delta = 90

Figure 2-107 Total APR of shunt compensation versus number of shunt compensators.
 2.6 Comparison Between Shunt-Compensating Reactance and Series-Compensating Reactance 239

2.6.2 Series-Compensating Reactance

The series-connected reactance compensator delivers or absorbs reactive power to or from the line.
In the process, the active and reactive power flows in the line change. The active and reactive power
flows at the sending and receiving ends of the series-compensated line are given by

V sV r V2
Ps = Pr = sin δ = sin δ (2-361)
X eff X eff
V sV r V s V2
Qs = − cos δ = 1 − cos δ (2-362)
X eff V r X eff
V sV r Vr V2
Qr = cos δ − = cos δ − 1 (2-363)
X eff Vs X eff

where
Vs = Vr = V
X eff = X − X se (2-210a)
δ = δs − δr (2-27)
Note that Xse > 0 means the series-compensating reactance is capacitive and Xse < 0 means the
series-compensating reactance is inductive. Also, Xeff > 0 represents an effective inductive reac-
tance and Xeff < 0 represents an effective capacitive reactance, respectively.
From Equations (2-352), (2-361), and (2-210a), it can be written that

n + 1 V2 δ V2
Ps = Pr = sin = sin δ (2-364)
X n+1 X − X se
Rearranging Equation (2-364), the series-compensating reactance for the same active power flow
(Pr) enhancement as in the case of a shunt-compensated line is given by

sin δ
X se = X 1 − (2-365)
δ
n + 1 sin
n+1
Using Equations (2-263a) and (2-326), the equivalent APR (Sse) of the series compensators for the
same active power flow enhancement, shown in Tables 2-32, 2-33, and 2-34, are given by
APR = Sse = V s s I = I X se × I
or
APR = Sse = I 2 X se (2-366)
Table 2-36 shows the series-compensating reactances (Xse) for the same active power at the send-
ing and receiving ends as just discussed with various number (n) of shunt compensators for a power
angle of δ = 30 . The active power (Pr) is determined using Equation (2-361) for verification. Also
included in Table 2-36 are the reactive power (Qr) at the receiving end from Equation (2-363),
line current (I) from Equations (2-76) and (2-77), Qline from Equation (2-11b), RPI from
Equation (2-321), LI from Equation (2-324), and APR (Sse) from Equation (2-366).
Table 2-37 is a repetition of Table 2-36 with a power angle of δ = 60 .
Table 2-38 is a repetition of Table 2-36 with a power angle of δ = 90 .
240 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Table 2-36 Figure of merits of series compensation with a power angle of δ = 30 .

n Xse (pu) Ps = Pr (pu) Qr (pu) I (pu) Qline (pu) RPI LI APR (Sse)

0 0.000000 0.500000 −0.133975 0.517638 0.267949 0.535859 1.000000 0.000000

1 0.034074 0.517638 −0.138701 0.535898 0.287187 0.554803 1.071797 0.009786
2 0.040205 0.520945 −0.139587 0.539321 0.290868 0.558347 1.085533 0.011694
3 0.042338 0.522105 −0.139898 0.540523 0.292165 0.559590 1.090374 0.012370
4 0.043323 0.522642 −0.140042 0.541079 0.292767 0.560166 1.092620 0.012683
5 0.043857 0.522934 −0.140120 0.541382 0.293094 0.560479 1.093842 0.012854

Table 2-37 Figure of merits of series compensation with a power angle of δ = 60 .

n Xse (pu) Ps = Pr (pu) Qr (pu) I (pu) Qline (pu) RPI LI APR (Sse)

0 0.000000 0.866025 −0.500000 1.000000 1.000000 1.154701 1.000000 0.000000

1 0.133975 1.000000 −0.577350 1.154701 1.333333 1.333333 1.333333 0.178633
2 0.155970 1.026060 −0.592396 1.184793 1.403733 1.368081 1.403733 0.218941
3 0.163484 1.035276 −0.597717 1.195434 1.429062 1.380368 1.429062 0.233628
4 0.166930 1.039558 −0.600189 1.200379 1.440909 1.386078 1.440909 0.240530
5 0.168793 1.041889 −0.601535 1.203070 1.447377 1.389185 1.447377 0.244307

Table 2-38 Figure of merits of series compensation with a power angle of δ = 90 .

n Xse (pu) Ps = Pr (pu) Qr (pu) I (pu) Qline (pu) RPI LI APR (Sse)

0 0.000000 1.000000 −1.000000 1.414214 2.000000 2.000000 1.000000 0.000000

1 0.292893 1.414214 −1.414214 2.000000 4.000000 2.828428 2.000000 1.171573
2 0.333333 1.500000 −1.500000 2.121320 4.500000 3.000000 2.250000 1.500000
3 0.346719 1.530734 −1.530734 2.164784 4.686292 3.061467 2.343146 1.624824
4 0.352786 1.545085 −1.545085 2.185080 4.774575 3.090170 2.387288 1.684405
5 0.356049 1.552914 −1.552914 2.196252 4.823085 3.105829 2.411543 1.717257

The series-compensating reactance as a function of equivalent number of shunt compensators for

the same active power flow (Pr) enhancement is shown in Figure 2-108.
In a series-compensated line, the RPI as a function of equivalent number of shunt compensators
for the same active power flow (Pr) enhancement is shown in Figure 2-109.
In a series-compensated line, the LI as a function of equivalent number of shunt compensators for
the same active power flow (Pr) enhancement is shown in Figure 2-110.
 2.6 Comparison Between Shunt-Compensating Reactance and Series-Compensating Reactance 241

0.40
0.35
0.3467 0.3528 0.3560
0.30 0.3333
0.25 0.2929

0.20
Xse (pu)

0.15 0.1688
0.1560 0.1635 0.1669
0.10 0.1340
0.05
0.00 0.0000 0.0341 0.0402 0.0423 0.0433 0.0439
0 1 2 3 4 5
n
delta = 30 delta = 60 delta = 90

Figure 2-108 Series-compensating reactance versus equivalent shunt compensation for the same active
power flow (Pr) enhancement as a function of a number of shunt compensators.

3.50
3.00
3.0000 3.0615 3.0902 3.1058
2.50 2.8284

2.00
RPI

2.0000
1.50
1.00 1.3333 1.3681 1.3804 1.3861 1.3892
1.1547
0.50
0.5359 0.5548 0.5583 0.5596 0.5602 0.5605
0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5
n
delta = 30 delta = 60 delta = 90

Figure 2-109 RPI of series compensation versus equivalent shunt compensation for the same active power
flow (Pr) enhancement as a function of a number of shunt compensators.

2.50
2.25 2.3873 2.4115
2.3431
2.2500
2.00
2.0000
1.75
LI

1.50
1.25 1.4037 1.4291 1.4409 1.4474
1.3333
1.00
1.0000 1.0718 1.0855 1.0904 1.0926 1.0938
0.75
0 1 2 3 4 5
n
delta = 30 delta = 60 delta = 90

Figure 2-110 LI of series compensation versus equivalent shunt compensation for the same active power
flow (Pr) enhancement as a function of a number of shunt compensators.
242 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

2.00
1.6844 1.7173
1.6248
1.5000
1.50
1.1716
APR

1.00

0.50 0.2189 0.2336 0.2405 0.2443

0.0000 0.1786
0.000000 0.009786 0.011694 0.012370 0.012683 0.012854
0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5
n
delta = 30 delta = 60 delta = 90

Figure 2-111 APR of series compensation versus equivalent shunt compensation for the same active power
flow (Pr) enhancement as a function of a number of shunt compensators.

In a series-compensated line, the APR as a function of equivalent number of shunt compensators

for the same active power flow (Pr) enhancement is shown in Figure 2-111.
It can be noted that for a given amount of active power flow enhancement in a line, the RPI and LI
may be lower in the case of a shunt compensation than in a series compensation as shown in Fig-
ures 2-105 and 2-109 and Figures 2-106 and 2-110; however, the APR is higher in the case of a shunt
compensation than in a series compensation as shown in Figures 2-107 and 2-111.

2.7 Calculation of RPI, LI, and APR for a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym),
a RR, and an IR in a Lossy Line

Consider an AC line with a resistance (R), an inductive reactance (X), carrying power from the
sending end with a voltage Vs = V s ∠δs to the receiving end with a voltage Vr = V r ∠δr as shown
in Figure 2-112. The phasor diagram is drawn for a X R = tan φ = cot ϕ = 3 7. Note that φ is the
power factor angle of the line impedance; however, ϕ is the phase angle between the reactive volt-
age (VXn) across the line reactance and the voltage (VRn,Xn) across the line impedance, which is the
difference between the sending- and receiving-end voltages. This voltage causes a natural current
In = I n ∠θIn to flow through the line impedance Z = R + jX as shown in Figure 2-112.
When a RR is connected in series with the line, the effective line reactance (Xeff), given by Equa-
tion (2-210a), is shown in Figure 2-113.
Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1 with an added line resistance (R) so that
the X R = 10. The natural active power flow at the receiving end of the line can be determined by
using the following equation:
A Vr
Prn = R cos δ − + X sin δ (B-21)
2
R +X 2 Vs
and it is 0.963 pu. It can be verified using the following equation:
A Vr
Pr = R cos δ − + X sin δ (B-117)
R2 + X 2 Vs
 2.7 Calculation of RPI, LI, and APR for a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), a RR, and an IR in a Lossy Line 243

Psn , Qsn Prn , Qrn

VRn VXn
In In

Vs R X Vr

In

VRn,Xn θIn
φ
ϕ

X VRn V Xn
= 3.7
R
δ
2

Vs δs Vr δr

Figure 2-112 Two-generator/one-line power system network with a lossy line and its phasor diagram.

±j90° Psʹ , Qsʹ Pr , Qr

Vsʹs = Xse I e
VX VR
I I

X R
Vs Vsʹ Vr

Xeff

Figure 2-113 Two-generator/one-line power system network with a lossy line and a RR.

that the PAR (sym) is able to increase active power flow from its natural active power flow of 0.963
pu to about 1.786 pu at the receiving end of the line. Therefore, the same active power flow enhance-
ment (ΔP = 1 786 pu − 0 963 pu = 0 823 pu) is considered while studying other PFCs, such as a
PAR (asym), a RR, and an IR. The RPI, LI, and APR are determined in each case. The control para-
meters and their effects on Vs s, β, Vs , and ψ in a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), a RR, and an IR are
shown in Table 2-39. For a RR, the effects on β, Vs , and ψ are dependent on the X/R ratio of the line.
For R = 0, the expressions for β, Vs , and ψ are given in Equations (2-227), (2-221) or (2-229), and
(2-230), respectively. The range of a RR is −XL to +XC.
Table 2-39 Control parameters and their effects on Vs s, β, Vs , and ψ in a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), a RR, and an IR.

Control parameter(s) Vs s β Vs Ψ

PAR ψ ψ ψ Vs Range:
Vs s = 2V s sin β= + 90 for ψ > 0 or
(sym) 2 2
ψ −ψ max to +ψ max
(2-198) β= + 270 for ψ < 0
2
(2-200)

PAR Vs s Range: −90 or 90 Vs s

Vs = V 2s + V 2s s ψ = tan − 1 (2-271a)
(asym) 0–Vs s Vs
(2-270)

RR Xse V s s = IX se β = tan − 1 − R Qr − Qrn + X Pr − Prn XPr − RQr

V 2r + R2 + X 2 I 2 ψ = tan − 1 −δ
Range: (2-263b)
R Pr − Prn + X Qr − Qrn −δ Vs = V 2r + RPr + XQr
−XL to +XC + 2 RPr + XQr (B-134)
(B-132)
(B-82)

IR V s s = V s s ∠ δs + β Range: Range: V s s sin β

V 2s + V 2s s + ψ = tan − 1
0–Vs s 0 –360 Vs = V s + V s s cos β
2V s V s s cos β (2-98)
(2-97)
 2.7 Calculation of RPI, LI, and APR for a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), a RR, and an IR in a Lossy Line 245

2.7.1 PAR (sym)

In the case of a PAR (sym), the following steps are needed.
Step 0: Determine the range of the control parameter.
It can be found from Equations (2-51a), (B-13), and (B-117) that for an active power flow
(Pr = 1 786 pu), the control parameter of a PAR (sym) is ψ = 50 . Therefore, the phase-shift angle
(ψ) is varied in the range of 0 to 50 and the results are shown in Figures 2-114 through 2-116.
Step 1: For a desired phase-shift angle (ψ), calculate the modified power angle (δ ) using the fol-
lowing equations:
δ = δs − δr (2-27)
δ =δ+ψ (2-51a)
Step 2: Calculate the active power (Pr) and reactive power (Qr) at the receiving end using the
following equations:
A Vr
Pr = R cos δ − + X sin δ (B-117)
2
R +X 2 Vs
A Vr
Qr = −R sin δ + X cos δ − (B-118)
2
R +X 2 Vs
where
V sV r
A= (B-13)
R2 + X 2
Step 3: Calculate the magnitude of the natural line current (In) using the following equations:

V Rn,Xn = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r (B-4)

V Rn,Xn
In = (B-8)
R2 + X 2
Step 4: Using Pr and Qr in Step 2 and Vs s from Equation (2-198), calculate line current (I), reactive
power (Qline) absorbed by the line, RPI, LI for k R = 1, and APR using the following equations:

Sr = P2r + Q2r (2-76)

Sr
I= (2-77)
Vr

Figure 2-114 Reactive Power Index (RPI) versus RPI

active power flow (Pr) at the receiving end of PAR
the line. 2.0
(sym)
1.5 PAR
(asym)
1.0

0.5 IR RR
Pr (pu)
0
0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80
246 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

LI Figure 2-115 Loss Index (LI) versus active power

flow (Pr) at the receiving end of the line.
8.0
PAR
6.0 (sym)
PAR
4.0 (asym)
2.0 RR
IR Pr (pu)
0
0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80

APR Figure 2-116 Apparent Power Rating (APR)

(pu) versus active power flow (Pr) at the receiving end
of the line.
3.0
PAR
2.0 (sym)
PAR
RR
1.0 (asym)
IR Pr (pu)
0
0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80

Qline = I 2 X (2-11b)
Qline
RPI = (2-321)
Pr
I2
LI = k R (2-324)
I 2n
ψ
V s s = 2V s sin (2-198)
2
APR = V s s I (2-326)

2.7.2 PAR (asym)

In the case of a PAR (asym), the following steps are needed.
Step 0: Determine the range of the control parameter.
It can be found from Equations (2-270), (2-271a), (2-51a), (B-34), and (B-43) that for an active
power flow (Pr = 1 786 pu), the control parameter of a PAR (asym) is V s s = 0 509 pu. Therefore,
the magnitude of the compensating voltage (Vs s) is varied in the range of 0 to 0.509 pu and the
results are shown in Figures 2-114 through 2-116.
Step 1: For a desired series-compensating voltage (Vs s) with magnitude (Vs s), calculate the mod-
ified sending-end voltage (Vs ), phase-shift angle (ψ), and the modified power angle (δ ) using the
following equations:
 2.7 Calculation of RPI, LI, and APR for a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), a RR, and an IR in a Lossy Line 247

Vs = V 2s + V 2s s (2-270)
Vs s
ψ = tan − 1 (2-271a)
Vs
δ = δs − δr (2-27)
δ =δ+ψ (2-51a)
Step 2: Calculate the active power (Pr) and reactive power (Qr) at the receiving end using the
following equations:
A Vr
Pr = R cos δ − + X sin δ (B-43)
2
R +X 2 Vs
A Vr
Qr = − R sin δ + X cos δ − (B-44)
2
R +X 2 Vs

where

Vs Vr
A = (B-34)
R2 + X 2

Step 3: Calculate the magnitude of the natural line current (In) using the following equations:

V Rn,Xn = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r (B-4)

V Rn,Xn
In = (B-8)
R2 + X 2

Step 4: Using Pr and Qr in Step 2, calculate the line current (I), reactive power absorbed by the
line (Qline), reactive power index (RPI), loss index (LI) for k R = 1, and APR using the following
equations:

Sr = P2r + Q2r (2-76)

Sr
I= (2-77)
Vr

Qline = I 2 X (2-11b)

Qline
RPI = (2-321)
Pr

I2
LI = k R (2-324)
I 2n

APR = V s s I (2-326)
248 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

2.7.3 RR
In the case of a RR, the following steps are needed.
Step 0: Determine the range of the control parameter.
It can be found from Equations (2-210a), (B-125), and (B-123) that for an active power
flow (Pr = 1 786 pu), the control parameter of a RR is X se = 0 2445 pu. Therefore, the compensat-
ing-reactance (Xse) is varied in the range of 0 to 0.2445 pu and the results are shown in Figures
2-114 through 2-116.
Step 1: For a desired series-compensating reactance (Xse), calculate the effective line reactance
(Xeff) using the following equation:
X eff = X − X se (2-210a)

Step 2: Calculate the active power (Pr) and reactive power (Qr) at the receiving end using the
following equations:
Aeff Vr
Pr = R cos δ − + X eff sin δ (B-123)
R2 + X 2eff Vs

Aeff Vr
Qr = −R sin δ + X eff cos δ − (B-124)
R2 + X 2eff Vs

where
V sV r
Aeff = (B-125)
R2 + X 2eff

Step 3: Calculate the magnitude of the natural line current (In) using the following equations:

V Rn,Xn = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r (B-4)

V Rn,Xn
In = (B-8)
R2 + X 2
Step 4: Using Pr and Qr in Step 2, calculate the line current (I), reactive power absorbed by the line
(Qline), Reactive Power Index (RPI), Loss Index (LI) for k R = 1, and Apparent Power Rating (APR)
using the following equations:

Sr = P2r + Q2r (2-76)

Sr
I= (2-77)
Vr
Qline = I 2 X (2-11b)
Q
RPI = line (2-321)
Pr
I2
LI = k R (2-324)
I 2n
V s s = IX se (2-263b)
APR = V s s I (2-326)
 2.7 Calculation of RPI, LI, and APR for a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), a RR, and an IR in a Lossy Line 249

2.7.4 IR
In the case of an IR, the following steps are needed.
Step 0: Determine the range of the control parameter.
It can be found from Equations (2-97), (2-98), (2-51a), (B-34), and (B-43) that for an active power
flow (Pr = 1 786 pu), the control parameters of an IR are V s s = 0 415 pu and β = 49 . Keeping the
relative phase angle (β) fixed at 49 , the magnitude (Vs s) is varied in the range of 0 to 0.415 pu and
the results are shown in Figures 2-114 through 2-116.
Step 1: For a desired series-compensating voltage (Vs s) with magnitude (Vs s) and relative phase
angle (β), calculate the magnitude (Vs ) of the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ), the phase-shift
angle (ψ), and the modified power angle (δ ) using the following equations:

Vs = V 2s + V 2s s + 2V s V s s cos β (2-97)
V s s sin β
ψ = tan − 1 (2-98)
V s + V s s cos β
δ = δs − δr (2-27)
δ =δ+ψ (2-51a)
Step 2: Calculate the active power (Pr) and reactive power (Qr) at the receiving end using the
following equations:
A Vr
Pr = R cos δ − + X sin δ (B-43)
2
R +X 2 Vs
A Vr
Qr = − R sin δ + X cos δ − (B-44)
R2 + X 2 Vs
where
Vs Vr
A = (B-34)
R2 + X 2
Step 3: Calculate the magnitude of the natural line current (In) using the following equations:

V Rn,Xn = V 2s − 2V s Vr cos δ + V 2r (B-4)

V Rn,Xn
In = (B-8)
R2 + X 2
Step 4: Using Pr and Qr in Step 2, calculate the line current (I), reactive power absorbed by the line
(Qline), RPI, LI for k R = 1, and APR using the following equations:

Sr = P2r + Q2r (2-76)

Sr
I= (2-77)
Vr
Qline = I 2 X (2-11b)
Qline
RPI = (2-321)
Pr
I2
LI = k R (2-324)
I 2n
250 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

APR = V s s I (2-326)
In each case, the IR requires lower overall reactive power, causes lower losses in the line, and
requires lower APR than the PAR (sym and asym) and the RR as shown in Figures 2-114 through
2-116.
Note that the PAR (sym) is not capable of reaching the thermal limit of the line at 2 pu, in this
example, when the ideal line is replaced with a more realistic line with a X R = 10.
The RPI per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted is given by
RPI V2 X R2eff + X 2eff
= Rn,Xn
2 2 2 (B-151)
Pr Vs Vr Vr
Reff cos δ − + X eff sin δ
Vs
The LI per unit of active power (Pr) is given by
LI 1 R2 + X 2
= kR (B-152)
Pr V sV r Vr
Reff cos δ − + X eff sin δ
Vs
The APR per unit of active power (Pr) is given by

APR V2 R2se + X 2se

= Rn,Xn (B-153)
Pr V sV r Vr
Reff cos δ − + X eff sin δ
Vs
Equations (B-151), (B-152), and (B-153) apply to a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), and an IR, since all
three PFCs emulate a four-quadrant, series-compensating impedance Zse = Rse − jX se that con-
sists of a resistance Rse = +R or −R and a reactance X se = X C or − X L in series with the line.
However, for a RR, Rse = 0. Therefore, Equations (B-151), (B-152), and (B-153) can be rewritten
as follows.
The RPI per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted is given by
RPI V2 X R2 + X 2eff
= Rn,Xn
2 2 2 (B-151a)
Pr Vs Vr Vr
R cos δ − + X eff sin δ
Vs
The LI per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted is given by
LI 1 R2 + X 2
= kR (B-152a)
Pr V sV r Vr
R cos δ − + X eff sin δ
Vs
The APR per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted is given by

APR V2 X se
= Rn,Xn (B-153a)
Pr V sV r Vr
R cos δ − + X eff sin δ
Vs
Table 2-27 can be expanded to include the quality factor of the line to be Q = 10, which modifies
the natural active power flow, Prn = 0 963pu. The comparison of RPI, LI, and APR per unit of active
power (Pr) transmitted for a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), a RR, and an IR for an active power flow
enhancement (ΔP = 1 786 pu − 0 963 pu = 0 823 pu) at the receiving end of the line is shown in
Table 2-40.
 2.7 Calculation of RPI, LI, and APR for a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), a RR, and an IR in a Lossy Line 251

Table 2-40 Comparison of RPI, LI, and APR per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted for a PAR (sym), a PAR
(asym), a RR, and an IR for an active power flow enhancement (ΔP = 1 786 pu − 0 963 pu = 0 823 pu) at the
receiving end of the line.

Parameters Base case PAR (sym) PAR (asym) RR IR

Active power (Pr) at receiving end 0.963 pu 1.786 pu 1.786 pu 1.786 pu 1.786 pu
Series-compensating Resistance (Rse) 0 0.0533 pu 0.0081 pu 0 −0.791 pu
Series-compensating Reactance (Xse) 0 0.326 pu 0.2511 pu 0.2445 pu 0.2153 pu
Effective Line Resistance (Reff = R + Rse ) 0 0.1033 pu 0.0581 pu 0.05 pu −0.741 pu
Effective Line Reactance (X eff = X + X se) 0 0.174 pu 0.2489 pu 0.2555 pu 0.2847 pu
RPI/Pr 0.55 1.025 0.643 0.62 0.513
LI/Pr 1 3.453 2.165 2.086 1.727
APR/Pr 0 1.21 0.577 0.541 0.42

Note that the IR offers the lowest RPI, LI, and APR per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted,
which result in the lowest need for reactive power, lowest loss in the line, and the lowest rating
of the controller. The lowest RPI, LI, and APR contribute to the lowest overall cost of a solution.
The equivalent compensating resistance (Rse) and reactance (Xse) are determined in each case as
follows.
PAR (sym):
ψ 50
Using Equation (2-200), the relative phase angle, β = + 90 for ψ > 0 or β = + 90 = 115 .
2 2
Using Equation (B-4), the magnitude (VRn,Xn) of the voltage (VRn,Xn) across the transmission line is
determined as

V Rn,Xn = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r = 12 − 2 × 1 × 1 × cos 30 = 0 517638 pu

Using Equation (B-53), the magnitude (VR,X) of the voltage (VR,X) across the transmission line is
determined as

V R,X = V 2Rn,Xn + V s s V s s + 2 V s cos β − V r cos δ + β

= 0 5176382 + 0 845 × 0 845 + 2 1 × cos 115 − 1 × cos 30 + 115 = 1 2856 pu

Using Equation (B-143a),

ψ X ψ X X
V s sin + tan − 1 − V r sin δ + + tan − 1 − V s s cos tan − 1
2 Vs s 2 2 R 2 R R
Rse = R +X
V R,X V R,X

50 50
1 × sin + tan − 1 10 − 1 × sin 30 + + tan − 1 10 − 0 845 × cos tan − 1 10
2 0 845
2 2 2
= 0 05 + 0 5
1 2856 1 2856

= 0 0533 pu
252 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Using Equation (B-143b),

ψ X ψ X X
V s cos + tan− 1 − V r cos δ + + tan− 1 + V s s sin tan− 1
Vs s 2 R 2 R R
X se = R2 + X 2
V R,X V R,X

0 845
= 0 052 + 0 52
1 2856
50 50
1 × cos + tan− 1 10 − 1 × cos 30 + + tan− 1 10 + 0 845 × sin tan− 1 10
2 2
1 2856

= 0 326 pu

PAR (asym):
Using Equation (B-53), the magnitude (VR,X) of the voltage (VR,X) across the transmission line is
calculated as

V R,X = V 2Rn,Xn + V s s V s s + 2 V s cos β − V r cos δ + β

= 0 5176382 + 0 509 × 0 509 + 2 1 × cos 90 − 1 × cos 30 + 90 = 1 0179 pu

Using Equation (B-141a),

X X X
V s sin tan − 1 − V r sin δ + tan − 1 − V s s cos tan − 1
2 Vs s
2 R R R
Rse = R +X
V R,X V R,X

0 509 1 × sin tan − 1 10 − 1 × sin 30 + tan − 1 10 − 0 509 × cos tan − 1 10

= 0 052 + 0 52
1 0179 1 0179
= 0 0081 pu

Using Equation (B-141b),

X X X
V s cos tan − 1 − V r cos δ + tan − 1 + V s s sin tan − 1
Vs s R R R
X se = R2 + X 2
V R,X V R,X

0 509 1 × cos tan − 1 10 − 1 × cos 30 + tan − 1 10 + 0 509 × sin tan − 1 10

= 0 052 + 0 52
1 0179 1 0179
= 0 2511 pu

IR:
Using Equation (B-53), the magnitude (VR,X) of the voltage (VR,X) across the transmission line is
calculated as

V R,X = V 2Rn,Xn + V s s V s s + 2 V s cos β − V r cos δ + β

= 0 5176382 + 0 415 × 0 415 + 2 × 1 × cos 49 − 1 × cos 30 + 49 = 0 909 pu

 2.8 Sen Index of a PFC 253

Using Equation (B-138a),

X X X
− V s cos β + tan − 1 + V r cos δ + β + tan − 1 − V s s cos tan − 1
2 Vs s 2 R R R
Rse = R +X
V R,X V R,X

0 415 − 1 × cos 49 + tan − 1 10 + 1 × cos 30 + 49 + tan − 1 10 − 0 415 × cos tan − 1 10

= 0 052 + 0 52
0 909 0 909
= − 0 791 pu

Using Equation (B-138b),

X X X
V s sin β + tan − 1 − V r sin δ + β + tan − 1 + V s s sin tan − 1
2 Vs s 2 R R R
X se = R +X
V R,X V R,X

0 415 1 × sin 49 + tan − 1 10 − 1 × sin 30 + 49 + tan − 1 10 + 0 415 × sin tan − 1 10

= 0 052 + 0 52
0 909 0 909
= 0 2153 pu

2.8 Sen Index of a PFC

Consider the power flow in the line is increased by increasing the line current (I) from its
natural (uncompensated) value (In). Therefore, using Equations (2-318): Pline = I2R and
(2-322): Plinen = I 2n Rn , the additional power loss in the line due to active power flow increase
(ΔP) at the receiving end is given by

Padditional = Pline − Plinen or Padditional = I 2 R − I 2n Rn (2-367)

Using Equations (2-11b): Qline = I 2 X and (2-323): Qlinen = I 2n X, an additional reactive power in
the line due to active power flow increase (ΔP) is given by

Qadditional = Qline − Qlinen or Qadditional = I 2 − I 2n X (2-368)

The installation cost of a PFC is directly related to the APR of the PFC. In addition, there are
recurring costs in terms of power loss in the PFC, operational costs, maintenance costs, and so on.
Sen Index (SI) is defined as the increased cost of power delivery per unit of incremental power
delivered, which is given by
Padditional + Qadditional + APR
SI = (2-369)
ΔP
neglecting the recurring costs, or

I 2 − I 2n R + X + APR
SI = (2-370)
ΔP
where
ΔP = Pr − Prn (2-309)
R
kR = =1 (2-325)
Rn
SI is unitless, since the increased cost of power delivery is related to the sum of the additionally
-required active and reactive powers and the APR of the PFC for a unit of incremental power
254 2 Power Flow Control Concepts

Table 2-41 Comparison of SI of a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), a RR, and an IR for an active power flow
enhancement (ΔP = 1 786 pu − 0 963 pu = 0 823 pu) enhancement at the receiving end of the line.

Base PAR PAR

Parameters case (sym) (asym) RR IR

Modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) 1 pu 1 pu 1.122 pu 1.141 1.31 pu

Phase-shift angle (ψ) 0 50 26.976 25.144 13.83
Series-compensating voltage (Vs s) 0 0.845 pu 0.509 pu 0.486 pu 0.415 pu
Relative phase angle (β) 0 115 90 86.07 49
Active power (Ps ) at modified sending end 1.016 pu 2.114 pu 1.991 pu 1.984 1.95 pu
Active power (Pr) at receiving end 0.963 pu 1.786 pu 1.786 pu 1.786 pu 1.786 pu
Reactive power (Qs ) at modified sending end 0.166 pu 1.441 pu 1.096 pu 1.103 1.348 pu
Reactive power (Qr) at receiving end −0.364 −1.831 −0.956 −0.874 −0.288
pu pu pu pu pu
Line current (I) 1.030 pu 2.558 pu 2.026 pu 1.988 pu 1.809 pu
2 0.530 pu 3.273 pu 2.052 pu 1.977 pu 1.636 pu
Line reactive power Qline = I X
Reactive Power Index, RPI = Qline Pr 0.55 1.832 1.149 1.107 0.916
Loss Index, LI = k R × I 2 I 2n at natural line 1 6.168 3.867 3.725 3.084
current (i.e. I = In); kR = 1
APR = V s s I 0 2.162 pu 1.031 pu 0.967 pu 0.751 pu
Sen Index = I 2
− I 2n R + X + APR ΔP 0 6.293 3.288 3.11 2.392

SI Figure 2-117 Sen Index (SI) versus active power

flow (Pr) at the receiving end of the line using a PAR
6.0 PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), a RR, and an IR.
PAR (sym)
4.0 (asym) RR

2.0
IR Pr (pu)
0
0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80

delivery. If desired, the unit of SI may be expressed in $/MW delivered. In that case, the delivery cost
may be determined, considering the actual cost of various types of solutions, such as VSC-based,
transformer/LTC-based, and so on. Note that a transformer/LTCs-based solution does not generate
or absorb reactive power; therefore, the additional reactive power needed by the line during a power
flow enhancement must be supplied by another source. In contrast, a shunt or series capacitor,
including a VSC-based or an electrical machine-based solution, generates reactive power that
should be taken into account for determining the absolute reactive power requirement from other
sources during a power flow enhancement. As a first order of approximation of SI, it is evident that
the higher the SI, the poorer the investment is and the lower the SI, the better the investment is.
Table 2-31 can be expanded to include the comparison of SI of a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), a RR,
and an IR for an active power flow enhancement (ΔP = 1 786 pu − 0 963 pu = 0 823 pu) at the
receiving end of the line as shown in Table 2-41.
The figure of merit, called Sen Index, for each of the most commonly used PFCs, such as a PAR
(sym), a PAR (asym), a RR, and an IR is shown in Figure 2-117.
 255

Modeling Principles

The best way to understand the subject matter of this book is to practice some mathematical mod-
eling. There are many simulation software programs available for this purpose. However, the most
widely used mathematical modeling software program in power system transient studies is based
on Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP). All EMTP models that are discussed throughout
the book are available at the following ftp address: www.wiley.com/go/sen/powerflowcontrol.
Various modeling techniques that are presented throughout this book can be easily translated into
other simulation software. Various sample models are discussed in this book to lay the foundation
for a complete modeling experience, involving power system networks and Power Flow Controllers
(PFCs) with the use of EMTP software. Models are created and developed incrementally. They show
application of equations, developed in Chapter 2 and Appendices A and B.
While there are several different user interfaces available for an EMTP software, the datafiles of
models in this book are created and edited, using a simple text editor, such as NOTEPAD. Each
datafile name consists of a maximum of eight characters, followed by the .DAT extension, such
as 301NTWK1.DAT. According to the convention, followed in this book, the first character in
the datafile name is reserved for Chapter number (3 in this case). The second and third characters
are reserved for file number (01 in this case). The four characters from fourth through seventh are
reserved for a description of the datafile network (NTWK) in this case, and the last character is
optional; in this case, it represents network #1. In this chapter, the structure of the EMTP datafile
and modeling techniques are presented in detail.

3.1 The Modeling in EMTP

Code 3-1 shows the EMTP template datafile with .DAT extension. This datafile is structured accord-
ing to the flow diagram as shown in Figure 3-1. When the datafile is run in EMTP, a set of codes is
executed. Each line of code, called a datacard, refers to the 1970s style of punchcard that contained
one line of computer code on one datacard. The datafile may be sectionalized for modularity as

Power Flow Control Solutions for a Modern Grid using SMART Power Flow Controllers, First Edition.
Kalyan K. Sen and Mey Ling Sen.
© 2022 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/sen/powerflowcontrol
256 3 Modeling Principles

discussed in the next subsection. The not-yet-discussed entries are indicated in bold characters. The
significance of the comment datacards that start with a “C” in column 1 is discussed in the next
subsection.

Code 3-1 EMTP template datafile (TEMPLATE.DAT).

BEGIN NEW DATA CASE
C File Name: TEMPLATE.DAT
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ----dt<---tmax<---Xopt<---Copt<--Toler< >< >
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C -Iprnt<--Iplot<-Idoubl<-KssOut<-MaxOut< >< ><---Icat<-Nenerg
TACS HYBRID
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C TACS OUTPUT
BLANK RECORD ENDING TACS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <---Nodes--><---Nodes--><----R<----L<----C V
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<-Ohms<---mH<---uF V
BLANK RECORD ENDING BRANCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<---Tclose<----Topen<-------Ie<----Flash<--Request<-----Target<--O
BLANK RECORD ENDING SWITCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <--Bus<I<-----Ampl<-----Freq<----Phase<-------A1<------T1><---Tstart<----Tstop
BLANK RECORD ENDING SOURCES
BLANK RECORD ENDING NODE VOLTAGE OUTPUT
BLANK RECORD ENDING PLOT

In the datafile, first, some general constants are defined. Next, the control or the Transient
Analysis of Control Systems (TACS) section receives its input signals from the sensors or measur-
ing switches in the electrical network model, described by the BRANCH and the SWITCH cards.
The control operations and calculations are performed in this section. The SOURCE
section contains TACS-controlled and independent voltage sources, which establish the power
flow in a transmission line. The compensating voltages that are created in the TACS
 3.1 The Modeling in EMTP 257

General Constants

Sensing TACS (Control) Compensating

Voltages & Voltages
Currents
SWITCH

BRANCH
• Transmission Line
• Transformer

SOURCE
• TACS Controlled
• Independent

OUTPUT

Figure 3-1 EMTP modeling structure.

section are fed to a magnetic circuit, which is located in the BRANCH section. The BRANCH
section contains the transmission line, transformer, and so on. The effects of a nonideal magnetic
circuit, which includes leakage reactance, magnetic saturation, and so on, can be modeled in this
section. The measuring switches and the breakers are located in the SWITCH section. Finally, the
OUTPUT section is defined.
The operation of various PFCs, described in the book, are verified in a power system net-
work, considering a three-phase base power of 160 MVA and a phase-to-phase (P–P) base rms
voltage, Vrms(P-P), of 138 kVrms. Given a system with a phase-to-phase rms voltage, Vrms(P-P), of
138 kVrms, the base voltage (Vbase) is chosen to be the phase-to-neutral peak voltage (Vp) and
calculated as

V rms P − P 138 × 103

V base = V p = V rms P − N × 2= × 2= 2 = 112,676 528 V 3-1
3 3

The base power (Pbase) is defined as

Vp Ip
Pbase = 3V rms P − P I rms = 3V rms P − N I rms = 3 × × = 1 5V p I p = 1 5V base I base
2 2
3-2

where Vrms(P-N) is the phase-to-neutral rms voltage and Irms is the phase rms current.
258 3 Modeling Principles

Therefore, the base current (Ibase), which is chosen to be the peak current (Ip), is calculated as
Pbase 160 × 106
I base = I p = 2 × I rms = = = 946 66 A 3-3
1 5 × V base 1 5 × 112,676 528
The base impedance (Zbase) is calculated as
V base 112,676 528
Z base = = Ω = 119 025 Ω 3-4
I base 946 66
The voltage and current peak values (Vp and Ip) in their corresponding engineering units (V or A)
can be converted into their corresponding per unit (pu) values as
Vp
V pu = 3-5a
V base
and
Ip
I pu = 3-5b
I base
Therefore, the voltage and current pu values (Vpu and Ipu) can be converted into their correspond-
ing engineering units (V or A) as
V p = V pu × V base 3-6a

and
I p = I pu × I base 3-6b

The same rules apply for the instantaneous values. However, the voltage and current pu values
are converted into their corresponding engineering rms values using the following equations:

3
V rms P − P = V pu × V base × 3-7a
2
and
1
I rms = I pu × I base × 3-7b
2
Therefore, using the Equations (3-7a), (3-7b), and (3-2), the expression for Apparent Power Rat-
ing (APR) in an engineering unit (VA) is

3 1
APR = 3V rms P − P I rms = 3 × V pu × V base × × I pu × I base ×
2 2
3
= × V base × I base × V pu × I pu
2
or
APR = Pbase × V pu × I pu 3-8

Therefore, using Equation (3-8), the expression for APR in pu can be written as
APR
APRpu = = V pu × I pu 3-9
Pbase
 3.1 The Modeling in EMTP 259

For instantaneous voltage and current (vpu and ipu), the instantaneous apparent power rating
(apr) in pu can be defined as

apr pu = vpu × ipu 3-10

The instantaneous apr in an engineering unit (va) can be defined as

apr = Pbase × vpu × ipu 3-11

3.1.1 A Single-Generator/Single-Line Model

Consider a single-line diagram, shown in Figure 3-2, that consists of a three-phase source voltage
(Vsrc) of 138 kVrms (P–P) rms or √3 pu as defined in Equation (3-1) and a source impedance with a
resistance (Rsrc) and reactance (Xsrc). The resistance (Rsrc) is connected between Vsrc (VSRC) and
Vsrc (VSRCP) nodes. The reactance (Xsrc) is connected between Vsrc (VSRCP) and Vs (VS) nodes.
The Vs (VS) node is connected to V1 (BUS01) node with a short, using a 1 mΩ resistance, which is
not shown in the single-line diagram. The electrical system data is given in Table 3-1. The not-yet-
discussed entries are indicated in bold characters.
The source impedance at the sending end (from the infinity node to the Point of Connection,
POC, to the utility) is represented by a resistance (Rsrc) and an inductive reactance (Xsrc). The reac-
tance (Xsrc) is 6.25% of the base impedance Z base = 119 025 Ω , which is X src = 7 43875 Ω. This
translates to a reactor, Lsrc = X src ω = 0 0625 × Z base ω = 19 73 mH where the angular frequency
ω = 2 × π × f (system frequency, f = 60 Hz) rad/s. A quality factor (Q) of 7.4 translates to a resist-
ance, Rsrc = X src Q = 7 43875 7 4 = 1 0053 Ω.
An EMTP test datafile (with .DAT extension) is shown in Code 3-2 to measure an open-circuit
voltage (v1Apu) at BUS01A. The not-yet-discussed entries are indicated in bold characters. The A-
phase voltage is shown in Figure 3-3. The lower case variables are defined as instantaneous values.

Figure 3-2 Single-line diagram of a three-phase

BUS01
voltage source with a source impedance.

Rsrc Xsrc
Vsrc Vsrc′ Vs V1

Table 3-1 Electrical system data.

Parameters Values

Source voltage (Vsrc) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠0 Vpeak

Source resistance (Rsrc) 1.0053 Ω
Source reactance (Xsrc) 7.43875 Ω (19.73 mH)
260 3 Modeling Principles

Code 3-2 EMTP test datafile (TEST.DAT).

BEGIN NEW DATA CASE
C File Name: TEST.DAT
C A SINGLE-GENERATOR/SINGLE-LINE POWER SYSTEM NETWORK
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ----dt<---tmax<---Xopt<---Copt<--Toler< >< >
16.666-6150.00-3
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C -Iprnt<--Iplot<-Idoubl<-KssOut<-MaxOut< >< ><---Icat<-Nenerg
20 10 1
TACS HYBRID
C BASE VOLTAGE
99Vbase = 112676.528
90BUS01A
90BUS01B
90BUS01C
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C BUS01 PER-UNIT VOLTAGE COMPUTATION
99v1Apu = BUS01A / Vbase
C TACS OUTPUT
33v1Apu
BLANK RECORD ENDING TACS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <---Nodes--><---Nodes--><----R<----L<----C V
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<-Ohms<---mH<---uF V
VSRCA VSRCPA 1.0053
VSRCB VSRCPBVSRCA VSRCPA
VSRCC VSRCPCVSRCA VSRCPA
VSRCPAVSA 19.73
VSRCPBVSB VSRCPAVSA
VSRCPCVSC VSRCPAVSA
VSA BUS01A 0.001
VSB BUS01BVSA BUS01A
VSC BUS01CVSA BUS01A
BLANK RECORD ENDING BRANCHES
BLANK RECORD ENDING SWITCHES
(Continued )
 3.1 The Modeling in EMTP 261

Code 3-2 (Continued)

C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <--Bus<I<-----Ampl<-----Freq<----Phase<-------A1<------T1><---Tstart<----Tstop
14VSRCA 112676.528 60.00 0.00 -1.0
14VSRCB 112676.528 60.00 -120.00 -1.0
14VSRCC 112676.528 60.00 120.00 -1.0
BLANK RECORD ENDING SOURCES
BLANK RECORD ENDING NODE VOLTAGE OUTPUT
BLANK RECORD ENDING PLOT

V(pu)
1

0
50 100 150
time
(ms)
−1

Figure 3-3 The A-phase voltage (v1Apu).

The EMTP datafile is “column-specific.” There are 80 columns in each line. To indicate a com-
ment datacard, a “C” in column 1 and a blank column 2 must appear. The column numbers are kept
in track by using two-line comment datacards and reading the first digit in the top line and the
second digit in the bottom line. A reading of the EMTP program user’s manual or ATP rule book
(ATP Rule Book 1990) is recommended for further details.
The following datacard indicates the start of the datafile:
BEGIN NEW DATA CASE

In the next datacard, the time step Δt = 16 666 μs is entered in columns 1–8 and the simulation
time, T max = 150 00 ms, is entered in columns 9–16:
C File Name: TEST.DAT
C A SINGLE-GENERATOR/SINGLE-LINE POWER SYSTEM NETWORK
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ----dt<---tmax<---Xopt<---Copt<--Toler< >< >
16.666-6150.00-3
262 3 Modeling Principles

The next datacard indicates a miscellaneous datacard:

C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C -Iprnt<--Iplot<-Idoubl<-KssOut<-MaxOut< >< ><---Icat<-Nenerg
20 10 1

Iprnt 20 in columns 7–8 denotes “printout every 20th point.” Iplot 10 in columns 15–16
denotes “plot every 10th point.” Icat 1 in column 64 denotes a plot file to be generated and
saved.
Next, in the TACS section, the datacards are located for implementing a control algorithm. An
Itype of 99 is used in columns 1–2 preceding a variable name or a constant of maximum 6 characters
in length in columns 3–8:

TACS HYBRID
C BASE VOLTAGE
99Vbase = 112676.528

The next three datacards read the three-phase voltages at the BUS01 node, defined in the
BRANCH section of the datacards:
90BUS01A
90BUS01B
90BUS01C

An Itype of 90 is used in columns 1–2, preceding a node name in columns 3–8 for a network node
voltage measurement. Note that an Itype of 91 is used in columns 1–2, preceding a node name in
columns 3–8 for a branch current measurement.
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C BUS01 NODE PER-UNIT VOLTAGE COMPUTATION
99v1Apu = BUS01A / Vbase
C TACS OUTPUT
33v1Apu

An Itype of 33 is used in columns 1–2 that is followed by a variable name in columns 3–8 for the
values to be sent to the output. Other variable names, each of maximum 6 characters long, can be
listed in the designated columns, such as 9 through 14, 15 through 20, 21 through 26, and so on.
The next datacard indicates the end of the TACS section:
BLANK RECORD ENDING TACS

The branch datacards are located in the BRANCH section where columns 1–2 are left blank for
the Itype. Columns 3–8 are designated for the first node name. Columns 9–14 are designated for the
second node name. Designated parameters are placed within designated columns. The resistance
values in Ohms (Ω) are entered in columns 27–32. Special attention is needed for right or left jus-
tification within the specified columns. Throughout the book, the constants and variable names are
 3.1 The Modeling in EMTP 263

left-justified and the numbers are right-justified. The inductance values in milliHenries (mH) are
entered in columns 33–38. The capacitance values in microFarads (μF) are entered in col-
umns 39–44.
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <---Nodes--><---Nodes--><----R<----L<----C V
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<-Ohms<---mH<---uF V
VSRCA VSRCPA 1.0053
VSRCB VSRCPBVSRCA VSRCPA
VSRCC VSRCPCVSRCA VSRCPA
VSRCPAVSA 19.73
VSRCPBVSB VSRCPAVSA
VSRCPCVSC VSRCPAVSA
VSA BUS01A 0.001
VSB BUS01BVSA BUS01A
VSC BUS01CVSA BUS01A

The source impedance for the A phase is entered in one line. The source impedances for the b and
c phases are the same as that in the A phase and are copied by using A phase node names in Bus3
and Bus4 columns of the b and c phases. The impedances with proper node names and resistance
and inductance values are entered into the appropriate columns. The next datacard indicates the
end of the BRANCH section:
BLANK RECORD ENDING BRANCHES

There are no switches in this datafile. Therefore, the next datacard indicates the end of the
SWITCH section:
BLANK RECORD ENDING SWITCHES

The SOURCE section contains the source datacards.

C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <--Bus<I<-----Ampl<-----Freq<----Phase<-------A1<------T1><---Tstart<----Tstop
14VSRCA 112676.528 60.00 0.00 -1.0
14VSRCB 112676.528 60.00 -120.00 -1.0
14VSRCC 112676.528 60.00 120.00 -1.0

An Itype of 14 in columns 1–2 is used for a sinusoidal voltage source. A node name is entered in
columns 3–8. The peak value of the voltage source (112,676.528 V in the present case) is entered in
columns 11–20. The value of the frequency (60 Hz in the present case) is entered in columns 21–30,
and the phase angles of 0 , −120 , and 120 for the three phases of the sending-end voltage sources
are entered in columns 31–40. A −1.0 in columns 67–70 is needed if an initial phasor solution is
desired at the start of the simulation.
The next datacard indicates the end of the SOURCE section:
BLANK RECORD ENDING SOURCES
264 3 Modeling Principles

The following two datacards are required for a successful run of the simulation:
BLANK RECORD ENDING NODE VOLTAGE OUTPUT
BLANK RECORD ENDING PLOT

3.1.2 A Two-Generator/Single-Line Model

The network model (shown in Figure 3-2) is expanded to form a two-generator/single-line power
system network, including a PFC as shown in the single-line diagram of Figure 3-4. The PFC modi-
fies the sending-end voltage (Vs) to become the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ). The receiving-
end voltage (Vr) is set at 138 kVrms, which is 112,676.528 Vpeak, lagging the source voltage by 20 .
The transmission line impedance in each phase is represented by a resistance (R) and a reactance
(X). The resistance (R) is connected between the Vs (VSP) and the Vr (VRP) nodes. The reactance
(X) is connected between the Vr (VRP) and the Vr (VR) nodes. The inductive reactance (X) of
18.75% of the base impedance Z base = 119 025 Ω , which is X = 0 1875 × 119 025 = 22 31625 Ω.
This translates to a reactor, L = X ω = 0 1875 × Z base ω = 22 31625 2 × π × 60 = 59 19 mH.
A quality factor (Q) of 7.4 translates to a resistance, R = X Q = 22 31625 7 4 = 3 0159 Ω. The
active and reactive power flows at the sending end are Ps and Qs, respectively. The active and reac-
tive power flows at the modified sending end are Ps and Qs , respectively. The active and reactive
power flows at the receiving end are Pr and Qr, respectively. The line current (I) is measured at the
Vs (VSP) node. The electrical system data is given in Table 3-2. The not-yet-discussed entries are
indicated in bold characters.
The power system network model, shown in Figure 3-5, is used throughout this book unless oth-
erwise specified. The V1 (BUS01) and V2 (BUS02) nodes are connected with a Normally-Closed,
series breaker, SRSBRK, which is represented with a 1 mΩ resistance in the computer code.

Ps , Qs Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr

Power I
Flow
Rsrc Xsrc Controller R X
Vsrc Vsrc′ Vs Vs′ Vr′ Vr

Figure 3-4 Single-line diagram of a two-generator/single-line power system network.

Table 3-2 Electrical system data.

Parameters Values

Source voltage (Vsrc) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠0 Vpeak

Source resistance (Rsrc) 1.0053 Ω
Source reactance (Xsrc) 7.43875 Ω (19.73 mH)
Receiving-end voltage (Vr) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠−20 Vpeak
Line resistance (R) 3.0159 Ω
Line reactance (X) 22.31625 Ω (59.19 mH)
 3.1 The Modeling in EMTP 265

BUS01

BUS02
Psn , Qsn Prn , Qrn
SRSBRK
In

Rsrc Xsrc R X
Vsrc Vs V1 V2 Vs′ Vr

Figure 3-5 Single-line diagram of a two-generator/single-line power system with BUS01 and BUS02 nodes,
connected with a Normally-Closed series breaker (SRSBRK).

The modified symbols shown in the figure are

•• In is the natural current through the line,

Psn is the natural active power flow at the sending end,

•• Qsn is the natural reactive power flow at the sending end,

Prn is the natural active power flow at the receiving end, and

• Qrn is the natural reactive power flow at the receiving end.

Note that Vs = Vs = Vsn , the natural voltage at the sending end when the series breaker
(SRSBRK) is closed.
In the natural or uncompensated network, no PFC is connected. The natural active and reactive
power flows (Prn and Qrn) at the receiving end of the line are 210 MW (1.31 pu) and −67 Mvar
(−0.42 pu), respectively. The network is studied with opening the series breaker (SRSBRK) and pla-
cing a PFC between the BUS01 and BUS02 nodes. The simplified two-generator/single-line power
system network reveals most of the PFC’s performance under both dynamic and steady-state con-
ditions. The network file 301NTWK1.DAT is shown in Code 3-3.

Code 3-3 EMTP datafile for a two-generator/single-line power system network

(301NTWK1.DAT).
BEGIN NEW DATA CASE
C File Name: 301NTWK1.DAT
C A TWO-GENERATOR/SINGLE-LINE POWER SYSTEM NETWORK
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ----dt<---tmax<---Xopt<---Copt<--Toler< >< >
16.666-6150.00-3
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C -Iprnt<--Iplot<-Idoubl<-KssOut<-MaxOut< >< ><---Icat<-Nenerg
20 10 1

(Continued )
266 3 Modeling Principles

Code 3-3 (Continued)

TACS HYBRID
99TWOPI = 2.0  PI
C BASE VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND POWER
99Vbase = 112676.528
99Ibase = 946.662704
99Zbase = Vbase / Ibase
99Pbase = 1.5  Vbase  Ibase
C INPUTS FROM NODE VOLTAGES AND LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 302MEAS1.SWT
C NORMALIZATION OF MEASURED VARIABLES AND COMPUTATION OF PEAK VOLTAGES/CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 303PTCT.SCL
C IDEAL PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
$INCLUDE 304IPLL.PLL
C COMPUTATION OF LINE RESISTANCE
$INCLUDE 305LINER.CMP
C TACS OUTPUT
33theta v1pu v1Apu
BLANK RECORD ENDING TACS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <---Nodes--><---Nodes--><----R<----L<----C V
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<-Ohms<---mH<---uF V
C REPRESENTATION OF A SHORT BETWEEN NODES VS AND BUS01
VSA BUS01A 0.001
VSB BUS01B 0.001
VSC BUS01C 0.001
C REPRESENTATION OF A SHORT BETWEEN NODES BUS01 AND BUS02
BUS01ABUS02A 0.001
BUS01BBUS02B 0.001
BUS01CBUS02C 0.001
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK 1 BRANCHES (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 306NTWK1.BRN
BLANK RECORD ENDING BRANCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<---Tclose<----Topen<-------Ie<----Flash<--Request<-----Target<--O
C MEASUREMENT OF LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 307MEAS2.SWT
BLANK RECORD ENDING SWITCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
(Continued )
 3.1 The Modeling in EMTP 267

Code 3-3 (Continued)

C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK 1 SOURCES (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 308NTWK1.SRC
BLANK RECORD ENDING SOURCES
BLANK RECORD ENDING NODE VOLTAGE OUTPUT
BLANK RECORD ENDING PLOT

The datafile of the two-generator/single-line power system network with filename 301NTWK1.
DAT is described below.
The datafile may include various $INCLUDE files with different extensions, other than
.DAT. The datacard “$INCLUDE 302MEAS1.SWT” attaches the $INCLUDE file 302MEAS1.
SWT, which measures the voltages and currents as shown in Code 3-4. The instantaneous volt-
age measuring points are at the sending end (Vs), the modified sending end (Vs ), and the
receiving end (Vr). The instantaneous current measuring points are at the modified sending
end (Vs ).

Code 3-4 EMTP $INCLUDE file for inputs from node voltages and line currents
(302MEAS1.SWT).
C File Name: 302MEAS1.SWT
C INPUTS FROM NODE VOLTAGES AND LINE CURRENTS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C INPUTS FROM NODE VOLTAGES
90BUS01A
90BUS01B
90BUS01C
90BUS02A
90BUS02B
90BUS02C
90VRA
90VRB
90VRC
C INPUTS FROM LINE CURRENTS
91VSPA
91VSPB
91VSPC
268 3 Modeling Principles

Code 3-5 EMTP $INCLUDE file for normalizing the measured voltages and currents
(303PTCT.SCL).
C File Name: 303PTCT.SCL
C NORMALIZATION OF MEASURED VARIABLES AND COMPUTATION OF PEAK VOLTAGES/CURRENTS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C BUS01 NODE PER-UNIT VOLTAGE COMPUTATION
99v1Apu = BUS01A / Vbase
99v1Bpu = BUS01B / Vbase
99v1Cpu = BUS01C / Vbase
C CALCULATION OF THE PEAK OF THE BUS01 NODE VOLTAGE PER EQUATION (3-15)
99v1pu = SQRT((v1Apu  v1Apu + v1Bpu  v1Bpu + v1Cpu  v1Cpu)  2 / 3)
C BUS02 NODE PER-UNIT VOLTAGE COMPUTATION
99v2Apu = BUS02A / Vbase
99v2Bpu = BUS02B / Vbase
99v2Cpu = BUS02C / Vbase
C CALCULATION OF THE PEAK OF THE BUS02 NODE VOLTAGE PER EQUATION (3-15)
99v2pu = SQRT((v2Apu  v2Apu + v2Bpu  v2Bpu + v2Cpu  v2Cpu)  2 / 3)
C RECEIVING-END PER-UNIT VOLTAGE COMPUTATION
99vrApu = VRA / Vbase
99vrBpu = VRB / Vbase
99vrCpu = VRC / Vbase
C CALCULATION OF THE PEAK OF THE VR NODE VOLTAGE PER EQUATION (3-15)
99vrpu = SQRT((vrApu  vrApu + vrBpu  vrBpu + vrCpu  vrCpu)  2 / 3)
C LINE PER-UNIT CURRENT COMPUTATION AT Vs' NODE
99iApu = VSPA / Ibase
99iBpu = VSPB / Ibase
99iCpu = VSPC / Ibase
C CALCULATION OF THE PEAK OF THE LINE CURRENT PER EQUATION (3-15)
99ipu = SQRT((iApu  iApu + iBpu  iBpu + iCpu  iCpu)  2 / 3)
C SERIES-CONNECTED PER-UNIT VOLTAGE COMPUTATION
99v12Apu = v1Apu - v2Apu
99v12Bpu = v1Bpu - v2Bpu
99v12Cpu = v1Cpu - v2Cpu
C CALCULATION OF THE PEAK OF THE V12 VOLTAGE PER EQUATION (3-15)
99v12pu = SQRT((v12Apu  v12Apu + v12Bpu  v12Bpu + v12Cpu  v12Cpu)  2 / 3)

The datacard “$INCLUDE 303PTCT.SCL” attaches the $INCLUDE file 303PTCT.SCL that scales
or normalizes the measured voltages and currents as shown in Code 3-5.
The line voltage (V1) at BUS01 node is expressed in terms of the three-phase instantaneous node
voltages as follows:
vA = V 1 cos θ 3-12a
 3.1 The Modeling in EMTP 269

vB = V 1 cos θ − 2π 3 3-12b
vC = V 1 cos θ + 2π 3 3-12c
Therefore,

v2A + v2B + v2C

= V 21 cos 2 θ + cos 2 θ − 2π 3 + cos 2 θ + 2π 3
V 21
= 2 cos 2 θ + 2 cos 2 θ − 2π 3 + 2 cos 2 θ + 2π 3
2 3-13
V2
= 1 1 + cos 2θ + 1 + cos 2 θ − 2π 3 + 1 + cos 2 θ + 2π 3
2
V2
= 1 3 + cos 2θ + cos 2θ + 2π 3 + cos 2θ − 2π 3
2
The three cosine waves that are of equal magnitude and phase-shifted from each other by 2π/3
radians add up to be zero. Therefore,

3 2
v2A + v2B + v2C = V 3-14
2 1
The expression for the phase-to-neutral peak voltage (V1) at BUS01 node is

2 2
V1 = v + v2B + v2C 3-15
3 A

Therefore, the phase-to-phase rms voltage (V1rms) at BUS01 node can be expressed in terms of the
instantaneous a-b-c phase voltages as

3
V 1rms = V1 or
2

V 1rms = v2A + v2B + v2C 3-16

using Equation (3-15).

The datacard “$INCLUDE 304IPLL.PLL” attaches the $INCLUDE file 304IPLL.PLL that calcu-
lates the phase angle, referred to as the Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) angle, of the A-phase voltage (v1A)
at the BUS01 node as shown in Code 3-6. The PLL angle keeps track of the voltage at the POC to the
utility. This voltage keeps changing from its original (uncompensated) value because of the vari-
ation of line current and the resulting voltage across the line impedance between the POC and
the generator node, also known as infinite node. The relative phase angle (β) of the compensating
voltage (Vs s) is always with respect to the PLL angle as described in the theory, developed in
Chapter 2. This $INCLUDE file also calculates the modulus of the three-phase voltage (v1dqpu),
which is filtered with a first-order lag filter. A first-order lag filter with 4 ms time-constant may
be implemented by setting all the coefficients in the numerator and denominator to be zero, except
b1 = 0 004 s in the following equation:
1 + a 1 s + a 2 s2 + a 3 s3 + …
v1dqf = v1dqpu 3-17
1 + b 1 s + b 2 s2 + b 3 s 3 + …
270 3 Modeling Principles

For a balanced three-phase voltage, the modulus is the same as the peak of the sinusoidal voltage.
Since the control algorithm is based on regulating the positive-sequence fundamental signals, all
unwanted harmonic components that are present in the measured voltage and current signals must
be filtered out before they are fed back to the control algorithm. This avoids unwanted signals from
passing through the control algorithm and creating undesired output signals. Any negative
sequence fundamental component that is present in the measured signal must also be filtered out.
The PLL angle is referenced to a cosine wave, meaning that the peak of the waveform is located at
θ = 0 radian; the phase angle (θ) linearly increases from 0 to 2π radians during a complete cycle of a
cosine wave as shown in Figure 3-6. Transforming a three-phase (a-b-c) reference voltage into an
equivalent two-phase d-q stationary reference frame (see Appendix A.5), the stationary-frame vol-
tages (vds and vqs) can be obtained, using Equation (A-75a) in Appendix A, as

vds = vA = V 1 cos θ 3-18

1 V1
vqs = − vA + 2vC = − cos θ + 2 cos θ + 120
3 3
3-19
V1
= − cos θ − cos θ − 3 sin θ = V 1 sin θ
3
Therefore, using Equations (3-18) and (3-19), the cosine-referenced phase angle of the A-phase
voltage (v1A) at the BUS01 node is given by

sin θ V 1 sin θ vqs

θ = tan − 1 = tan − 1 = tan − 1 3-20
cos θ V 1 cos θ vds

A small value of 10−8 is added to the denominator in the calculation of (v1qspu/v1dspu) to avoid a
division by zero, if vds = 0. If vds is negative, the phase angle is corrected by adding π radians to the
calculated angle. If the calculated angle is negative, 2π radians is added to make the phase angle
positive; if the calculated angle is more than 2π radians, 2π radians is subtracted to keep the phase
angle between 0 and 2π radians. If a sine-referenced phase angle is needed, π/2 radians is added to
the above-mentioned cosine-referenced phase angle.

V1 θ (rad)
V (pu) v1a
1 2π

0 0
50 100 150
time
(ms)
−1

Figure 3-6 A-phase line voltage (v1A) at the BUS01 node, its peak value (V1), and the PLL angle (θ).
 3.1 The Modeling in EMTP 271

Code 3-6 EMTP $INCLUDE file for implementing an ideal PLL (304IPLL.PLL).
C File Name: 304IPLL.PLL
C IDEAL PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C CONVERT FROM 3-PHASE TO 2-PHASE IN STATIONARY REF FRAME PER EQUATION (A-75a)
99v1dspu = v1Apu
99v1qspu = -(v1Apu + 2.0  v1Cpu) / SQRT(3)
C PHASE-LOCKED LOOP (LOCKED TO A-PHASE VOLTAGE OF BUS01 NODE) PER EQUATION 3-20
99th = ATAN(v1qspu / (v1dspu+1.0E-8))
99the = th + PI  (v1dspu .LT. 0)
99theta = the + TWOPI  (the .LT. 0) - TWOPI  (the .GE. TWOPI)
99COSPLL = COS(theta)
99SINPLL = SIN(theta)
C BUS01 NODE VOLTAGE MAGNITUDE COMPUTATION FROM STATIONARY TO
C ROTATING REFERENCE FRAME PER EQUATIONS A55-b
99v1dpu = v1dspu  COSPLL + v1qspu  SINPLL
99v1qpu = -v1dspu  SINPLL + v1qspu  COSPLL
C CALCULATION OF THE PEAK OF THE VOLTAGE AT BUS01 NODE IN D-Q
C ROTATING REFERENCE PER EQUATION (3-23)
99v1dqpu = SQRT(v1dpu  v1dpu + v1qpu  v1qpu)
C LOW-PASS FILTER INTRODUCES A RAMP-RATE AND REDUCES SYSTEM TRANSIENTS
1v1dqf +v1dqpu
1.0
1.0 0.0040

From Equations (3-18) and (3-19), it can be written that

v2ds + v2qs = V 21 cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ = V 21 3-21

using the identity (cos2θ + sin2θ = 1).

Therefore, the expression for the phase-to-neutral peak voltage (V1) at BUS01 node is given by

V1 = v2ds + v2qs 3-22

The Equation (3-22) can be expanded further, using Equation (A-55a), as

2 2
V1 = v2ds + v2qs = vd cos θ − vq sin θ + vd sin θ + vq cos θ

or
272 3 Modeling Principles

V1 = v2d cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ + v2q cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ = v2d + v2q 3-23

using the identity (cos2θ + sin2θ = 1).

The Equation (3-20) can be expanded further, using Equation (A-55a), as

vqs V 1 sin θ vd sin θ + vq cos θ vq

θ = tan − 1 = tan − 1 = tan − 1 = tan − 1
vds V 1 cos θ vd cos θ − vq sin θ vd
3-24

with a substitution of θ = 0 to represent a stationary frame.

The datacard “$INCLUDE 305LINER.CMP” attaches the $INCLUDE file 305LINER.CMP that
computes the modified sending-end power, receiving-end power, and line resistance as shown
in Code 3-7. First, the magnitude (Idq) and the relative phase angle (θir) of the line current (i)
are calculated with respect to the PLL angle (θ). Then the line resistance (R) is calculated as
explained in Section 3.3.

Code 3-7 EMTP $INCLUDE file for computing the line resistance (305LINER.CMP).
C File Name: 305LINER.CMP
C LINE RESISTANCE COMPUTATION
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C LINE CURRENT MAGNITUDE COMPUTATION PER EQUATIONS (A-75a), (A-55b) and (3-23).
99idspu = iApu
99iqspu = -(iApu + 2.0  iCpu) / SQRT(3)
99idpu = idspu  COSPLL + iqspu  SINPLL
99iqpu = -idspu  SINPLL + iqspu  COSPLL
99idqpu = SQRT(idpu  idpu + iqpu  iqpu)
C RELATIVE PHASE ANGLE COMPUTATION PER EQUATION 3-24
99thetaa = ATAN( iqpu / (idpu + 1.0E-8) )
99thetab = thetaa + PI  (idpu .LT. 0.0)
99thetir = thetab + TWOPI  (thetab .LT. 0.0) - TWOPI  (thetab .GE. TWOPI)
C MODIFIED SENDING-END POWER COMPUTATION
99Psppu = (v2ApuiApu + v2BpuiBpu + v2CpuiCpu)  Vbase  Ibase / Pbase
99Qsppu = (v2ApuiCpu - v2CpuiApu)  SQRT(3)  Vbase  Ibase / Pbase
C MODIFIED SENDING-END POWER COMPUTATION IN MW AND MVAR
99PspMW = Psppu  Pbase / 1e6
99QspMV = Qsppu  Pbase / 1e6
C RECEIVING-END POWER COMPUTATION
(Continued )
 3.1 The Modeling in EMTP 273

Code 3-7 (Continued)

99Prpu = (vrApuiApu + vrBpuiBpu + vrCpuiCpu)  Vbase  Ibase / Pbase
99Qrpu = (vrApuiCpu - vrCpuiApu)  SQRT(3)  Vbase  Ibase / Pbase
C RECEIVING-END POWER COMPUTATION IN MW AND MVAR
99PrMW = Prpu  Pbase / 1e6
99QrMVAR = Qrpu  Pbase / 1e6
C RECEIVING-END MVA COMPUTATION PER EQUATION (2-76)
99SrMVA = SQRT(PrMW  PrMW + QrMVAR  QrMVAR)
C LINE RESISTANCE COMPUTATION
99Rline = (Psppu - Prpu) / ipu / ipu  Zbase
C LOW-PASS FILTER INTRODUCES A RAMP-RATE AND REDUCES SYSTEM TRANSIENTS
1Rlinef +Rline
1.0
1.0 0.0083

VS and BUS01 nodes are connected with a short that is represented by a resistance, R = 0 001 Ω,
as shown in Code 3-8. This short may be replaced with a current-measuring sensor, if needed.
BUS01 and BUS02 nodes are connected initially with a short that is represented by a resistance,
R = 0 001 Ω. These two nodes are reserved for connecting the series-compensating voltage of
the PFC.

Code 3-8 Representation of shorts between VS and BUS01 nodes and between BUS01
and BUS02 nodes.
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <---Nodes--><---Nodes--><----R<----L<----C V
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<-Ohms<---mH<---uF V
C REPRESENTATION OF A SHORT BETWEEN NODES VS AND BUS01
VSA BUS01A 0.001
VSB BUS01B 0.001
VSC BUS01C 0.001
C REPRESENTATION OF A SHORT BETWEEN NODES BUS01 AND BUS02
BUS01ABUS02A 0.001
BUS01BBUS02B 0.001
BUS01CBUS02C 0.001

The datacard “$INCLUDE 306NTWK1.BRN” attaches the $INCLUDE file 306NTWK1.BRN that
connects a single transmission line and a source impedance as shown in Code 3-9. Note that the
resistance and reactance parameters are entered in the same line in their designated columns.
274 3 Modeling Principles

Code 3-9 EMTP $INCLUDE file for implementing the source impedance and the line
impedance (306NTWK1.BRN).
C File Name: 306NTWK1.BRN
C SOURCE IMPEDANCE & LINE IMPEDANCE
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <---Nodes--><---Nodes--><----R<----L<----C V
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<-Ohms<---mH<---uF V
VSRCA VSA 1.0053 19.73
VSRCB VSB VSRCA VSA
VSRCC VSC VSRCA VSA
VSPA VRA 3.0159 59.19
VSPB VRB VSPA VRA
VSPC VRC VSPA VRA

The SWITCH section contains the measuring switch datacards. There are different types of
switches. The datacard “$INCLUDE 307MEAS2.SWT” attaches the $INCLUDE file 307MEAS2.
SWT that measures branch currents as shown in Code 3-10. For a measuring switch, columns
1–2 are left blank. Node “1” name is typed in columns 3–8 and node “2” name in columns
9–14. The word MEASURING is typed in columns 55–63.

Code 3-10 EMTP $INCLUDE file for measuring the branch currents (307MEAS2.SWT).
C File Name: 307MEAS2.SWT
C MEASUREMENT OF LINE CURRENTS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<---Tclose<----Topen<-------Ie<----Flash<--Request<-----Target<--O
BUS02AVSPA MEASURING
BUS02BVSPB MEASURING
BUS02CVSPC MEASURING

The SOURCE section contains the source datacards. The datacard “$INCLUDE 308NTWK1.
SRC” attaches the $INCLUDE file 308NTWK1.SRC that connects source voltages as shown in Code
3-11. The value of the phase angles of −20 , −140 , and 100 for the three phases of the receiving-
end voltage sources are entered in columns 31–40.
 3.1 The Modeling in EMTP 275

Code 3-11 EMTP $INCLUDE file for the source voltages and the receiving-end voltages
(308NTWK1.SRC).
C File Name: 308NTWK1.SRC
C SOURCE VOLTAGES AND RECEIVING-END VOLTAGES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <--Bus<I<-----Ampl<-----Freq<----Phase<-------A1<------T1><---Tstart<----Tstop
14VSRCA 112676.528 60.00 0.00 -1.0
14VSRCB 112676.528 60.00 -120.00 -1.0
14VSRCC 112676.528 60.00 120.00 -1.0
14VRA 112676.528 60.00 -20.00 -1.0
14VRB 112676.528 60.00 -140.00 -1.0
14VRC 112676.528 60.00 100.00 -1.0

The simulation results from the file 301NTWK1.DAT are shown in Figure 3-6. The PLL signal
(reference phase angle, θ) is locked to the A-phase voltage at the BUS01 node.
To study faults in power systems, an A-phase-to-ground fault is applied to the power system net-
work. The measured current is sent to the plot file by setting Iout in column 80 with 1. The corre-
sponding datafile 309NTWK2.DAT is shown in Code 3-12.

Code 3-12 EMTP datafile for a two-generator/single-line faulted power system network
(309NTWK2.DAT).
BEGIN NEW DATA CASE
C File Name: 309NTWK2.DAT
C A TWO-GENERATOR/SINGLE-LINE POWER SYSTEM NETWORK WITH LINE-TO-NEUTRAL FAULT
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ----dt<---tmax<---Xopt<---Copt<--Toler< >< >
16.666-6150.00-3
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C -Iprnt<--Iplot<-Idoubl<-KssOut<-MaxOut< >< ><---Icat<-Nenerg
20 10 1
TACS HYBRID
99TWOPI = 2.0 * PI
C BASE VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND POWER
99Vbase = 112676.528
99Ibase = 946.662704
99Zbase = Vbase / Ibase
99Pbase = 1.5 * Vbase * Ibase
C INPUTS FROM NODE VOLTAGES AND LINE CURRENTS

(Continued )
276 3 Modeling Principles

Code 3-12 (Continued)

$INCLUDE 302MEAS1.SWT
C NORMALIZATION OF MEASURED VARIABLES AND COMPUTATION OF PEAK VOLTAGES/CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 303PTCT.SCL
C VECTOR PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
$INCLUDE 310VPLL.PLL
C COMPUTATION OF LINE RESISTANCE
$INCLUDE 305LINER.CMP
C TACS OUTPUT
33theta v1pu v1Apu
BLANK RECORD ENDING TACS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <---Nodes--><---Nodes--><----R<----L<----C V
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<-Ohms<---mH<---uF V
C REPRESENTATION OF A SHORT BETWEEN NODES VS AND BUS01
VSA BUS01A 0.001
VSB BUS01B 0.001
VSC BUS01C 0.001
C REPRESENTATION OF A SHORT BETWEEN NODES BUS01 AND BUS02
BUS01ABUS02A 0.001
BUS01BBUS02B 0.001
BUS01CBUS02C 0.001
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK 2 BRANCHES WITH DAMPING RESISTANCES (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 311NTWK2.BRN
BLANK RECORD ENDING BRANCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<---Tclose<----Topen<-------Ie<----Flash<--Request<-----Target<--O
C MEASUREMENT OF LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 307MEAS2.SWT
C FAULT STARTS
BUS01A .050 0.100 5.0 1
C FAULT ENDS
BLANK RECORD ENDING SWITCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C NETWORK 1 SOURCES (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 308NTWK1.SRC
BLANK RECORD ENDING SOURCES
BLANK RECORD ENDING NODE VOLTAGE OUTPUT
BLANK RECORD ENDING PLOT
 3.2 Vector Phase-Locked Loop (VPLL) 277

The additional datacard in the SWITCH section starts an A-phase-to-ground fault at BUS01A
node at 50 ms by closing the switch and opening it 50 ms later to clear the fault when the current
goes below 5 A. The Ideal PLL (IPLL), used here, cannot preserve the PLL angle in the event when
there is a distorted line voltage at the point of measurement due to the line faults as shown in
Figure 3-8. This issue can be overcome with the use of a Vector PLL (VPLL), which is dis-
cussed next.

3.2 Vector Phase-Locked Loop (VPLL)

Figure 3-7 shows the block diagram of the Vector PLL (VPLL). The following steps are needed to
implement a successful VPLL.
Step 1: Using Equations (A-75a), the d-q stationary frame components (v1ds and v1qs) of the line
voltage (v1) at the BUS01 node are calculated.
Step 2: Using Equation (A-55b), the quadrature-axis rotating frame component (v1q) is
calculated.
Step 3: The quadrature-axis rotating frame component (v1q), also called PLL error (PLLerr), is
regulated to be zero with the use of a PI Regulator, also called an Error Regulator, with a propor-
tional constant (KPLLp) and an integral constant (KPLLi). These constants are chosen as K PLLp = 100
and the ratio (KPLLi/KPLLp) to be 2.5 as explained in “Operation of a Phase Locked Loop System
Under Distorted Utility Conditions,” by V. Kaura and V. Blasko in IEEE Trans. on Industry Appli-
cations, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 58–63, Jan/Feb 1997.
Step 4: The output of the PI Regulator, which is the synchronously rotating angular speed (ω), is
integrated to produce the PLL angle (θ).
If the quadrature-axis rotating frame component (v1q) is regulated to be zero, the voltage vector,
which is composed of all of the three-phase voltages, aligns itself with the direct-axis component
(v1d) that becomes the peak (V1) of the phase-to-neutral voltage (v1) at BUS01 node under a steady-
state condition. In the EMTP datafile 301NTWK1.DAT, the datacard “$INCLUDE 310VPLL.PLL”
attaches the $INCLUDE file 310VPLL.PLL that calculates the phase angle of the voltage at BUS01
node, which is referred to the A-phase voltage (v1A) as shown in Code 3-13 and presented in “SSSC-
static synchronous series compensator: theory, modeling, and applications,” by K. K. Sen at Power

v1ds
v1a
SFT v1qs v1qs * cos θ v1q Error ω 1 θ
v1c
Regulator s
v1ds * sin θ

SFT: Stationary Frame Transformer

Vector Phase-Locked Loop

Figure 3-7 Block diagram of a Vector PLL.

278 3 Modeling Principles

Code 3-13 EMTP $INCLUDE file for a Vector Phase-Locked Loop (310VPLL.PLL).
C File Name: 310VPLL.PLL
C VECTOR PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C CONVERT FROM 3-PHASE TO 2-PHASE PER EQUATION (A-75a) (STEP 1)
99v1dspu = v1Apu
99v1qspu = -(v1Apu + 2.0 * v1Cpu) / SQRT(3)
C PHASE-LOCKED LOOP (LOCKED TO A-PHASE VOLTAGE OF BUS01 NODE)
99KPLLp = 100.0
99KPLLi = 250.0
C CALCULATION OF v1q (PLLerr) PER EQUATION (A-55b) (STEP 2)
99PLLerr = v1qspu  COS(thetai) - v1dspu  SIN(thetai)
C INTEGRATION OF PLLerr PER EQUATION (3-26)
99PLLint = PLLini + PLLerr  DELTAT
PLLini +PLLint
C CALCULATION OF omega (rad/s) AT THE OUTPUT OF A PI REGULATOR (STEP 3)
99omega = KPLLp  PLLerr + KPLLi  PLLint
C INTEGRATION OF omega TO CALCULATE theta PER EQUATION (3-26) (STEP 4)
99thetaf = thetai + omega  DELTAT
thetai +thetaf
C theta IS WRAPPED TO BE BOUND BETWEEN 0 AND 2π RADIANS
99theta = thetaf - TWOPI  TRUNC(thetaf/TWOPI)
99COSPLL = COS(theta)
99SINPLL = SIN(theta)
C ------TACS INITIAL CONDITIONS------
C -name>xx<--------|
77PLLint 1.5080
C BUS01 NODE VOLTAGE MAGNITUDE COMPUTATION PER EQUATIONS A48-b and 3-23
99v1dpu = v1dspu * COSPLL + v1qspu * SINPLL
99v1qpu = -v1dspu * SINPLL + v1qspu * COSPLL
99v1dqpu = SQRT(v1dpu * v1dpu + v1qpu * v1qpu)
C LOW-PASS FILTER INTRODUCES A RAMP-RATE AND REDUCES SYSTEM TRANSIENTS
1v1dqf +v1dqpu
1.0
1.0 0.0040
 3.2 Vector Phase-Locked Loop (VPLL) 279

Engineering Society Summer Meeting, Berlin, Germany, 1997 and published in IEEE Trans. on
Power Delivery, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 241–246, Jan. 1998. Note that the numerical integration is imple-
mented using first-order Euler method as

• θ f − θi
ω=θ= 3-25
Δt

where ω is the angular frequency, θi is the initial value, and θf is the final value of the PLL angle
during the integration time step, Δt. Rearranging Equation (3-25), it can be written that

θ f = θi + ω × Δt 3-26

At the end of each time step (Δt), the final value of PLL angle (θf) is stored for use as the initial
value of PLL angle (θi) at the next time step of integration. The same process of initialization is used
for integration of any other variable.
Also note that if all the integrators in the VPLL is started from zero initial condition, the PLL
angle (θ) will take some time to reach to its steady-state value. To reduce this settling time, the ini-
tial condition (IC) of the integrator in the PI Regulator is set at

ω 2πf 2 × π × 60
IC = = = = 1 5080 3-27
K PLLi K PLLi 250

Figure 3-8 shows that the VPLL is able to track the near original phase in the case of an A-phase-
to-ground fault. Note that during a fault, the current through the line inductance changes rapidly,
causing numerical instability in the simulation. To minimize this problem, a numerical snubber in
the form of a resistance across each line inductance is used. The value of the snubber resistance
should be high enough so that it does not cause spurious results in the simulation but facilitates
the decaying of an oscillating current during a disturbance. The datacard “$INCLUDE
311NTWK2.BRN,” shown in Code 3-14, attaches the $INCLUDE file 311NTWK2.BRN that con-
nects a single transmission line and a source impedance with snubber resistances across all
inductances.

Phase-to-ground fault
V1 θ (with IPLL) θ (with VPLL) (rad)
V (pu) v1a
1 2π

0 0
50 100 150
time
(ms)
−1

Figure 3-8 A-phase line voltage (v1A) at BUS01 node, its peak value (V1), and the PLL angle (θ) with and
without an A-phase-to-ground fault.
280 3 Modeling Principles

Code 3-14 EMTP $INCLUDE file for implementing the source impedance and the line
impedance (311NTWK2.BRN).
C File Name: 311NTWK2.BRN
C SOURCE/LINE IMPEDANCES WITH SNUBBER RESISTANCES ACROSS ALL INDUCTANCES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <---Nodes--><---Nodes--><----R<----L<----C V
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<-Ohms<---mH<---uF V
VSRCA VSRCPA 1.0053
VSRCPAVSA 19.73
VSRCB VSRCPB 1.0053
VSRCPBVSB 19.73
VSRCC VSRCPC 1.0053
VSRCPCVSC 19.73
VSPA VRPA 3.0159
VRPA VRA 59.19
VSPB VRPB 3.0159
VRPB VRB 59.19
VSPC VRPC 3.0159
VRPC VRC 59.19
C HIGH SNUBBER RESISTANCES ACROSS ALL INDUCTANCES
VSRCPAVSA 5.00+2
VSRCPBVSB 5.00+2
VSRCPCVSC 5.00+2
VRPA VRA 4.00+3
VRPB VRB 4.00+3
VRPC VRC 4.00+3

3.3 Transmission Line Steady-State Resistance Calculator

In some applications, it is necessary to know the value of the resistance (R) of the transmission
line between two points. Figure 3-9 shows the block diagram of a scheme for the computation of
transmission line resistance. The active power flow at the two points are measured, the difference
of which can be assumed to be the loss across the transmission line resistance (R), since other
active power losses are insignificant. The value of the resistance can be computed by dividing
the power loss across the resistance by the square of the line current. This approach of calculating
the line resistance is accurate only for a steady-state condition. Therefore, a low pass filter with a
narrow bandwidth is used to eliminate any inaccuracy in the calculated resistance values. The
low-pass filter reduces the changes in resistance values, calculated during short electrical
transients.
 3.4 Simulation of an Independent PFC, Integrated in a Two-Generator/Single-Line Power System Network 281

vs′ Ps′
Active Power
Calculator
i
PR R

Pr
Active Power LOW
Calculator PASS
vr
FILTER

Magnitude I I2
Calculator

Resistance Calculator

Figure 3-9 Block diagram of a steady-state resistance calculator.

3.4 Simulation of an Independent PFC, Integrated

in a Two-Generator/Single-Line Power System Network

An independent PFC regulates the active and reactive power flows in the transmission line inde-
pendently by connecting a compensating voltage in series with the line as shown in Figure 2-11. The
series-compensating voltage exchanges both active and reactive powers with the transmission line.
In the case of the Sen Transformer (ST), both the active and reactive powers, exchanged by the
Series Unit, appear at the transmission line through the magnetic link to the Shunt Unit. However,
in the case of the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC), only the exchanged active power by the
Series Unit passes through the DC link to the Shunt Unit. Both the Shunt and Series Units exchange
reactive power at their AC terminals independently as desired. The mathematical models of the ST
and the UPFC are shown in Figure 3-10. The corresponding datafile 312PQPFC.DAT is shown in
Code 3-15.
Note that the high resistances are needed to avoid floating nodes in the circuit. Special attention is
needed to select the high resistances across the current sources. These resistances are set at 100 MΩ,
which may need to be adjusted for a stable simulation of a particular operating point. Refer to the
note below Table 4-10.
In this section, the effects of the ST and the UPFC on power flow control in a transmission line are
presented. The network model of Figure 3-5 is used with the short between BUS01 and BUS02
nodes, replaced, first, with the mathematical model of the ST and then with that of the UPFC.
In each ST and UPFC mathematical model, the compensating voltage is connected in series with
the transmission line through a coupling transformer (SRSTR). Table 3-2 can be expanded to
include the series-coupling transformer as shown in bold in Table 3-3.
The leakage reactance of the series-coupling transformer of the PFC is represented by an inductive
impedance of 15% of the base impedance (Z base = 119 025 Ω) with a quality factor (Q) of 10 that
translates into an inductance (L = 47 358 mH ) where L = 0 15 × Z base ω = 0 15 × 119 025 2
π 60, and a resistance (R = 1 7854 Ω) where R = 0 15 × Z base Q = 0 15 × 119 025 10. The turns-
ratio of the series-coupling transformer is considered to be 1:1, and the leakage reactance is distrib-
uted equally in both primary and secondary sides. The datacard “$INCLUDE 315TRAN2.TRN”
282 3 Modeling Principles

(a) (b)

BUS01

BUS02

BUS01

BUS02
SRSBRK SRSBRK
Ps′ , Qs′ Ps′ , Qs′
V21 V21
I I

SRSTR SRSTR
Vs SHNBRK CNV02 V2 Vs′ Vs SHNBRK CNV02 V2 Vs′
V1 V1
I2 I2
CNV01 CNV01
GNDSW GNDSW
E22 E22
I1 I1
SRSDS SRSDS
E11 E2 E11 E2
Plink Plink
Vdq Vdq
Qlink
Idq Id

Shunt Series Shunt Series

Unit Unit Unit Unit
ST UPFC

Figure 3-10 Mathematical models of the (a) ST and (b) UPFC. Note the difference in reactive power in the link
between the Shunt Unit and the Series Unit.

Code 3-15 EMTP datafile for an independent PFC (Shunt-Series), integrated

in a two-generator/single-line power system network (312PQPFC.DAT).
BEGIN NEW DATA CASE
C File Name: 312PQPFC.DAT
C PQ POWER FLOW CONTROLLER (PFC) WITH A SHUNT-CONNECTED CURRENT SOURCE (SHUNT
C UNIT) AND A SERIES-CONNECTED VOLTAGE SOURCE (SERIES UNIT)
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ----dt<---tmax<---Xopt<---Copt<--Toler< >< >
8.3333-6150.00-3
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C -Iprnt<--Iplot<-Idoubl<-KssOut<-MaxOut< >< ><---Icat<-Nenerg
30 10 1
TACS HYBRID
99CRD = 180 / PI
99CDR = 1 / CRD
99TWOPI = 2.0 * PI
C BASE VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND POWER
99Vbase = 112676.528
99Ibase = 946.662704
99Zbase = Vbase / Ibase
99Pbase = 1.5 * Vbase * Ibase
C INPUTS FROM NODE VOLTAGES AND LINE CURRENTS
(Continued )
 3.4 Simulation of an Independent PFC, Integrated in a Two-Generator/Single-Line Power System Network 283

Code 3-15 (Continued)

$INCLUDE 302MEAS1.SWT
C MEASUREMENT OF CURRENTS FLOWING THROUGH THE SHUNT UNIT
91CNV01A
91CNV01B
91CNV01C
C MEASUREMENT OF CURRENTS FLOWING THROUGH THE SERIES UNIT
91CNV02A
91CNV02B
91CNV02C
C NORMALIZATION OF MEASURED VARIABLES AND COMPUTATION OF PEAK VOLTAGES/CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 303PTCT.SCL
C VECTOR PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
$INCLUDE 310VPLL.PLL
C USER’S INPUT FILE
$INCLUDE 313PQPFC.USR
C MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF A PFC WITH SHUNT-SERIES CONFIGURATION
$INCLUDE 314PQPFC.CON
C COMPUTATION OF LINE RESISTANCE
$INCLUDE 305LINER.CMP
C TACS OUTPUT
33VskV PrMW QrMVARP2seMWQ2seMVS2seMV
BLANK RECORD ENDING TACS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <---Nodes--><---Nodes--><----R<----L<----C V
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<-Ohms<---mH<---uF V
C REPRESENTATION OF A SHORT BETWEEN NODES VS AND BUS01
VSA BUS01A 0.001
VSB BUS01B 0.001
VSC BUS01C 0.001
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK 2 BRANCHES WITH DAMPING RESISTANCES (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 311NTWK2.BRN
C HIGH RESISTANCES TO AVOID FLOATING NODES IN THE CIRCUIT
BUS01ACNV01A 1.00+8
BUS01BCNV01B 1.00+8
BUS01CCNV01C 1.00+8
e2A e22A 1.00+8
e2B e22B 1.00+8
e2C e22C 1.00+8
e22A 1.00+8
e22B 1.00+8
e22C 1.00+8
i1A 1.00+8
i1B 1.00+8
i1C 1.00+8

(Continued )
284 3 Modeling Principles

Code 3-15 (Continued)

C CONNECTION OF A 3-PHASE SERIES-COUPLING TRANSFORMER WITH LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
$INCLUDE 315TRAN2.TRN
BLANK RECORD ENDING BRANCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<---Tclose<----Topen<-------Ie<----Flash<--Request<-----Target<--O
C SHUNT BREAKER TO CONNECT/DISCONNECT THE SHUNT UNIT TO THE CIRCUIT
13BUS01ACNV01A SHNBRK
13BUS01BCNV01B SHNBRK
13BUS01CCNV01C SHNBRK
C SERIES DISCONNECT SWITCH TO CONNECT/DISCONNECT THE SERIES UNIT TO THE CIRCUIT
13e2A e22A SRSDS
13e2B e22B SRSDS
13e2C e22C SRSDS
C TECHNIQUE TO SHORT THE SERIES-COMPENSATING VOLTAGE TO CALCULATE THE
C INITIAL CONDITIONS CORRECTLY
13e22A CLOSED GNDSW
13e22B CLOSED GNDSW
13e22C CLOSED GNDSW
C MEASUREMENT OF LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 307MEAS2.SWT
C MEASUREMENT OF CURRENTS FLOWING THROUGH THE SHUNT UNIT
CNV01Ai1A MEASURING
CNV01Bi1B MEASURING
CNV01Ci1C MEASURING
C MEASUREMENT OF CURRENTS FLOWING THROUGH THE SERIES UNIT
CNV02Ae22A MEASURING
CNV02Be22B MEASURING
CNV02Ce22C MEASURING
BLANK RECORD ENDING SWITCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C CONNECTION OF SHUNT UNIT CURRENT SOURCES TO THE NETWORK
60i1A -1
60i1B -1
60i1C -1
C CONNECTION OF SERIES UNIT VOLTAGE SOURCES TO THE NETWORK
60e2A
60e2B
60e2C
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK 1 SOURCES (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 308NTWK1.SRC
(Continued )
 3.4 Simulation of an Independent PFC, Integrated in a Two-Generator/Single-Line Power System Network 285

Code 3-15 (Continued)

BLANK RECORD ENDING SOURCES
BLANK RECORD ENDING NODE VOLTAGE OUTPUT
BLANK RECORD ENDING PLOT

Table 3-3 Electrical system data.

Parameters Values

Source voltage (Vsrc) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠0 Vpeak

Source resistance (Rsrc) 1.0053 Ω
Source reactance (Xsrc) 7.43875 Ω (19.73 mH)
Receiving-end voltage (Vr) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠−20 Vpeak
Line resistance (R) 3.0159 Ω
Line reactance (X) 22.31625 Ω (59.19 mH)
Series-coupling transformer (SRSTR) turns-ratio 1:1
Primary winding resistance 0.8927 Ω
Primary winding reactance 23.679 mH
Secondary winding resistance 0.8927 Ω
Secondary winding reactance 23.679 mH

attaches the $INCLUDE file 315TRAN2.TRN that connects a coupling transformer in series with
the transmission line as shown in Code 3-16.
The term TRANSFORMER is a reserved word in EMTP for a physical model of a transformer.
SRSTRA in columns 39–44 is the name for the internal node at the top of the magnetizing branch.
This name uniquely identifies the transformer. The numbers 9999 in columns 13–16 terminate
transformer magnetizing branch datacards, which do not exist in this model. The winding num-
ber is specified in columns 1–2. A “1” indicates the primary winding and a “2” indicates the sec-
ondary winding. BUS01A node in columns 3–8 indicates node “1” name. BUS02A node in
columns 9–14 indicates node “2” name. A blank node name indicates a connection to the ground.
The winding resistance in Ohms is specified in columns 27–32. The winding inductance in mH is
specified in columns 33–38. Rated winding voltage in pu or number of turns is specified in col-
umns 39–44.
The natural active and reactive power flows (Prn and Qrn) at the receiving end of the line are
132 MW (0.82 pu) and −41 Mvar (−0.25 pu), respectively. Note the reduction of the natural
power flow at the receiving end in comparison to that calculated in Section 3.1.1 is due to
the series-coupling transformer, which results in an additional inductive impedance in series
with the line.
286 3 Modeling Principles

Code 3-16 EMTP $INCLUDE file for a three-phase series-coupling transformer

(315TRAN2.TRN) with a leakage impedance.
C File Name: 315TRAN2.TRN
C A 3-PHASE SERIES-COUPLING TRANSFORMER WITH LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ------SERIES-COUPLING TRANSFORMER FOR PHASE A------
C TRANSFORMER <--Refxxxxxx<--Iss<--Phi<-Name<-Rmag<----------------------------O
TRANSFORMER SRSTRA
C NEXT LINE (9999 IN COLUMNS 13-16) INDICATES A LINEAR TRANSFORMER
9999
C <---Nodes--><----------><---Rk<---Lk<Volt|---------------------------------->O
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<----------><-Ohms<---mH<---kV---------------------------------->O
1CNV02A 0.892723.679 1.0
2BUS01ABUS02A 0.892723.679 1.0
C ------SERIES-COUPLING TRANSFORMER FOR PHASE B------
TRANSFORMER SRSTRB
9999
1CNV02B 0.892723.679 1.0
2BUS01BBUS02B 0.892723.679 1.0
C ------SERIES-COUPLING TRANSFORMER FOR PHASE C------
TRANSFORMER SRSTRC
9999
1CNV02C 0.892723.679 1.0
2BUS01CBUS02C 0.892723.679 1.0

The datacard “$INCLUDE 313PQPFC.USR” attaches the $INCLUDE file 313PQPFC.USR that
defines the user’s input as shown in Code 3-17. This file is used to define a compensating voltage
that is connected in series with the line. The file shows that the Normally-Open (NO) shunt breaker
is closed at 10 ms. The ST is represented by a series-compensating voltage of 12 kVrms (0.15 pu) and
a relative phase angle of 0 . The ST is activated at 20 ms. Keeping the magnitude fixed at 0.15 pu, the
relative phase angle is varied within its entire controllable range of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 through the user’s
input file.
The datacard “$INCLUDE 314PQPFC.CON” attaches the $INCLUDE file 314PQPFC.CON that
defines the mathematical model of the shunt-connected sinusoidal current source (Shunt Unit) and
the series-connected sinusoidal voltage source (Series Unit) as shown in Figure 3-10. The instan-
taneous current idq = i1d + ji1q through the Shunt Unit is calculated in d-q rotating reference frame
as follows.
Step 1: Computation of Exchanged Power at the Series Converter
Substituting vA, vB, and vC and iA, iB, and iC in the following equations

p = vA iA + vB iB + vC iC A-16
 3.4 Simulation of an Independent PFC, Integrated in a Two-Generator/Single-Line Power System Network 287

Code 3-17 EMTP $INCLUDE file for user’s input (313PQPFC.USR).

C File Name: 313PQPFC.USR
C USER’S INPUT FILE FOR PQPFC
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C A SHUNT BREAKER IS CLOSED.
99SHNBRK = TIMEX .GE. 0.01
C SET ST = 1.0 FOR ST OR ST = 0.0 FOR UPFC
99ST = 1.0
C SETTING THE COMPENSATING VOLTAGE
99e2cm1 = 0.15  (TIMEX .GE. 0.020)
99e2dqcm = e2cm1
C LOW-PASS FILTER INTRODUCES A RAMP-RATE AND REDUCES SYSTEM TRANSIENTS
1e2dqrf +e2dqcm
1.0
1.0 0.0160
99betcm1 = 0  (TIMEX .GE. 0.020)
99betcmd = betcm1  CDR
C LOW-PASS FILTER INTRODUCES A RAMP-RATE AND REDUCES SYSTEM TRANSIENTS
1beta +betcmd
1.0
1.0 0.0020

q = √3 vA iC − vC iA A-99

with e2Apu, e2Bpu, and e2Cpu and i2Apu, i2Bpu, and i2Cpu, it can be rewritten that
p2sepu = e2Apu i2Apu + e2Bpu i2Bpu + e2Cpu i2Cpu A-16a

q2sepu = √3 e2Apu i2Cpu − e2Cpu i2Apu A-99a

with proper scaling by using Vbase, Ibase, and Pbase. The corresponding EMTP code is shown below.
C EXCHANGED POWER COMPUTATION AT THE SERIES CONVERTER
99p2sepu = (e2Apu  i2Apu + e2Bpu  i2Bpu + e2Cpu  i2Cpu) VbaseIbase / Pbase
99q2sepu = (e2Apu  i2Cpu - e2Cpu  i2Apu)  SQRT(3)  Vbase  Ibase / Pbase

The instantaneous exchanged active and reactive powers (p2sepu and q2sepu) at the converter are
calculated. It is important to note that the exchanged power with the line differs from the power at
the converter due to the active power loss and reactive power stored in the circuit reactance.
Step 2: Shunt Unit Current Computation in d-q rotating frame
The instantaneous exchanged active and reactive powers (p2sepu and q2sepu) by the Series Unit at
the converter are considered to be the same as those by the Shunt Unit at the converter when the
288 3 Modeling Principles

power loss in the PFC is neglected as a first order of approximation. Substituting ppu, qpu, vdpu, vqpu,
idpu, and iqpu in the following equations

ppu = vdpu idpu + vqpu iqpu A-91

qpu = vqpu idpu − vdpu iqpu A-92

ppu vdpu + qpu vqpu

idpu = A-93
v2dpu + v2qpu

ppu vqpu − qpu vdpu

iqpu = A-94
v2dpu + v2qpu

with p2sepu, q2sepu, v1dpu, v1qpu, i1dpu, and i1qpu, it can be rewritten that

p2sepu = v1dpu i1dpu + v1qpu i1qpu A-91a

q2sepu = v1qpu i1dpu − v1dpu i1qpu A-92a

p2sepu v1dpu + q2sepu v1qpu

i1dpu = A-93a
v21dpu + v21qpu

p2sepu v1qpu − q2sepu v1dpu

i1qpu = A-94a
v21dpu + v21qpu

Note that v1dpu, v1qpu, i1dpu, and i1qpu are in per units. The corresponding EMTP code is
shown below.
C SHUNT UNIT CURRENT COMPUTATION PER EQNS (A-93a) AND (A-94a) in D-Q ROTATING FRAME
99Denom = v1dpu  v1dpu + v1qpu  v1qpu
99i1dpu = (p2sepu  v1dpu + q2sepu  ST  v1qpu) / Denom
99i1qpu = (p2sepu  v1qpu - q2sepu  ST  v1dpu) / Denom

The switch “ST” is set to be 1 for Sen Transformer (ST) and 0 for Unified Power Flow Controller
(UPFC) in the $INCLUDE file 313PQPFC.USR.
Step 3: Shunt Unit Current Computation in A-B-C time domain
The d-q rotating reference frame components (i1dpu and i1qpu) are converted into the correspond-
ing stationary reference frame using the phase-locked loop angle according to Equation (A-55a) as
shown below.
C SHUNT UNIT CURRENT COMPUTATION PER EQUATIONS (A-55a) in D-Q STATIONARY FRAME
99i1dspu = i1dpu  COSPLL - i1qpu  SINPLL
99i1qspu = i1dpu  SINPLL + i1qpu  COSPLL

The stationary reference frame components (i1dspu and i1qspu) are converted into the correspond-
ing A-B-C time domain with proper scaling by using Ibase according to Equation (A-75b) as
shown below.
 3.4 Simulation of an Independent PFC, Integrated in a Two-Generator/Single-Line Power System Network 289

C SHUNT UNIT CURRENT COMPUTATION PER EQUATIONS (A-75b) in a-b-c DOMAIN

99i1Apu = i1dspu
99i1Cpu = -0.5  (i1dspu + i1qspu  SQRT(3))
99i1Bpu = -(i1Apu + i1Cpu)

99i1A = i1Apu  Ibase

99i1B = i1Bpu  Ibase
99i1C = i1Cpu  Ibase

The corresponding EMTP $INCLUDE file (314PQPFC.CON) is shown in Code 3-18.

Code 3-18 EMTP $INCLUDE file for P-Q power flow control, using the mathematical model
of a PFC in a Shunt-Series configuration (314PQPFC.CON).
C File Name: 314PQPFC.CON
C PQPFC – MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF A PFC WITH A SHUNT-SERIES CONFIGURATION WITH
C OPEN-LOOP CONTROL OF THE SERIES UNIT
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
99tha2 = theta + PI / 2 + PI + beta
C This addition of PI/2 is because the compensating voltage is sine reference
C and the PLL is cosine reference.
C PI radian is added to reverse the polarity of the series-coupling transformer.
99theta2 = tha2 + TWOPI  (tha2 .LT. 0.0) - TWOPI  (tha2 .GE. TWOPI)
C SERIES UNIT VOLTAGE
99vsrspk = e2dqrf  Vbase
99e2a = vsrspk  SIN(theta2)
99e2b = vsrspk  SIN(theta2 - 120  CDR)
99e2c = vsrspk  SIN(theta2 + 120  CDR)
99e2Apu = e2A / Vbase
99e2Bpu = e2B / Vbase
99e2Cpu = e2C / Vbase
99e2pu = SQRT((e2Apu  e2Apu + e2Bpu  e2Bpu + e2Cpu  e2Cpu)  2 /3)
C SERIES UNIT VOLTAGE MAGNITUDE COMPUTATION PER EQS. (A-75a), (A-55b) and (3-23)
99e2dspu = e2Apu
99e2qspu = -(e2Apu + 2.0  e2Cpu) / SQRT(3)
99e2dpu = e2dspu  COSPLL + e2qspu  SINPLL
99e2qpu = -e2dspu  SINPLL + e2qspu  COSPLL
99e2dqpu = SQRT(e2dpu  e2dpu + e2qpu  e2qpu)
C SERIES UNIT CURRENT COMPUTATION
99i2Apu = CNV02A / Ibase
99i2Bpu = CNV02B / Ibase
99i2Cpu = CNV02C / Ibase
99i2pu = SQRT((i2Apu  i2Apu + i2Bpu  i2Bpu + i2Cpu  i2Cpu)  2 / 3)
C SERIES UNIT CURRENT MAGNITUDE COMPUTATION PER EQS. (A-75a), (A-55b) and (3-23)
99i2dspu = i2Apu

(Continued )
290 3 Modeling Principles

Code 3-18 (Continued)

99i2qspu = -(i2Apu + 2.0  i2Cpu) / SQRT(3)

99i2dpu = i2dspu  COSPLL + i2qspu  SINPLL
99i2qpu = -i2dspu  SINPLL + i2qspu  COSPLL
99i2dqpu = SQRT(i2dpu  i2dpu + i2qpu  i2qpu)
C EXCHANGED POWER IN PU BY THE SERIES CONVERTER
99p2sepu = (e2Apu  i2Apu + e2Bpu  i2Bpu + e2Cpu  i2Cpu) VbaseIbase / Pbase
99q2sepu = (e2Apu  i2Cpu - e2Cpu  i2Apu)  SQRT(3)  Vbase  Ibase / Pbase
C EXCHANGED MW AND MVAR BY THE SERIES CONVERTER
99p2seMW = p2sepu  Pbase / 1e6
99q2seMV = q2sepu  Pbase / 1e6
C EXCHANGED MVA BY THE SERIES CONVERTER PER EQUATION (2-182)
99s2seMV = SQRT(p2seMW  p2seMW + q2seMV  q2seMV)
C SHUNT UNIT CURRENT COMPUTATION PER EQNS (A-93a) AND (A-94a) in D-Q ROTATING FRAME
99Denom = v1dpu  v1dpu + v1qpu  v1qpu
99i1dpu = (p2sepu  v1dpu + q2sepu  ST  v1qpu) / Denom
99i1qpu = (p2sepu  v1qpu - q2sepu  ST  v1dpu) / Denom
99i1dqpu = SQRT(i1dpu  i1dpu + i1qpu  i1qpu)
C SHUNT UNIT CURRENT COMPUTATION PER EQUATIONS (A-55a) in D-Q STATIONARY FRAME
99i1dspu = i1dpu  COSPLL - i1qpu  SINPLL
99i1qspu = i1dpu  SINPLL + i1qpu  COSPLL
C SHUNT UNIT CURRENT COMPUTATION PER EQUATIONS (A-75b) in a-b-c DOMAIN
99i1Apu = i1dspu
99i1Cpu = -0.5  (i1dspu + i1qspu  SQRT(3))
99i1Bpu = -(i1Apu + i1Cpu)
99i1pu = SQRT((i1Apu  i1Apu + i1Bpu  i1Bpu + i1Cpu  i1Cpu)  2 / 3)
99i1A = i1Apu  Ibase
99i1B = i1Bpu  Ibase
99i1C = i1Cpu  Ibase
99i1AApu = CNV01A / Ibase
99i1BBpu = CNV01B / Ibase
99i1CCpu = CNV01C / Ibase
C EXCHANGED POWER BY THE SHUNT UNIT AT THE POC
99Pshpu = (v1Apu  i1AApu + v1Bpu  i1BBpu + v1Cpu  i1CCpu)VbaseIbase/Pbase
99Qshpu = (v1Apu  i1CCpu - v1Cpu  i1AApu)  SQRT(3)  Vbase  Ibase / Pbase
99PshMW = Pshpu  Pbase / 1e6
99QshMV = Qshpu  Pbase / 1e6
C EXCHANGED POWER BY THE SERIES UNIT AT THE POC
99Psepu = (v12Apu  iApu + v12Bpu  iBpu + v12Cpu  iCpu) VbaseIbase / Pbase
99Qsepu = (v12Apu  iCpu - v12Cpu  iApu)  SQRT(3)  Vbase  Ibase / Pbase
99PseMW = Psepu  Pbase / 1e6
99QseMV = Qsepu  Pbase / 1e6
(Continued )
 3.4 Simulation of an Independent PFC, Integrated in a Two-Generator/Single-Line Power System Network 291

Code 3-18 (Continued)

C BUS01 NODE LINE-TO-LINE VOLTAGE COMPUTATION PER EQUATION (3-7A)
99Vs = v1pu  Vbase  SQRT(3 / 2)
C Vs in kV
99VskV = Vs / 1e3
C BUS02 NODE LINE-TO-LINE VOLTAGE COMPUTATION PER EQUATION (3-7A)
99Vsp = v2pu  Vbase  SQRT(3 / 2)
C Vsp in kV
99VspkV = Vsp / 1e3
C Setting up the disconnect switches
99GNDSW = 0
99SRSDS = .NOT. GNDSW

In order to run the mathematical model of either ST or UPFC, the selection parameter (ST) is set
to either 1 or 0, respectively. In the $INCLUDE file for user’s input (Code 3-17), a desired series-
compensating voltage of e2cm1 = 0.15 and a relative phase angle of betcm1 = 0 are defined. Just
letting the simulation run for a period of time, such as 150 ms, the last solution point is recorded,
provided the solution settles down to a steady-state condition. Keeping the magnitude of the series-
compensating voltage fixed at 0.15 pu, the relative phase angle is varied in one-degree interval; the
mathematical model of the ST and the UPFC are rerun to obtain the steady-state results in the range
of the relative phase angle 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
Table 3-4 shows sample data points of variations of magnitude (Vs) of the sending-end voltage
(Vs), active power (Pr) and reactive power (Qr) flows at the receiving end, exchanged active power
(Pse), reactive power (Qse), and apparent power (Sse) with the line by the Series Unit during the
entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
Table 3-5 shows the effects of the variation of the series-compensating voltage on the active power
(Pr) and reactive power (Qr) flows at the receiving end in the cases of a VR and a PAR (asym).
Figure 3-11 shows the active, reactive, and apparent powers (Pse, Qse, and Sse) exchanged by the
series-compensating voltages of the ST and the UPFC with the line. The maximum exchanged
active, reactive, and apparent powers by the Series Unit are 21 MW, 29 Mvar, and 30 MVA, respec-
tively. In the case of the ST, both the active and reactive powers flow bidirectionally through the
Shunt Unit (Exciter Unit). In the case of the UPFC, only the active power flows bidirectionally
through the Shunt Unit (STATCOM).
Consistent with Figure 2-25a, it is shown in Figure 3-11 that the reactive power exchanged by the
series-compensating voltage (Series Unit) is capacitive over the majority of the control range of 0 ≤
β ≤ 360 , except during 205 ≤ β ≤ 335 when the exchanged reactive power is inductive. The Shunt
Unit absorbs inductive power when the Series Unit delivers capacitive power and vice versa. Also, it
should be noted that the Series Unit absorbs from the line a maximum of 12 Mvar of inductive
power and delivers a maximum of 29 Mvar of capacitive power. Therefore, the Shunt Unit absorbs
from the line a maximum of 29 Mvar of inductive power and delivers a maximum of 12 Mvar of
capacitive power. The Shunt Unit is inductive over the majority of the control range of 0 ≤ β ≤
360 , except during 205 ≤ β ≤ 335 when it is capacitive.
While the relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) varies, the line current
(I) and the active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) in the transmission line vary and so does the
292 3 Modeling Principles

Table 3-4 Sending-end voltage, power flows at the receiving end, and the exchanged powers with the line for
the electrical system data, shown in Table 3-3, as the relative phase angle varies in the range of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

Case for Sen Transformer (set ST=1 in 313PQPFC.USR)

β (deg) Vs (kV) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA)

0 132.93 151.90 13.24 −21.25 −8.44 22.86

30 132.87 175.51 −7.19 −19.04 −18.20 26.34
60 133.70 187.74 −36.90 −12.32 −25.91 28.69
90 135.23 185.02 −68.34 −2.36 −29.48 29.58
120 137.06 167.56 −92.99 8.42 −27.47 28.74
150 138.70 139.83 −103.70 16.83 −19.96 26.11
180 139.70 109.58 −97.19 20.04 −8.99 21.96
210 139.75 85.43 −75.35 16.97 1.97 17.08
240 138.87 74.04 −44.55 8.78 9.53 12.96
270 137.29 78.15 −13.42 −1.78 11.76 11.89
300 135.47 96.15 9.80 −11.70 8.56 14.49
330 133.88 123.05 19.41 −18.64 1.19 18.68
360 132.93 151.91 13.22 −21.25 −8.43 22.87

Case for Unified Power Flow Controller (set ST=0 in 313PQPFC.USR)

β (deg) Vs (kV) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA)

0 133.33 152.24 14.57 −21.25 −8.63 22.93

30 133.73 176.27 −4.29 −18.83 −18.57 26.44
60 134.92 188.85 −32.79 −11.80 −26.21 28.74
90 136.60 186.31 −63.73 −1.68 −29.48 29.53
120 138.32 168.77 −88.76 8.96 −27.16 28.60
150 139.61 140.71 −100.69 17.04 −19.56 25.95
180 140.10 109.97 −95.86 20.03 −8.79 21.88
210 139.67 85.35 −75.64 16.99 1.93 17.10
240 138.44 73.65 −45.94 8.97 9.43 13.02
270 136.75 77.67 −15.17 −1.52 11.77 11.87
300 135.07 95.81 8.50 −11.53 8.66 14.42
330 133.82 123.00 19.23 −18.63 1.21 18.67
360 133.33 152.26 14.55 −21.25 −8.63 22.94

voltage across the source impedance. Therefore, the voltage phasor (Vs) at the POC (i.e. at the node,
Vs) varies its magnitude and phase angle from the natural line voltage (Vsn). This variation from the
natural voltage is highly dependent on the short-circuit impedance of the transmission line at the
POC and the load flow in the line.
Figure 3-12 shows the variations of the phase-to-phase voltage at the node (Vs) from its natural
value of 136.7 kVrms (P–P) or (√3 × 0.99 pu) with the operation of the ST and the UPFC. If the POC
 3.4 Simulation of an Independent PFC, Integrated in a Two-Generator/Single-Line Power System Network 293

Table 3-5 Effects of the variation of series-compensating voltage on the power flows at the
receiving end in the cases of a VR and a PAR (asym).

VR PAR (asym)

Vs s (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar)

−0.15 109.58 −97.19 78.11 −13.44

−0.10 117.13 −78.15 95.96 −22.56
−0.05 124.49 −59.37 113.81 −31.69
0.00 131.64 −40.84 131.64 −40.84
0.05 138.59 −22.55 149.46 −49.99
0.10 145.35 −4.53 167.25 −59.16
0.15 151.90 13.24 185.02 −68.34

(a) (b)
30 Sse 30 Sse
Power (MW, Mvar, MVA)

Power (MW, Mvar, MVA)

20 20
Pse Pse
10 10
β β
0 0
180° 360° 180° 360°
− 10 Qse − 10 Qse

− 20 − 20

− 30 − 30

Figure 3-11 Variations of exchanged powers between the transmission line and the Series Unit of the (a) ST
and (b) UPFC.

140
UPFC ST
Vs (kV)

Vsn
β
135
180° 360°

130

Figure 3-12 Variations of node voltage with the operation of the ST and UPFC.

is near a “stiff” node, the voltage variation at the POC (i.e. at the node, Vs) is smaller and vice versa.
In the case of the UPFC, the bidirectional flow of active power through the Shunt Unit emulates a
+R or a −R and, in turn, causes a voltage sag or swell at the POC. In the case of the ST, the additional
reactive power flow through the Shunt Unit emulates an inductance or a capacitance, thus causing
294 3 Modeling Principles

(a) (b)
200 200
Pr Pr
150 Prn 150 Prn
Power (MW & Mvar)

100 100

Power (MW & Mvar)

50 50
β β
0 0
180° Qrn 360° 180° Qrn 360°
− 50 − 50
Qr Qr
− 100 − 100

Figure 3-13 Variations of the receiving-end power flows with the operations of the (a) ST and (b) UPFC.

an additional voltage sag or swell at the POC. Note that in the range of the relative phase angle
205 ≤ β ≤ 335 , the voltage (Vs) is higher in the case of the ST than in the case of the UPFC. In
the rest of the region, the voltage (Vs) is higher in the case of the UPFC than in the case of the ST.
Figure 3-13a shows that with the use of the ST, both the active and reactive power flows at the
receiving end of the line under consideration vary by 57 and −58 MW and by 60 and −63 Mvar,
respectively, from the natural power flows (Prn = 132 MW and Qrn = − 41 Mvar). Figure 3-13b
shows that with the use of the UPFC, both the active and reactive power flows at the receiving
end of the same line vary by ±58 MW and by ±60 Mvar, respectively, from the natural power flows.
The controllable range of active and reactive power flows with the operation of the ST and UPFC
are presented in Figure 3-14. The ST and UPFC offer circular controllable areas that are almost
identical. The radius of the controllable area increases with larger series-compensating voltages.
With a proper series-compensating voltage, the circular controllable area covers all four quadrants,
resulting in a reversal of power flow from its natural direction. This phenomenon is presented in
“Introduction to FACTS Controllers: Theory, Modeling, and Applications,” by Sen and Sen, IEEE
Press and John Wiley & Sons, 2009, Chapter 8, Section 8.3.2. Special operations of the ST with
β = 0 and −0.15 ≤ E2dq ≤ 0.15 and β = 90 and −0.15 ≤ E2dq ≤ 0.15 show the functionalities of
the VR and the PAR (asym), respectively. Whereas the ST offers a circular controllable area, the
PAR (asym) and the VR offer linear control range.

50
Qr (Mvar)

Pr (MW)
0
50 100 150 200

PAR
− 50
VR

UPFC
− 100 ST

Figure 3-14 Comparison of the active and reactive power flows at the receiving end of the line with the
operations of the VR, PAR (asym), UPFC, and ST.
 3.4 Simulation of an Independent PFC, Integrated in a Two-Generator/Single-Line Power System Network 295

The summary of the study results is given below.

• The variation of phase-to-phase voltage at the POC is between 132.8 kV and 139.8 kV in the case
of the ST and between 133.3 kV and 140.1 kV in the case of the UPFC, whereas the natural voltage
is 136.7 kV.

• Line active power flow changes from the natural flow of 132 MW by 57 and −58 MW in the case of
the ST and by ±58 MW in the case of the UPFC.

• Line reactive power flow changes from the natural flow of −41 Mvar by 60 and −63 Mvar in the
case of the ST and by ±60 Mvar in the case of the UPFC.

•• Rating of the ST: 30 MVA.

Rating of the UPFC: a Series Unit of 30 MVA and a Shunt Unit of 21 MVA.
Since the Shunt and the Series Units of the UPFC are designed to be of the same rating, a 30 MVA-
rated Shunt Unit is able to provide a maximum of 21 Mvar of reactive power while delivering the
required 21 MW of active power. If this capability of supplying shunt reactive power is really
needed, particularly when the short-circuit impedance at the POC is high, a separate capacitor bank
as a shunt reactive compensator may be used along with the ST as discussed in Section 1.6.
 297

Transformer-Based Power Flow Controllers

The transformer-based Power Flow Controllers (PFCs) are composed of two fundamental building
blocks: Voltage-Regulating Transformer (VRT) and Phase Angle Regulator (PAR). The VRT prima-
rily regulates the magnitude of the line voltage (i.e. increase or decrease of the secondary voltage)
without significantly changing its original phase angle. The PAR (sym) primarily regulates the
phase angle of the line voltage with little or no change in its original voltage magnitude. The
PAR (asym) also primarily regulates the phase angle of the line voltage with some increase in
the voltage magnitude. The objective in this chapter is to study these traditional transformer-based
PFCs. The operations of various PFCs are verified in a single-generator/single-line power system
network, considering a three-phase base power of 160 MVA and a phase-to-phase (P–P) base rms
voltage, Vrms(P-P), of 138 kVrms as defined in Chapter 3, Section 3.1.

4.1 Voltage-Regulating Transformer (VRT)

The VRT can be of two kinds: (a) autotransformer and (b) two-winding transformer as shown in
Figure 4-1. In the VRT, the primary winding with n1 turns is excited from an input voltage source
and a voltage is induced in the secondary winding with n2 turns. In an autotransformer, the sec-
ondary voltage is usually a fraction of the input (i.e. primary) voltage and the output voltage is the
phasor sum of the primary and secondary voltages. The compensating secondary voltage is con-
nected in series with the transmission line. There is no electrical isolation between the input
and output voltages. In a two-winding transformer, the input and output voltages are electrically
isolated. The compensating voltage, which is the induced voltage in the secondary winding is the
output voltage and is connected in shunt with the line. In both the autotransformer and the two-
winding transformer, the active number of turns in the secondary windings are varied with the use
of load tap changers (LTCs) to vary the compensating voltage.
The output voltage is
n2
V2 = V1 × 1+ in the case of an autotransformer 4-1a
n1
n2
V2 = V1 × in the case of a two-winding transformer 4-1b
n1

Power Flow Control Solutions for a Modern Grid using SMART Power Flow Controllers, First Edition.
Kalyan K. Sen and Mey Ling Sen.
© 2022 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/sen/powerflowcontrol
298 4 Transformer-Based Power Flow Controllers

(a) (b)

BUS01
BUS02
BUS01

BUS02
Psʹ , Qsʹ Ps' , Qs'

I I
n2

Vs V2 Vsʹ Vs V1 V2 Vsʹ
n1 n2
V1
n1

Autotransformer Two-winding transformer

Figure 4-1 (a) Autotransformer. (b) two-winding transformer.

There are other variations of these circuit topologies. In sub-transmission (34.5–69 kV) and dis-
tribution (2.3–39 kV) category transformers, which are usually two-winding transformers, the taps
are on the high-voltage (HV) primary windings. When the taps change their positions, the second-
ary low-voltage (LV) windings function as a VRT. While the sub-transmission transformers consist
of on-load LTCs and distribution transformers consist of off-load LTCs.
In this chapter, two types of VRTs are studied, namely (1) an autotransformer-type VRT where
the secondary winding is electrically connected with the primary winding and (2) two-winding
VRT. The autotransformer-type VRT is a Shunt-Series configuration that generates a bipolar
compensating voltage through transformer action and connects it in series with the line. The
two-winding VRT is a Shunt-Shunt configuration that generates a compensating voltage through
transformer action and connects it in shunt with the line.

4.1.1 Voltage Regulating Transformer (Shunt-Series Configuration)

The Voltage Regulating Transformer (VRT) in its Shunt-Series configuration can be studied with
the use of the mathematical model of the ST as shown in Figure 3-10a. The model includes all the
modes of operation, such as a VRT, a PAR (asym), and an IR as discussed in Chapter 3, Section 3.4.
The network model of Figure 3-5 is used with the short between BUS01 and BUS02 nodes, which is
replaced with the mathematical model of the ST. The corresponding Electromagnetic Transients
Program (EMTP) datafile 401PQPFC.DAT, which is the same as 312PQPFC.DAT, except with
a different series-coupling transformer without any leakage impedance, is shown in Code 4-1.

Code 4-1 EMTP datafile for mathematical model of ST, operating as a VRT in a Shunt-
Series configuration, integrated in a two-generator/single-line power system network
(401PQPFC.DAT).
BEGIN NEW DATA CASE
C File Name: 401PQPFC.DAT
C STUDY THE EFFECT OF AN AUTOTRANSFORMER, USING THE MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF ST
(Continued )
 4.1 Voltage-Regulating Transformer (VRT) 299

Code 4-1 (Continued)

C WITH A SHUNT-CONNECTED CURRENT SOURCE (SHUNT UNIT) AND A
C SERIES-CONNECTED VOLTAGE SOURCE (SERIES UNIT), USING AN
C IDEAL SERIES-COUPLING TRANSFORMER WITHOUT ANY LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ----dt<---tmax<---Xopt<---Copt<--Toler< >< >
8.3333-6150.00-3
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C -Iprnt<- -Iplot<-Idoubl<-KssOut<-MaxOut< >< ><---Icat<-Nenerg
30 10 1
TACS HYBRID
99CRD = 180 / PI
99CDR = 1 / CRD
99TWOPI = 2.0 * PI
C BASE VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND POWER
99Vbase = 112676.528
99Ibase = 946.662704
99Zbase = Vbase / Ibase
99Pbase = 1.5 * Vbase * Ibase
C INPUTS FROM NODE VOLTAGES AND LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 302MEAS1.SWT
C MEASUREMENT OF CURRENTS FLOWING THROUGH THE SHUNT UNIT
91CNV01A
91CNV01B
91CNV01C
C MEASUREMENT OF CURRENTS FLOWING THROUGH THE SERIES UNIT
91CNV02A
91CNV02B
91CNV02C
C NORMALIZATION OF MEASURED VARIABLES AND COMPUTATION OF PEAK VOLTAGES/CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 303PTCT.SCL
C VECTOR PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
$INCLUDE 310VPLL.PLL
C USER’S INPUT FILE
$INCLUDE 313PQPFC.USR
C MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF ST
$INCLUDE 314PQPFC.CON
C COMPUTATION OF LINE RESISTANCE
$INCLUDE 305LINER.CMP
C TACS OUTPUT
33v12pu v1pu v2pu Prpu Qrpu

(Continued )
300 4 Transformer-Based Power Flow Controllers

Code 4-1 (Continued)

BLANK RECORD ENDING TACS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <---Nodes--><---Nodes--><----R<----L<----C V
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<-Ohms<---mH<---uF V
C REPRESENTATION OF A SHORT BETWEEN NODES VS AND BUS01
VSA BUS01A 0.001
VSB BUS01B 0.001
VSC BUS01C 0.001
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK 2 BRANCHES WITH DAMPING RESISTORS (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 311NTWK2.BRN
C HIGH RESISTANCES TO AVOID FLOATING NODES IN THE CIRCUIT
BUS01ACNV01A 1.00+8
BUS01BCNV01B 1.00+8
BUS01CCNV01C 1.00+8
e2A e22A 1.00+8
e2B e22B 1.00+8
e2C e22C 1.00+8
e22A 1.00+8
e22B 1.00+8
e22C 1.00+8
i1A 1.00+8
i1B 1.00+8
i1C 1.00+8
C CONNECTION OF A 3-PHASE SERIES-COUPLING TRANSFORMER WITH NO LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
$INCLUDE 402IDLT2.TRN
BLANK RECORD ENDING BRANCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<---Tclose<----Topen<-------Ie<----Flash<--Request<-----Target<--O
C SHUNT BREAKER TO CONNECT/DISCONNECT THE SHUNT UNIT TO THE CIRCUIT
13BUS01ACNV01A SHNBRK
13BUS01BCNV01B SHNBRK
13BUS01CCNV01C SHNBRK
C SERIES DISCONNECT SWITCH TO CONNECT/DISCONNECT THE SERIES UNIT TO THE CIRCUIT
13e2A e22A SRSDS
13e2B e22B SRSDS
13e2C e22C SRSDS
C TECHNIQUE TO SHORT THE SERIES-COMPENSATING VOLTAGE TO CALCULATE THE
C INITIAL CONDITIONS CORRECTLY
13e22A CLOSED GNDSW
13e22B CLOSED GNDSW
13e22C CLOSED GNDSW
(Continued )
 4.1 Voltage-Regulating Transformer (VRT) 301

Code 4-1 (Continued)

C MEASUREMENT OF LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 307MEAS2.SWT
C MEASUREMENT OF CURRENTS FLOWING THROUGH THE SHUNT UNIT
CNV01Ai1A MEASURING
CNV01Bi1B MEASURING
CNV01Ci1C MEASURING
C MEASUREMENT OF CURRENTS FLOWING THROUGH THE SERIES UNIT
CNV02Ae22A MEASURING
CNV02Be22B MEASURING
CNV02Ce22C MEASURING
BLANK RECORD ENDING SWITCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C CONNECTION OF SHUNT UNIT CURRENT SOURCES TO THE NETWORK
60i1A -1
60i1B -1
60i1C -1
C CONNECTION OF SERIES UNIT VOLTAGE SOURCES TO THE NETWORK
60e2A
60e2B
60e2C
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK 1 SOURCES IN FIGURE 3-5
$INCLUDE 308NTWK1.SRC
BLANK RECORD ENDING SOURCES
BLANK RECORD ENDING NODE VOLTAGE OUTPUT
BLANK RECORD ENDING PLOT

The $INCLUDE file 402IDLT2.TRN attaches a series-coupling transformer without any leakage
impedance in series with the transmission line as shown in Code 4-2. The leakage impedance of the
series-coupling transformer is deliberately set to nearly zero (0.001 Ω) to preserve its ideal
operation.

Code 4-2 EMTP $INCLUDE file for a three-phase, series-coupling transformer (402TRAN2.TRN)
without any leakage impedance.
C File Name: 402IDLT2.TRN
C IDEAL 3-PHASE SERIES-COUPLING TRANSFORMER WITHOUT ANY LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778

(Continued )
302 4 Transformer-Based Power Flow Controllers

Code 4-2 (Continued)

C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ------SERIES-COUPLING TRANSFORMER FOR PHASE A------
C TRANSFORMER <--Refxxxxxx<--Iss<--Phi<-Name<-Rmag<----------------------------O
TRANSFORMER SRSTRA
C NEXT LINE (9999 IN COLUMNS 13-16) INDICATES A LINEAR TRANSFORMER
9999
C <---Nodes--><----------><---Rk<---Lk<Volt|---------------------------------->O
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<----------><-Ohms<---mH<---kV---------------------------------->O
1CNV02A 0.001 0.001 1.0
2BUS01ABUS02A 0.001 0.001 1.0
C ------SERIES-COUPLING TRANSFORMER FOR PHASE B------
TRANSFORMER SRSTRB
9999
1CNV02B 0.001 0.001 1.0
2BUS01BBUS02B 0.001 0.001 1.0
C ------SERIES-COUPLING TRANSFORMER FOR PHASE C------
TRANSFORMER SRSTRC
9999
1CNV02C 0.001 0.001 1.0
2BUS01CBUS02C 0.001 0.001 1.0

Table 4-1 Electrical system data.

Parameters Values

Source voltage (Vsrc) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠0 Vpeak

Source resistance (Rsrc) 1.0053 Ω
Source reactance (Xsrc) 7.43875 Ω (19.73 mH)
Receiving-end voltage (Vr) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠−20 Vpeak
Line resistance (R) 3.0159 Ω
Line reactance (X) 22.31625 Ω (59.19 mH)
Series-coupling transformer (SRSTR) turns-ratio 1:1
Primary winding resistance 0.001 Ω
Primary winding leakage inductance 0.001 mH
Secondary winding resistance 0.001 Ω
Secondary winding leakage inductance 0.001 mH

Table 4-1 shows the electrical system data for a two-generator/single-line power system network,
compensated by the mathematical model of the ST, operating as an ideal VRT in a Shunt-Series
configuration.
 4.1 Voltage-Regulating Transformer (VRT) 303

Table 4-2 Effects of the variation of series-compensating voltage (Vs s) on measured voltage (V21 or Vs s), the
sending-end and the modified sending-end voltages (V1 or Vs and V2 or Vs ), and the power flows (Pr and Qr) at
the receiving end.

Vs s (pu) V21 or Vs s (pu) V1 or Vs (pu) V2 or Vs (pu) Pr (pu) Qr (pu)

−0.150 −0.150 1.022 0.872 1.11 −1.01

−0.100 −0.100 1.012 0.912 1.18 −0.81
−0.050 −0.050 1.000 0.950 1.24 −0.62
0.000 0.000 0.988 0.988 1.31 −0.43
0.050 0.050 0.975 1.025 1.37 −0.24
0.100 0.100 0.960 1.060 1.42 −0.06
0.150 0.150 0.945 1.095 1.48 0.12

The EMTP datafile 401PQPFC.DAT is rerun with the relative phase angle of the
series-compensating voltage (Vs s) set to β = 0 while its magnitude (Vs s) is varied from
−0.15 pu to 0.15 pu in the $INCLUDE file 313PQPFC.USR that defines the user’s input as shown
in Code 3-17. Table 4-2 shows the variation of the series-compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s) and
its effects on measured voltage (V21 or Vs s), the sending-end voltage magnitude (V1 or Vs), the
modified sending-end voltage magnitude (V2 or Vs ), and the resulting active and reactive power
flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end.
The series-compensating voltage exchanges active and reactive powers with the transmission
line. Both of these active and reactive powers appear at the transmission line through the magnetic
link and the Shunt Unit as shown in Figure 3-10a. The simulation result is shown in Figure 4-2.
Since the modified sending-end voltage, Vs (same as V2 at the BUS02 node), and the sending-
end voltage, Vs (same as V1 at the BUS01 node), are in phase in the case of a VRT, their scalar dif-
ference, V21, is the series-compensating voltage (Vs s). A variable-magnitude, bipolar, series-
compensating voltage (Vs s) increases or decreases Vs from its uncompensated value, Vs. It is dis-
cussed in Chapter 2 that an increase in the line voltage is caused by delivering capacitive power to
the line and a decrease in the line voltage is caused by absorbing inductive power from the line at
the Point of Connection (POC) to the utility. Since a transformer neither generates nor absorbs reac-
tive power, the primary winding must absorb inductive power from the line to deliver capacitive
power to the line through the secondary winding and vice versa; however, absorbing var from the
line at the BUS01 node reduces the line voltage and vice versa. The figure shows that the voltage
(Vs ) at the modified sending end is 0.15 pu more than the voltage (Vs) at the sending end; however,
the net increase is only 0.107 pu since the voltage (Vs) decreases by 0.043 pu from its natural value of
0.988 pu to a new value of 0.945 pu. The figure also shows that with a compensating voltage (Vs s) of
0.15 pu and a negative polarity, the voltage (Vs ) at the modified sending end is 0.15 pu less than the
voltage (Vs) at the sending end; however, the net decrease is only 0.116 pu since the voltage (Vs)
increases by 0.034 pu from its natural value of 0.988 pu to a new value of 1.022 pu. Therefore, the
range of Vs is 0 872 = 1 022 − 0 15 to 1 095 = 0 945 + 0 15 when the compensating voltage mag-
nitude (Vs s) varies from −0.15 to 0.15 pu.
Changing the voltage at the modified sending end affects the active and reactive power flows (Pr
and Qr) at the receiving end. The reactive power flow (Qr) at the receiving end varies from −1.01 to
0.12 pu during the range of compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s) from −0.15 to 0.15 pu, while the
uncompensated reactive power flow (Qrn) at the receiving end is −0.43 pu. However, the active
304 4 Transformer-Based Power Flow Controllers

1.10

1.05 Vsʹ
Vs
Voltage (pu)

1.00 Vsn (0.988 pu)

0.95

0.90
Vsʹs (pu)
0.85
− 0.15 − 0.10 − 0.05 0 0.05 0.10 0.15

Pr

1.25 Prn (1.31 pu)

1.00

0.75

0.50
Power (pu)

0.25
Vsʹs (pu)
0
− 0.15 − 0.10 − 0.05 0 0.05 0.10 0.15
–0.25
Qrn (− 0.43 pu)
–0.50

–0.75 Qr

–1.00

Figure 4-2 Ranges of voltage magnitudes (Vs and Vs ) at the sending and the modified sending ends and the
active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end. The VRT in a Shunt-Series configuration is
implemented using the mathematical model of ST through a coupling transformer without any leakage
impedance.

power flow (Pr) at the receiving end varies from 1.11 to 1.48 pu for the same range of variation in the
compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s), while the uncompensated active power flow (Prn) at the
receiving end is 1.31 pu. Therefore, a compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s) in the range of
−0.15 to 0.15 pu varies the reactive power flow (Qr) by 1.13 pu and active power flow (Pr) by 0.37 pu.
For a VRT in a Shunt-Series configuration with a fixed turns-ratio (n2/n1), the series-
compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s) is a multiplier (n2/n1) of the sending-end voltage at
BUS01 node, according to Equation (4-1a), which is simulated below. The corresponding EMTP
datafile 403PQPFC.DAT, which is the same as 401PQPFC.DAT, except with a different user’s
input file 404PQPFC.USR is shown in Code 4-3. In this user’s input file, the series-compensating
voltage magnitude (99e2dqcm) is defined as a multiplier (e2cm1) of the voltage (v1pu) at the Point
of Connection (POC) to the utility.
 4.1 Voltage-Regulating Transformer (VRT) 305

Code 4-3 EMTP datafile for the mathematical model of the ST, operating as a VRT in a Shunt-
Series configuration, integrated in a two-generator/single-line power system network
(403PQPFC.DAT). The series-compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s) is a multiplier of the
sending-end voltage magnitude (Vs).
BEGIN NEW DATA CASE
C File Name: 403PQPFC.DAT
C STUDY THE EFFECT OF A BETTER REPRESENTATIVE OF AN AUTOTRANSFORMER, USING THE
C MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF ST WITH A SHUNT-CONNECTED CURRENT SOURCE (SHUNT UNIT)
C AND A SERIES-CONNECTED VOLTAGE SOURCE (SERIES UNIT), USING AN
C IDEAL SERIES-COUPLING TRANSFORMER WITHOUT ANY LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ----dt<---tmax<---Xopt<---Copt<--Toler< >< >
8.3333-6150.00-3
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C -Iprnt<--Iplot<-Idoubl<-KssOut<-MaxOut< >< ><---Icat<-Nenerg
30 10 1
TACS HYBRID
99CRD = 180 / PI
99CDR = 1 / CRD
99TWOPI = 2.0 * PI
C BASE VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND POWER
99Vbase = 112676.528
99Ibase = 946.662704
99Zbase = Vbase / Ibase
99Pbase = 1.5 * Vbase * Ibase
C INPUTS FROM NODE VOLTAGES AND LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 302MEAS1.SWT
C MEASUREMENT OF CURRENTS FLOWING THROUGH THE SHUNT UNIT
91CNV01A
91CNV01B
91CNV01C
C MEASUREMENT OF CURRENTS FLOWING THROUGH THE SERIES UNIT
91CNV02A
91CNV02B
91CNV02C
C NORMALIZATION OF MEASURED VARIABLES AND COMPUTATION OF PEAK VOLTAGES/CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 303PTCT.SCL
C VECTOR PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
$INCLUDE 310VPLL.PLL
C USER’S INPUT FILE
$INCLUDE 404PQPFC.USR

(Continued )
306 4 Transformer-Based Power Flow Controllers

Code 4-3 (Continued)

C MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF ST
$INCLUDE 314PQPFC.CON
C COMPUTATION OF LINE RESISTANCE
$INCLUDE 305LINER.CMP
C TACS OUTPUT
33v12pu v1pu v2pu Prpu Qrpu
BLANK RECORD ENDING TACS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <---Nodes--><---Nodes--><----R<----L<----C V
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<-Ohms<---mH<---uF V
C REPRESENTATION OF A SHORT BETWEEN NODES VS AND BUS01
VSA BUS01A 0.001
VSB BUS01B 0.001
VSC BUS01C 0.001
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK 2 BRANCHES WITH DAMPING RESISTORS (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 311NTWK2.BRN
C HIGH RESISTANCES TO AVOID FLOATING NODES IN THE CIRCUIT
BUS01ACNV01A 1.00+8
BUS01BCNV01B 1.00+8
BUS01CCNV01C 1.00+8
e2A e22A 1.00+8
e2B e22B 1.00+8
e2C e22C 1.00+8
e22A 1.00+8
e22B 1.00+8
e22C 1.00+8
i1A 1.00+8
i1B 1.00+8
i1C 1.00+8
C CONNECTION OF A 3-PHASE SERIES-COUPLING TRANSFORMER WITH NO LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
$INCLUDE 402IDLT2.TRN
BLANK RECORD ENDING BRANCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<---Tclose<----Topen<-------Ie<----Flash<--Request<-----Target<--O
C SHUNT BREAKER TO CONNECT/DISCONNECT THE SHUNT UNIT TO THE CIRCUIT
13BUS01ACNV01A SHNBRK
13BUS01BCNV01B SHNBRK
13BUS01CCNV01C SHNBRK
C SERIES DISCONNECT SWITCH TO CONNECT/DISCONNECT THE SERIES UNIT TO THE CIRCUIT
13e2A e22A SRSDS
13e2B e22B SRSDS
(Continued )
 4.1 Voltage-Regulating Transformer (VRT) 307

Code 4-3 (Continued)

13e2C e22C SRSDS
C TECHNIQUE TO SHORT THE SERIES-COMPENSATING VOLTAGE TO CALCULATE THE
C INITIAL CONDITIONS CORRECTLY
13e22A CLOSED GNDSW
13e22B CLOSED GNDSW
13e22C CLOSED GNDSW
C MEASUREMENT OF LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 307MEAS2.SWT
C MEASUREMENT OF CURRENTS FLOWING THROUGH THE SHUNT UNIT
CNV01Ai1A MEASURING
CNV01Bi1B MEASURING
CNV01Ci1C MEASURING
C MEASUREMENT OF CURRENTS FLOWING THROUGH THE SERIES UNIT
CNV02Ae22A MEASURING
CNV02Be22B MEASURING
CNV02Ce22C MEASURING
BLANK RECORD ENDING SWITCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C CONNECTION OF SHUNT UNIT CURRENT SOURCES TO THE NETWORK
60i1A -1
60i1B -1
60i1C -1
C CONNECTION OF SERIES UNIT VOLTAGE SOURCES TO THE NETWORK
60e2A
60e2B
60e2C
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK 1 OR 2 SOURCES (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 308NTWK1.SRC
BLANK RECORD ENDING SOURCES
BLANK RECORD ENDING NODE VOLTAGE OUTPUT
BLANK RECORD ENDING PLOT

Note that the sending-end voltage at BUS01 node also varies with the varying line current. The
EMTP datafile 403PQPFC.DAT is rerun with the relative phase angle of the series-compensating
voltage set to β = 0 while its magnitude is varied from −15 to 15% of the sending-end voltage
magnitude (Vs) in the $INCLUDE file 404PQPFC.USR that defines the user’s input as shown in
Code 4-4. It is shown that the series-compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s) is set at 15% of the
sending-end voltage magnitude (Vs).
308 4 Transformer-Based Power Flow Controllers

Code 4-4 EMTP $INCLUDE file for user’s input (404PQPFC.USR).

C File Name: 404PQPFC.USR
C USER’S INPUT FILE FOR PQPFC
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C A SHUNT BREAKER IS CLOSED.
99SHNBRK = TIMEX .GE. 0.01
C SET ST = 1.0 FOR ST OR ST = 0.0 FOR UPFC
99ST = 1.0
C SETTING THE COMPENSATING VOLTAGE
99e2cm1 = 0.15 * (TIMEX .GE. 0.020)
99e2dqcm = e2cm1 * v1pu
C LOW-PASS FILTER INTRODUCES A RAMP-RATE AND REDUCES SYSTEM TRANSIENTS
1e2dqrf +e2dqcm
1.0
1.0 0.0160
99betcm1 = 0 * (TIMEX .GE. 0.020)
99betcmd = betcm1 * CDR
C LOW-PASS FILTER INTRODUCES A RAMP-RATE AND REDUCES SYSTEM TRANSIENTS
1beta +betcmd
1.0
1.0 0.0020

Table 4-3 Effects of the variation of series-compensating voltage (Vs s) on simulated voltage (V21 or Vs s), the
sending-end and the modified sending-end voltages (V1 or Vs and V2 or Vs ), and the power flows (Pr and Qr) at
the receiving end.

Vs s/Vs V21 or Vs s (pu) V1 or Vs (pu) V2 or Vs (pu) Pr (pu) Qr (pu)

−0.150 −0.153 1.023 0.870 1.10 −1.02

−0.100 −0.101 1.012 0.911 1.18 −0.82
−0.050 −0.050 1.000 0.950 1.24 −0.62
0.000 0.000 0.988 0.988 1.31 −0.43
0.050 0.049 0.975 1.024 1.37 −0.25
0.100 0.096 0.962 1.058 1.42 −0.08
0.150 0.142 0.948 1.090 1.47 0.09

Table 4-3 shows the variation of the normalized series-compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s/Vs)
and its effects on simulated voltage (V21 or Vs s), the sending-end voltage magnitude (V1 or Vs), the
modified sending-end voltage magnitude (V2 or Vs ), and the resulting active and reactive power
flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end. The magnitude of the varying compensating voltage (Vs s)
 4.1 Voltage-Regulating Transformer (VRT) 309

at various operating points can either be simulated or calculated from the turns-ratio between the
effective compensating winding and the exciting winding, using the sending-end voltage (Vs),
which varies with load. For example, 0 15 × 0 948 = 0 142 , where 0.15 is the turns-ratio and
0.142 pu is the actual compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s), since the sending-end voltage mag-
nitude (Vs) decreases from its natural value (Vsn) of 0.988 pu to 0.948 pu as shown in the last row of
Table 4-3.
Figure 4-3 shows that the variation of the series-compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s) in the
range of −15 to 15% of the sending-end voltage magnitude (Vs) results in a variation of the

1.10

1.05 Vsʹ
Vs
Voltage (pu)

1.00 Vsn (0.988 pu)

0.95

0.90
Vsʹs (pu)
0.85
− 0.15 − 0.10 − 0.05 0 0.05 0.10 0.15

Pr

1.25 Prn (1.31 pu)

1.00

0.75

0.50
Power (pu)

0.25
Vsʹs (pu)
0
− 0.15 − 0.10 − 0.05 0 0.05 0.10 0.15
–0.25
Qrn (− 0.43 pu)
–0.50

–0.75 Qr

–1.00

Figure 4-3 Ranges of voltage magnitudes (Vs and Vs ) at the sending and the modified sending ends and the
active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end. The VRT in a Shunt-Series configuration is
implemented using the mathematical model of ST through a coupling transformer without any leakage
impedance. The series-compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s) is a multiplier of the sending-end voltage
magnitude (Vs).
310 4 Transformer-Based Power Flow Controllers

(a) BUS01

BUS02
Psʹ , Qsʹ
IA I
V21A

Vs V1 V1A V2A V2 Vsʹ

V21B IB

V1B V2B
V21C IC

V1C V2C

(b)
V21A V2A
V1A
A
Exciter
Unit

B
V2C V1B
C V1C V21B
V21C
V2B
Voltage-
Regulating Unit

Voltage-Regulating Transformer
(Shunt-Series Configuration)

Figure 4-4 (a) Voltage-regulating transformer (shunt-series configuration); (b) phasor diagram.

modified sending-end voltage magnitude (Vs ) in the range of 0.870 to 1.090 pu. In the process, the
sending-end voltage magnitude (Vs) varies in the range of 1.023 to 0.948 pu. The reactive power
flow (Qr) at the receiving end varies from −1.02 to 0.09 pu during the range of compensating volt-
age magnitude (Vs s) from −15 to 15% of the sending-end voltage magnitude (Vs). However, the
active power flow (Pr) at the receiving end varies in the range of 1.10 to 1.47 pu for the same range
of variation in the compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s). Therefore, a range of −15 to 15% in
compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s) varies the reactive power flow (Qr) by 1.11 pu and active
power flow (Pr) by 0.37 pu.
Next, an ideal VRT model in a Shunt-Series configuration is studied, using a TRANSFORMER
model in EMTP. The network model of Figure 3-5 is used with the short between BUS01
and BUS02 nodes, which is replaced with the VRT as shown in Figure 4-4. The corresponding
EMTP datafile 405IDLAT.DAT is shown in Code 4-5. Note that the implementation of a VRT
in a Shunt-Series configuration in Figure 4-4 is different from the autotransformer, which is
shown in Figure 4-1a; however, it is functionally the same and representative of the model
in EMTP.
The VRT as shown in Figure 4-4a consists of an Exciter Unit and a Voltage-Regulating Unit.
The Exciter Unit consists of a three-phase (A, B, and C), Y-connected primary windings and is
connected in shunt with the line. The three-phase primary windings are excited from the
three-phase line voltages (VsA, VsB, and VsC). A three-phase, bipolar compensating voltages
(Vs sA, Vs sB, and Vs sC) that are either in phase or out of phase with the corresponding
 4.1 Voltage-Regulating Transformer (VRT) 311

phase-to-neutral voltage are generated from the induced voltages in the secondary windings. The
Voltage-Regulating Unit consists of a total of six secondary windings (two windings in each
phase). The magnitude of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) is varied with the use of LTCs.
The line is regulated at a voltage (Vs ) from the uncompensated voltage (Vs). The corresponding
phasor diagram is shown in Figure 4-4b.

Code 4-5 EMTP datafile for an ideal VRT (Shunt-Series configuration), integrated in
a two-generator/single-line power system network (405IDLAT.DAT).
BEGIN NEW DATA CASE
C File Name: 405IDLAT.DAT
C IDEAL 3-PHASE VRT (SHUNT-SERIES CONFIGURATION) WITHOUT ANY LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ----dt<---tmax<---Xopt<---Copt<--Toler< >< >
8.3333-6150.00-3
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C -Iprnt<--Iplot<-Idoubl<-KssOut<-MaxOut< >< ><---Icat<-Nenerg
30 10 1
TACS HYBRID
99CRD = 180 / PI
99CDR = 1 / CRD
99TWOPI = 2.0 * PI
C BASE VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND POWER
99Vbase = 112676.528
99Ibase = 946.662704
99Zbase = Vbase / Ibase
99Pbase = 1.5 * Vbase * Ibase
C INPUTS FROM NODE VOLTAGES AND LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 302MEAS1.SWT
C NORMALIZATION OF MEASURED VARIABLES AND COMPUTATION OF PEAK VOLTAGES/CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 303PTCT.SCL
C IDEAL PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
$INCLUDE 304IPLL.PLL
C COMPUTATION OF LINE RESISTANCE
$INCLUDE 305LINER.CMP
C TACS OUTPUT
33v12pu v1pu v2pu Prpu Qrpu
BLANK RECORD ENDING TACS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <---Nodes--><---Nodes--><----R<----L<----C V

(Continued )
312 4 Transformer-Based Power Flow Controllers

Code 4-5 (Continued)

C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<-Ohms<---mH<---uF V
C REPRESENTATION OF A SHORT BETWEEN NODES VS AND BUS01
VSA BUS01A 0.001
VSB BUS01B 0.001
VSC BUS01C 0.001
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK 2 BRANCHES WITH DAMPING RESISTORS (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 311NTWK2.BRN
C CONNECTION OF AN IDEAL (NO LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE) 3-PHASE VRT IN A SHUNT-SERIES
C CONFIGURATION
$INCLUDE 406IDLAT.TRN
BLANK RECORD ENDING BRANCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<---Tclose<----Topen<-------Ie<----Flash<--Request<-----Target<--O
C MEASUREMENT OF LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 307MEAS2.SWT
BLANK RECORD ENDING SWITCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK 1 OR 2 SOURCES (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 308NTWK1.SRC
BLANK RECORD ENDING SOURCES
BLANK RECORD ENDING NODE VOLTAGE OUTPUT
BLANK RECORD ENDING PLOT

The datafile 405IDLAT.DAT includes a datacard, which attaches the $INCLUDE file 406IDLAT.
TRN that connects an ideal VRT (autotransformer without any leakage impedance ) to the trans-
mission line for increasing the modified sending-end voltage magnitude (Vs ) by 15% as shown in
Code 4-6.

Code 4-6 EMTP $INCLUDE file for an ideal three-phase VRT in a Shunt-Series configuration for
increasing 15% line voltage (406IDLAT.TRN).
C File Name: 406IDLAT.TRN
C IDEAL 3-PHASE VRT (SHUNT-SERIES CONFIGURATION) WITHOUT ANY LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
C FOR INCREASING 15% LINE VOLTAGE
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
(Continued )
 4.1 Voltage-Regulating Transformer (VRT) 313

Code 4-6 (Continued)

C ------ SHUNT-SERIES CONFIGURATION FOR PHASE A------
C TRANSFORMER <--Refxxxxxx<--Iss<--Phi<-Name<-Rmag<----------------------------O
TRANSFORMER AUTOTA
C NEXT LINE (9999 IN COLUMNS 13-16) INDICATES A LINEAR TRANSFORMER
9999
C <---Nodes--><----------><---Rk<---Lk<Volt|---------------------------------->O
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<----------><-Ohms<---mH<---kV---------------------------------->O
1BUS01A 0.001 0.001 1.000
2BUS02ABUS01A 0.001 0.001 0.150
C ------ SHUNT-SERIES CONFIGURATION FOR PHASE B------
TRANSFORMER AUTOTB
9999
1BUS01B 0.001 0.001 1.000
2BUS02BBUS01B 0.001 0.001 0.150
C ------ SHUNT-SERIES CONFIGURATION FOR PHASE C------
TRANSFORMER AUTOTC
9999
1BUS01C 0.001 0.001 1.000
2BUS02CBUS01C 0.001 0.001 0.150

Table 4-4 shows the electrical system data for a two-generator/single-line power system network,
compensated by an ideal VRT in a Shunt-Series configuration for increasing line voltage.

Table 4-4 Electrical system data.

Parameters Values

Source voltage (Vsrc) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠0 Vpeak

Source resistance (Rsrc) 1.0053 Ω
Source reactance (Xsrc) 7.43875 Ω (19.73 mH)
Receiving-end voltage (Vr) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠−20 Vpeak
Line resistance (R) 3.0159 Ω
Line reactance (X) 22.31625 Ω (59.19 mH)
Shunt-Series configuration for increasing line voltage 1:(0–0.15)
Primary winding resistance 0.001 Ω
Primary winding leakage inductance 0.001 mH
Secondary winding resistance 0.001 Ω
Secondary winding leakage inductance 0.001 mH
314 4 Transformer-Based Power Flow Controllers

The $INCLUDE file 406IDLAT.TRN is modified for −15% of voltage compensation (for decreas-
ing line voltage) as shown in Code 4-7.

Code 4-7 EMTP $INCLUDE file for an ideal three-phase VRT in a Shunt-Series configuration for
decreasing 15% line voltage (406IDLAT.TRN).
C File Name: 406IDLAT.TRN
C IDEAL 3-PHASE VRT (SHUNT-SERIES CONFIGURATION) WITHOUT ANY LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
C FOR DECREASING 15% LINE VOLTAGE
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ------ SHUNT-SERIES CONFIGURATION FOR PHASE A------
C TRANSFORMER <--Refxxxxxx<--Iss<--Phi<-Name<-Rmag<----------------------------O
TRANSFORMER AUTOTA
C NEXT LINE (9999 IN COLUMNS 13-16) INDICATES A LINEAR TRANSFORMER
9999
C <---Nodes--><----------><---Rk<---Lk<Volt|---------------------------------->O
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<----------><-Ohms<---mH<---kV---------------------------------->O
1BUS01A 0.001 0.001 1.000
2BUS01ABUS02A 0.001 0.001 0.150
C ------ SHUNT-SERIES CONFIGURATION FOR PHASE B------
TRANSFORMER AUTOTB
9999
1BUS01B 0.001 0.001 1.000
2BUS01BBUS02B 0.001 0.001 0.150
C ------ SHUNT-SERIES CONFIGURATION FOR PHASE C------
TRANSFORMER AUTOTC
9999
1BUS01C 0.001 0.001 1.000
2BUS01CBUS02C 0.001 0.001 0.150

Table 4-5 shows the electrical system data for a two-generator/single-line power system network,
compensated by an ideal VRT in a Shunt-Series configuration for decreasing line voltage.
Table 4-6 shows the variation of the normalized series-compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s/Vs)
and its effects on simulated voltage (V21 or Vs s), the sending-end voltage magnitude (V1 or Vs), the
modified sending-end voltage magnitude (V2 or Vs ), and the resulting active and reactive power
flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end.
Figure 4-5 shows the variations of the sending-end voltage magnitude (Vs) and the modified
sending-end voltage magnitude (Vs ) as a function of the simulated voltage (V21 or Vs s) when
the series-compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s) varies in the range of −15 to 15% of the send-
ing-end voltage magnitude (Vs) using a TRANSFORMER model in EMTP to represent a VRT in
 4.1 Voltage-Regulating Transformer (VRT) 315

Table 4-5 Electrical system data.

Parameters Values

Source voltage (Vsrc) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠0 Vpeak

Source resistance (Rsrc) 1.0053 Ω
Source reactance (Xsrc) 7.43875 Ω (19.73 mH)
Receiving-end voltage (Vr) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠−20 Vpeak
Line resistance (R) 3.0159 Ω
Line reactance (X) 22.31625 Ω (59.19 mH)
Shunt-Series configuration for decreasing line voltage 1:(0–0.15)
Primary winding resistance 0.001 Ω
Primary winding leakage inductance 0.001 mH
Secondary winding resistance 0.001 Ω
Secondary winding leakage inductance 0.001 mH

Table 4-6 Effects of the variation of series-compensating voltage (Vs s) on simulated voltage (V21 or Vs s), the
sending-end and the modified sending-end voltages (V1 or Vs and V2 or Vs ), and the power flows (Pr and Qr) at
the receiving end.

Vs s/Vs V21 or Vs s (pu) V1 or Vs (pu) V2 or Vs (pu) Pr (pu) Qr (pu)

−0.150 −0.153 1.023 0.869 1.10 −1.02

−0.100 −0.101 1.012 0.911 1.18 −0.82
−0.050 −0.050 1.000 0.950 1.24 −0.62
0.000 0.000 0.988 0.988 1.31 −0.43
0.050 0.049 0.975 1.024 1.37 −0.25
0.100 0.096 0.962 1.058 1.42 −0.08
0.150 0.142 0.948 1.090 1.47 0.09

a Shunt-Series configuration. The figure also shows the variation of active and reactive power flows
(Pr and Qr) at the receiving end. The results using a TRANSFORMER model in EMTP to represent a
VRT in a Shunt-Series configuration are identical to what were shown in Figure 4-3, using
the mathematical model of the ST, operated as a VRT in a Shunt-Series configuration (see
Figure 3-10a), through a series-coupling transformer without any leakage impedance. The series-
compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s) is a multiplier of the sending-end voltage magnitude (Vs).

4.1.2 Two-Winding Transformer

An ideal VRT model in EMTP in a Shunt-Shunt configuration is studied. The network model of
Figure 3-5 is used with the short between BUS01 and BUS02 nodes, which is replaced with a
316 4 Transformer-Based Power Flow Controllers

1.10

1.05 Vsʹ
Vs
Voltage (pu)

1.00 Vsn (0.988 pu)

0.95

0.90
Vsʹs (pu)
0.85
− 0.15 − 0.10 − 0.05 0 0.05 0.10 0.15

Pr

1.25 Prn (1.31 pu)

1.00

0.75

0.50
Power (pu)

0.25
Vsʹs (pu)
0
− 0.15 − 0.10 − 0.05 0 0.05 0.10 0.15
–0.25
Qrn (− 0.43 pu)
–0.50

–0.75 Qr

–1.00

Figure 4-5 Ranges of voltage magnitudes (Vs and Vs ) at the sending and the modified sending ends and the
active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end with a TRANSFORMER model in EMTP to
represent a VRT in a Shunt-Series configuration without any leakage impedance.

two-winding transformer as shown in Figure 4-6. The corresponding EMTP datafile 407IDLTT.
DAT is shown in Code 4-8. The datafile 407IDLTT.DAT is the same as 405IDLAT.DAT, except
the VRT in a Shunt-Series configuration is replaced with a VRT in a Shunt-Shunt configuration.
The VRT consists of two parts: Exciter Unit and Voltage-Regulating Unit as shown in Figure 4-6a.
The Exciter Unit consists of a three-phase (A, B, and C), Y-connected primary windings that are
connected in shunt with the line. The three-phase primary windings are excited from the three-
phase line voltages (VsA, VsB, and VsC). Three-phase compensating voltages (Vs A, Vs B, and Vs C)
that are in phase with the corresponding phase-to-neutral primary voltages are generated from the
induced voltages in the secondary windings. The Voltage-Regulating Unit consists of a total of three
secondary windings (one winding in each phase). With the use of LTCs, the magnitude of the com-
pensating voltage (Vs ) is varied. The compensating voltage is connected in shunt with the line to
increase or decrease the line voltage from an uncompensated voltage (Vs) to a compensated voltage
(Vs ). Figure 4-6b shows the related phasor diagram.
 4.1 Voltage-Regulating Transformer (VRT) 317

(a)
BUS01

BUS02
Psʹ , Qsʹ
IA I

Vs V1 VsA V2A V2 Vsʹ

IB

VsB V2B
IC

VsC V2C

(b)
V2A
V1A
A A

B C
V2C V1B
C B V1C
V2B
Exciter Unit Voltage-
Regulating Unit

Voltage-Regulating Transformer
(Shunt-Shunt Configuration)

Figure 4-6 (a) Voltage-regulating transformer (two-winding transformer); (b) phasor diagram.

Code 4-8 EMTP datafile for an ideal VRT (Shunt-Shunt configuration), integrated in a
two-generator/single-line power system network (407IDLTT.DAT).
BEGIN NEW DATA CASE
C File Name: 407IDLTT.DAT
C IDEAL 3-PHASE VRT (SHUNT-SHUNT CONFIGURATION) WITHOUT ANY LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ----dt<---tmax<---Xopt<---Copt<--Toler< >< >
8.3333-6150.00-3
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C -Iprnt<--Iplot<-Idoubl<-KssOut<-MaxOut< >< ><---Icat<-Nenerg
30 10 1
TACS HYBRID
99CRD = 180 / PI
99CDR = 1 / CRD
99TWOPI = 2.0 * PI

(Continued )
318 4 Transformer-Based Power Flow Controllers

Code 4-8 (Continued)

C BASE VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND POWER
99Vbase = 112676.528
99Ibase = 946.662704
99Zbase = Vbase / Ibase
99Pbase = 1.5 * Vbase * Ibase
C INPUTS FROM NODE VOLTAGES AND LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 302MEAS1.SWT
C NORMALIZATION OF MEASURED VARIABLES AND COMPUTATION OF PEAK VOLTAGES/CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 303PTCT.SCL
C IDEAL PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
$INCLUDE 304IPLL.PLL
C COMPUTATION OF LINE RESISTANCE
$INCLUDE 305LINER.CMP
C TACS OUTPUT
33v12pu v1pu v2pu Prpu Qrpu
BLANK RECORD ENDING TACS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <---Nodes--><---Nodes--><----R<----L<----C V
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<-Ohms<---mH<---uF V
C REPRESENTATION OF A SHORT BETWEEN NODES VS AND BUS01 NODES
VSA BUS01A 0.001
VSB BUS01B 0.001
VSC BUS01C 0.001
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK 2 BRANCHES WITH DAMPING RESISTORS (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 311NTWK2.BRN
C CONNECTION OF IDEAL 3-PHASE 2-WINDING TRANSFORMER (WITH NO LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE)
$INCLUDE 408IDLTT.TRN
BLANK RECORD ENDING BRANCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<---Tclose<----Topen<-------Ie<----Flash<--Request<-----Target<--O
C MEASUREMENT OF LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 307MEAS2.SWT
BLANK RECORD ENDING SWITCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK 1 OR 2 SOURCES (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 308NTWK1.SRC
BLANK RECORD ENDING SOURCES
BLANK RECORD ENDING NODE VOLTAGE OUTPUT
BLANK RECORD ENDING PLOT
 4.1 Voltage-Regulating Transformer (VRT) 319

The datafile 407IDLTT.DAT includes a datacard, which attaches the $INCLUDE file 408IDLTT.
TRN that connects an ideal VRT (two-winding transformer without any leakage impedance) to the
transmission line as shown in Code 4-9. For a 15% of voltage compensation, the turns-ratio of the
secondary windings is set at 1.150. For a −15% of voltage compensation, the turns-ratio of the sec-
ondary windings is set at 0.850 as shown in Code 4-10.

Code 4-9 EMTP $INCLUDE file for an ideal three-phase VRT in a Shunt-Shunt configuration for
increasing 15% line voltage (408IDLTT.TRN).
C File Name: 408IDLTT.TRN
C IDEAL 3-PHASE VRT IN A SHUNT-SHUNT CONFIGURATION WITHOUT ANY LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
C FOR INCREASING 15% LINE VOLTAGE
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ------TWO-WINDING TRANSFORMER FOR PHASE A------
C TRANSFORMER <--Refxxxxxx<--Iss<--Phi<-Name<-Rmag<----------------------------O
TRANSFORMER TWDGTA
C NEXT LINE (9999 IN COLUMNS 13-16) INDICATES A LINEAR TRANSFORMER
9999
C <---Nodes--><----------><---Rk<---Lk<Volt|---------------------------------->O
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<----------><-Ohms<---mH<---kV---------------------------------->O
1BUS01A 0.001 0.001 1.000
2BUS02A 0.001 0.001 1.150
C ------TWO-WINDING TRANSFORMER FOR PHASE B------
TRANSFORMER TWDGTB
9999
1BUS01B 0.001 0.001 1.000
2BUS02B 0.001 0.001 1.150
C ------TWO-WINDING TRANSFORMER FOR PHASE C------
TRANSFORMER TWDGTC
9999
1BUS01C 0.001 0.001 1.000
2BUS02C 0.001 0.001 1.150

Code 4-10 EMTP $INCLUDE file for an ideal three-phase VRT in a Shunt-Shunt configuration
for decreasing 15% line voltage (408IDLTT.TRN).
C File Name: 408IDLTT.TRN
C IDEAL 3-PHASE VRT IN A SHUNT-SHUNT CONFIGURATION WITHOUT ANY LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
C FOR DECREASING 15% LINE VOLTAGE
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890

(Continued )
320 4 Transformer-Based Power Flow Controllers

Code 4-10 (Continued)

C ------TWO-WINDING TRANSFORMER FOR PHASE A------
C TRANSFORMER <--Refxxxxxx<--Iss<--Phi<-Name<-Rmag<----------------------------O
TRANSFORMER TWDGTA
C NEXT LINE (9999 IN COLUMNS 13-16) INDICATES A LINEAR TRANSFORMER
9999
C <---Nodes--><----------><---Rk<---Lk<Volt|---------------------------------->O
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<----------><-Ohms<---mH<---kV---------------------------------->O
1BUS01A 0.001 0.001 1.000
2BUS02A 0.001 0.001 0.850
C ------TWO-WINDING TRANSFORMER FOR PHASE B------
TRANSFORMER TWDGTB
9999
1BUS01B 0.001 0.001 1.000
2BUS02B 0.001 0.001 0.850
C ------TWO-WINDING TRANSFORMER FOR PHASE C------
TRANSFORMER TWDGTC
9999
1BUS01C 0.001 0.001 1.000
2BUS02C 0.001 0.001 0.850

Table 4-7 Electrical system data.

Parameters Values

Source voltage (Vsrc) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠0 Vpeak

Source resistance (Rsrc) 1.0053 Ω
Source reactance (Xsrc) 7.43875 Ω (19.73 mH)
Receiving-end voltage (Vr) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠−20 Vpeak
Line resistance (R) 3.0159 Ω
Line reactance (X) 22.31625 Ω (59.19 mH)
Two-winding transformer (TWDGT) configuration 1:(0.85–1.15)
Primary winding resistance 0.001 Ω
Primary winding leakage inductance 0.001 mH
Secondary winding resistance 0.001 Ω
Secondary winding leakage inductance 0.001 mH

Table 4-7 shows the electrical system data for a two-generator/single-line power system network,
compensated by an ideal VRT in a Shunt-Shunt configuration.
Table 4-8 shows the variation of the shunt-compensating voltage magnitude (Vs ) and its effects
on the sending-end voltage magnitude (Vs) and the resulting active and reactive power flows (Pr and
Qr) at the receiving end.
 4.1 Voltage-Regulating Transformer (VRT) 321

Table 4-8 Effects of the variation of shunt-compensating voltage (Vs ) on simulated voltage (V21 or Vs s), the
sending-end and the modified sending-end voltages (V1 or Vs and V2 or Vs ), and the power flows (Pr and Qr) at
the receiving end.

Vs /Vs V21 or Vs s (pu) V1 or Vs (pu) V2 or Vs (pu) Pr (pu) Qr (pu)

0.850 −0.153 1.023 0.869 1.10 −1.02

0.900 −0.101 1.012 0.911 1.18 −0.82
0.950 −0.050 1.000 0.950 1.24 −0.62
1.000 0.000 0.988 0.988 1.31 −0.43
1.050 0.049 0.975 1.024 1.37 −0.25
1.100 0.096 0.962 1.058 1.42 −0.08
1.150 0.142 0.948 1.090 1.47 0.09

Figure 4-7 shows the variations of the sending-end voltage magnitude (Vs) and the modified
sending-end voltage magnitude (Vs ) as a function of the simulated voltage (V21 or Vs s) when
the shunt-compensating voltage magnitude (Vs ) varies in the range of 85 to 115% of the

1.10

1.05 Vsʹ
Vs
Voltage (pu)

1.00 Vsn (0.988 pu)

0.95

0.90
Vsʹs (pu)
0.85
− 0.15 − 0.10 − 0.05 0 0.05 0.10 0.15

Pr

1.25 Prn (1.31 pu)

1.00

0.75

0.50
Power (pu)

0.25
Vsʹs (pu)
0
− 0.15 − 0.10 − 0.05 0 0.05 0.10 0.15
–0.25
Qrn (− 0.43 pu)
–0.50

–0.75 Qr

–1.00

Figure 4-7 Ranges of voltage magnitudes (Vs and Vs ) at the sending and the modified sending ends and the
active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end with a TRANSFORMER model in EMTP to
represent a VRT in a Shunt-Shunt configuration without any leakage impedance.
322 4 Transformer-Based Power Flow Controllers

sending-end voltage magnitude (Vs) using a TRANSFORMER model in EMTP to represent a VRT
in a Shunt-Shunt configuration. This is implemented by varying the turns-ratio (n2/n1) from 0.85 to
1.15 while keeping n1 constant at 1.00. The figure also shows the variation of active and reactive
power flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end. The results are identical to what were shown using
a VRT in Shunt-Series configurations [both series-compensating voltage, generated by the mathe-
matical model of the ST (Figure 4-3) and TRANSFORMER (Figure 4-5) model in EMTP]. The
results show that the VRT changes the reactive power flow at the receiving end of the line much
more than it changes the active power flow, which is consistent with the Equations (2-140a) and (2-
140c), developed in Chapter 2.

4.2 Phase Angle Regulator (PAR)

A PAR connects a compensating voltage in series with the transmission line. The series-
compensating voltage is in quadrature with the phase-to-neutral voltage of the line. There are
two types of PARs: (1) asymmetric and (2) symmetric. Both types are in a Shunt-Series configura-
tion. While the shunt-exciting windings are connected to the line voltage in an asymmetric type as
shown in Figure 2-56, the shunt-exciting windings are connected at the midpoints of the series-
compensating windings in a symmetric type as shown in Figure 2-57.

4.2.1 PAR (Asymmetric)

The PAR (asym) can be studied with the use of the mathematical model of the ST as shown in
Figure 3-10a. The network model of Figure 3-5 is used with the short between BUS01 and
BUS02 nodes, which is replaced with the mathematical model of the ST. For a PAR (asym) with
a given turns-ratio, the series-compensating voltage is a multiplier of the sending-end voltage at
BUS01 node, because the sending-end voltage at BUS01 node varies with the varying line current.
The corresponding EMTP datafile 403PQPFC.DAT, shown in Code 4-3, is rerun with the relative
phase angle of the series-compensating voltage set to β = 90 while its magnitude (Vs s) is varied
from −15 to 15% of the sending-end voltage magnitude (Vs). The datafile 403PQPFC.DAT includes
a datacard, which attaches the $INCLUDE file 404PQPFC.USR that defines the user’s input as
shown in Code 4-11. It is shown that the series-compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s) is set at
15% of the sending-end voltage magnitude (Vs).

Code 4-11 EMTP $INCLUDE file for user’s input (404PQPFC.USR).

C File Name: 404PQPFC.USR
C USER’S INPUT FILE FOR PQPFC
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C A SHUNT BREAKER IS CLOSED.
99SHNBRK = TIMEX .GE. 0.01
C SET ST = 1.0 FOR ST OR ST = 0.0 FOR UPFC
(Continued )
 4.2 Phase Angle Regulator (PAR) 323

Code 4-11 (Continued)

99ST = 1.0
C SETTING THE COMPENSATING VOLTAGE
99e2cm1 = 0.15 * (TIMEX .GE. 0.020)
99e2dqcm = e2cm1 * v1pu
C LOW-PASS FILTER INTRODUCES A RAMP-RATE AND REDUCES SYSTEM TRANSIENTS
1e2dqrf +e2dqcm
1.0
1.0 0.0160
99betcm1 = 90 * (TIMEX .GE. 0.020)
99betcmd = betcm1 * CDR
C LOW-PASS FILTER INTRODUCES A RAMP-RATE AND REDUCES SYSTEM TRANSIENTS
1beta +betcmd
1.0
1.0 0.0020

Table 4-9 Electrical system data.

Parameters Values

Source voltage (Vsrc) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠0 Vpeak

Source resistance (Rsrc) 1.0053 Ω
Source reactance (Xsrc) 7.43875 Ω (19.73 mH)
Receiving-end voltage (Vr) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠−20 Vpeak
Line resistance (R) 3.0159 Ω
Line reactance (X) 22.31625 Ω (59.19 mH)
Series-coupling transformer (SRSTR) turns-ratio 1:1
Primary winding resistance 0.001 Ω
Primary winding leakage inductance 0.001 mH
Secondary winding resistance 0.001 Ω
Secondary winding leakage inductance 0.001 mH

Table 4-9 shows the electrical system data for a two-generator/single-line power system network,
compensated by the mathematical model of the ST, operating as an ideal PAR (asym).
Table 4-10 shows the variation of the normalized series-compensating voltage magnitude
(Vs s/Vs) and its effects on simulated voltage (V21 or Vs s), the sending-end voltage magnitude
(V1 or Vs), the modified sending-end voltage magnitude (V2 or Vs ), and the resulting active
and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end.
Note the high resistances across the current sources need to be set at some lower value (for exam-
ple, 3.4 kΩ) to avoid numerical oscillation while simulating the operating point of series-
compensating voltage of 15% of the sending-end voltage magnitude (Vs).
324 4 Transformer-Based Power Flow Controllers

Table 4-10 Effects of the variation of series-compensating voltage (Vs s) on simulated voltage (V21 or Vs s), the
sending-end and the modified sending-end voltages (V1 or Vs and V2 or Vs ), and the power flows (Pr and Qr) at
the receiving end.

Vs s/Vs V21 or Vs s (pu) V1 or Vs (pu) V2 or Vs (pu) Pr (pu) Qr (pu)

−0.150 −0.149 0.993 1.004 0.78 −0.15

−0.100 −0.099 0.993 0.997 0.96 −0.24
−0.050 −0.050 0.991 0.992 1.13 −0.33
0.000 0.000 0.988 0.988 1.31 −0.43
0.050 0.049 0.984 0.985 1.48 −0.52
0.100 0.098 0.979 0.984 1.65 −0.61
0.150 0.146 0.972 0.983 1.81 −0.70

Figure 4-8 shows that the variation of the series-compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s) in the
range of −15 to 15% of the sending-end voltage magnitude (Vs) results in a variation of the modified
sending-end voltage magnitude (Vs ) in the range of 1.004 to 0.983 pu. In the process, the sending-
end voltage magnitude (Vs) varies in the range of 0.993 to 0.972 pu. The reactive power flow (Qr) at

1.01
Vsʹ
1.00
Voltage (pu)

0.99 Vsn (0.988 pu)

0.98 Vs
Vsʹs (pu)
0.97
− 0.15 − 0.10 − 0.05 0 0.05 0.10 0.15

Pr

1.25 Prn (1.31 pu)

1.00

0.75

0.50
Power (pu)

0.25
Vsʹs (pu)
0
− 0.15 − 0.10 − 0.05 0 0.05 0.10 0.15
− 0.25 Qr Qrn (− 0.43 pu)
− 0.50

− 0.75

Figure 4-8 Ranges of voltage magnitudes (Vs and Vs ) at the sending and the modified sending ends and the
active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end with the mathematical model of the ST,
operating as a PAR (asym) without any leakage impedance. The series-compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s) is
a multiplier of the sending-end voltage magnitude (Vs).
 4.2 Phase Angle Regulator (PAR) 325

the receiving end varies from −0.15 to −0.7 pu during the range of compensating voltage magnitude
(Vs s) from −15 to 15% of the sending-end voltage magnitude (Vs). However, the active power flow
(Pr) at the receiving end varies in the range of 0.78 to 1.81 pu for the same range of variation in the
compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s). Therefore, a range of −15 to 15% in compensating voltage
magnitude (Vs s), in quadrature with phase-to-neutral voltage, varies the reactive power flow (Qr) by
−0.55 pu and the active power flow (Pr) by 1.03 pu.
Figure 4-9 shows the PAR (asym) configuration that is bypassed and connected to the network
model of Figure 3-5 with the short between BUS01 and BUS02 nodes, which is replaced with a
TRANSFORMER model in EMTP to represent a PAR (asym). The three-phase voltages (V1A,
V1B, and V1C) at BUS01 node are applied to Δ-connected primary windings with double-pole,
double-through breakers that can be used to reverse the applied polarity. As shown in
Figure 4-9a, the LTCs are connected to the left end of the secondary windings; therefore, at this
neutral tap position, no compensating voltage is applied. The sending-end voltage (Vs or V1) is
the same as the modified sending-end voltage (Vs or V2) as shown in the phasor diagram
(Figure 4-9b).

(a)

V1C V1B
BUS01

BUS02

Psʹ , Qsʹ
IA In
Vs V1 V1A
V21A V2A V2 Vsʹ
V1A V1C

(b)
IB
V1B V1A V2A
V21B V2B
V1B V1A

V2C V1B
V1C
IC V2B
V1C
V21C V2C

Phase Angle Regulator (asymmetric)

Figure 4-9 (a) PAR (asym) configuration in a bypass-mode of operation; (b) phasor diagram.
326 4 Transformer-Based Power Flow Controllers

(a)

V1C V1B
BUS01

BUS02
Psʹ , Qsʹ
IA I
Vs V1 V1A
V21A
V2A V2 Vsʹ
V1A V1C

(b)
IB V21A
V1B
V21B
V2B V1A V2A
V1B V1A ψ
V2C
ψ
V21C ψ V1B
V1C
IC V2B V21B
V1C
V21C
V2C

Phase Angle Regulator (asymmetric)

Figure 4-10 (a) PAR (asym) configuration for decreasing power flow; (b) phasor diagram.

Figure 4-10a shows the PAR (asym) configuration for decreasing power flow. The secondary volt-
age (V21) that is in phase with the primary phase-to-phase voltage, but in quadrature with the pri-
mary phase-to-neutral voltage, is connected in series with the transmission line. The polarity of the
series-connected windings is set such that the compensating secondary voltage is connected in
series with the transmission line at −90 to the primary phase-to-neutral voltage. The resulting
effect is that the phase angle of the line voltage between BUS01 and BUS02 nodes is decreased
as shown in the phasor diagram Figure 4-10b. A decrease in phase angle of the line voltage results
in a decrease in power flow in the line.
An ideal PAR (asym) is implemented in the datafile 409PAR1.DAT, using a TRANSFORMER
model in EMTP as shown in Code 4-12, which is the same as 405IDLAT.DAT, except the VRT
in a Shunt-Series configuration model is replaced with a PAR (asym) model. The datafile
409PAR1.DAT includes a datacard, which attaches the $INCLUDE file 410PAR1D.TRN that con-
nects an ideal PAR (asym) without any leakage impedance to the transmission line as shown in
Code 4-13. Note that in order to keep the same volts per turn in both Y and Δ windings, the
Δ-connected primary windings have √3 times the turns of the Y-connected primary windings.
 4.2 Phase Angle Regulator (PAR) 327

Code 4-12 EMTP datafile for a PAR (asym), integrated in a two-generator/single-line power
system network (409PAR1.DAT).
BEGIN NEW DATA CASE
C File Name: 409PAR1.DAT
C IDEAL PHASE ANGLE REGULATOR (ASYM) WITHOUT ANY LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ----dt<---tmax<---Xopt<---Copt<--Toler< >< >
8.3333-6150.00-3
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C -Iprnt<--Iplot<-Idoubl<-KssOut<-MaxOut< >< ><---Icat<-Nenerg
30 10 1
TACS HYBRID
99CRD = 180 / PI
99CDR = 1 / CRD
99TWOPI = 2.0 * PI
C BASE VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND POWER
99Vbase = 112676.528
99Ibase = 946.662704
99Zbase = Vbase / Ibase
99Pbase = 1.5 * Vbase * Ibase
C INPUTS FROM NODE VOLTAGES AND LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 302MEAS1.SWT
C NORMALIZATION OF MEASURED VARIABLES AND COMPUTATION OF PEAK VOLTAGES/CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 303PTCT.SCL
C IDEAL PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
$INCLUDE 304IPLL.PLL
C TACS OUTPUT
33v12pu v1pu v2pu Prpu Qrpu
C COMPUTATION OF LINE RESISTANCE
$INCLUDE 305LINER.CMP
BLANK RECORD ENDING TACS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <---Nodes--><---Nodes--><----R<----L<----C V
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<-Ohms<---mH<---uF V
C REPRESENTATION OF A SHORT BETWEEN NODES VS AND BUS01
VSA BUS01A 0.001
VSB BUS01B 0.001
VSC BUS01C 0.001
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK 2 BRANCHES WITH DAMPING RESISTORS (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 311NTWK2.BRN

(Continued )
328 4 Transformer-Based Power Flow Controllers

Code 4-12 (Continued)

C CONNECTION OF AN IDEAL (NO LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE) SINGLE-CORE PAR (ASYM)
$INCLUDE 410PAR1D.TRN
BLANK RECORD ENDING BRANCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<---Tclose<----Topen<-------Ie<----Flash<--Request<-----Target<--O
C MEASUREMENT OF LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 307MEAS2.SWT
BLANK RECORD ENDING SWITCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK 1 OR 2 SOURCES (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 308NTWK1.SRC
BLANK RECORD ENDING SOURCES
BLANK RECORD ENDING NODE VOLTAGE OUTPUT
BLANK RECORD ENDING PLOT

Code 4-13 EMTP $INCLUDE file for an ideal single-core PAR (asym) for decreasing power flow
(410PAR1D.TRN).
C File Name: 410PAR1D.TRN
C IDEAL SINGLE-CORE PHASE ANGLE REGULATOR (ASYM) WITHOUT ANY LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
C FOR DECREASING PHASE-SHIFT ANGLE
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ------PHASE ANGLE REGULATOR (ASYM) FOR PHASE A------
C TRANSFORMER <--Refxxxxxx<--Iss<--Phi<-Name<-Rmag<----------------------------O
TRANSFORMER PARA
C NEXT LINE (9999 IN COLUMNS 13-16) INDICATES A LINEAR TRANSFORMER
9999
C <---Nodes--><----------><---Rk<---Lk<Volt|---------------------------------->O
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<----------><-Ohms<---mH<---kV---------------------------------->O
1BUS01BBUS01C 0.001 0.001 1.732
2BUS02ABUS01A 0.001 0.001 0.150
C ------PHASE ANGLE REGULATOR (ASYM) FOR PHASE B------
TRANSFORMER PARB
9999
1BUS01CBUS01A 0.001 0.001 1.732
2BUS02BBUS01B 0.001 0.001 0.150
(Continued )
 4.2 Phase Angle Regulator (PAR) 329

Code 4-13 (Continued)

C ------PHASE ANGLE REGULATOR (ASYM) FOR PHASE C------
TRANSFORMER PARC
9999
1BUS01ABUS01B 0.001 0.001 1.732
2BUS02CBUS01C 0.001 0.001 0.150

(a)

V1C V1B
BUS01

BUS02

Psʹ , Qsʹ
IA I
Vs V1 V1A
V21A
V2A V2 Vsʹ
V1A V1C

(b)
IB V21A
V1B
V21B
V2B V2A V1A
V1B V1A ψ
V2B
ψ
V1C ψ V21B
V1B
IC V21C
V1C V2C
V21C
V2C

Phase Angle Regulator (asymmetric)

Figure 4-11 (a) PAR (asym) configuration for increasing power flow; (b) phasor diagram.

Figure 4-11a shows the PAR (asym) configuration for increasing power flow. The corresponding
$INCLUDE file 410PAR1I.TRN is shown in Code 4-14. The polarity of the series-connected wind-
ings is set such that the compensating secondary voltage is connected in series with the transmis-
sion line at 90 to the primary phase-to-neutral voltage. The resulting effect is that only the phase
angle of the line voltage between BUS01 and BUS02 nodes is increased as shown in the phasor
330 4 Transformer-Based Power Flow Controllers

diagram Figure 4-11b. An increase in phase angle of the line voltage results in an increase in power
flow in the line. Note that the modified sending-end voltage (V2) is always greater than the sending-
end voltage (V1), regardless of whether the phase-shift angle (ψ) is positive or negative, due to the
quadrature addition of the compensating voltage (V21) and the sending-end voltage (V1).

Code 4-14 EMTP $INCLUDE file for an ideal single-core PAR (asym) for increasing power flow
(410PAR1I.TRN).
C File Name: 410PAR1I.TRN
C IDEAL SINGLE-CORE PHASE ANGLE REGULATOR (ASYM) WITHOUT ANY LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
C FOR INCREASING PHASE-SHIFT ANGLE
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ------PHASE ANGLE REGULATOR (ASYM) FOR PHASE A------
C TRANSFORMER <--Refxxxxxx<--Iss<--Phi<-Name<-Rmag<----------------------------O
TRANSFORMER PARA
C NEXT LINE (9999 IN COLUMNS 13-16) INDICATES A LINEAR TRANSFORMER
9999
C <---Nodes--><----------><---Rk<---Lk<Volt|---------------------------------->O
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<----------><-Ohms<---mH<---kV---------------------------------->O
1BUS01CBUS01B 0.001 0.001 1.732
2BUS02ABUS01A 0.001 0.001 0.150
C ------PHASE ANGLE REGULATOR (ASYM) FOR PHASE B------
TRANSFORMER PARB
9999
1BUS01ABUS01C 0.001 0.001 1.732
2BUS02BBUS01B 0.001 0.001 0.150
C ------PHASE ANGLE REGULATOR (ASYM) FOR PHASE C------
TRANSFORMER PARC
9999
1BUS01BBUS01A 0.001 0.001 1.732
2BUS02CBUS01C 0.001 0.001 0.150

Table 4-11 shows the electrical system data for a two-generator/single-line power system net-
work, compensated by an ideal PAR (asym).
Table 4-12 shows the variation of the normalized series-compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s/
Vs) and its effects on simulated voltage (V21 or Vs s), the sending-end voltage magnitude (V1 or Vs),
the modified sending-end voltage magnitude (V2 or Vs ), and the resulting active and reactive power
flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end.
The results using a TRANSFORMER model in EMTP to represent a PAR (asym) are shown in
Figure 4-12. The results are identical to what were shown in Figure 4-8 where the mathematical
model of the ST (see Figure 3-10a) generated a series-compensating voltage through a
 4.2 Phase Angle Regulator (PAR) 331

Table 4-11 Electrical system data.

Parameters Values

Source voltage (Vsrc) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠0 Vpeak

Source resistance (Rsrc) 1.0053 Ω
Source reactance (Xsrc) 7.43875 Ω (19.73 mH)
Receiving-end voltage (Vr) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠−20 Vpeak
Line resistance (R) 3.0159 Ω
Line reactance (X) 22.31625 Ω (59.19 mH)
Phase Angle Regulator, PAR (asym) turns-ratio 1.732:(−0.15 to 0.15)
Primary winding resistance 0.001 Ω
Primary winding leakage inductance 0.001 mH
Secondary winding resistance 0.001 Ω
Secondary winding leakage inductance 0.001 mH

Table 4-12 Effects of the variation of series-compensating voltage (Vs s) on simulated voltage (V21 or Vs s), the
sending-end and the modified sending-end voltages (V1 or Vs and V2 or Vs ), and the power flows (Pr and Qr) at
the receiving end.

Vs s / Vs V21 or Vs s (pu) V1 or Vs (pu) V2 or Vs (pu) Pr (pu) Qr (pu)

−0.150 −0.149 0.993 1.004 0.78 −0.15

−0.100 −0.099 0.992 0.997 0.96 −0.24
−0.050 −0.050 0.991 0.992 1.13 −0.33
0.000 0.000 0.988 0.988 1.31 −0.43
0.050 0.049 0.984 0.985 1.48 −0.52
0.100 0.098 0.979 0.984 1.65 −0.61
0.150 0.146 0.973 0.984 1.82 −0.70

series-coupling transformer without any leakage impedance to simulate a PAR (asym). The results
show that the PAR (asym) changes the active power flow at the receiving end of the line much more
than it changes the reactive power flow, which is consistent with the Equations (2-142a) and (2-
142c), developed in Chapter 2.
Note that in addition to changing the phase angle of the line voltage, the PAR (asym) also
increases the magnitude of the line voltage. There are two contributing factors to this effect. First,
the operation of the PAR (sym) or PAR (asym) changes the power flow of the line. This loading
effect coupled with the Thèvenin impedance of the network changes the voltage at the POC. Sec-
ond, when the compensating voltage is added or subtracted in quadrature with the phase-to-neutral
voltage, the resultant voltage is always larger than the original voltage. In order to obtain the same
voltage magnitude at the sending and the modified sending ends, the PAR (sym) may be implemen-
ted with the following configuration.
332 4 Transformer-Based Power Flow Controllers

1.01
Vsʹ
1.00
Voltage (pu)

0.99 Vsn (0.988 pu)

0.98 Vs
Vsʹs (pu)
0.97
− 0.15 − 0.10 − 0.05 0 0.05 0.10 0.15

Pr

1.25 Prn (1.31 pu)

1.00

0.75

0.50
Power (pu)

0.25
Vsʹs (pu)
0
− 0.15 − 0.10 − 0.05 0 0.05 0.10 0.15
− 0.25 Qr
Qrn (− 0.43 pu)
− 0.50

− 0.75

Figure 4-12 Ranges of voltage magnitudes (Vs and Vs ) at the sending and the modified sending ends and the
active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end with a TRANSFORMER model in EMTP to
represent a PAR (asym) without any leakage impedance.

4.2.2 PAR (Symmetric)

Figure 4-13 shows the PAR (sym) configuration that is bypassed and connected to the network
model of Figure 3-5 with a short between BUS01 and BUS02 nodes, which is replaced with a
TRANSFORMER model in EMTP to represent a PAR (sym). The three-phase compensating sec-
ondary windings are center-tapped at A, B, and C, respectively. The three-phase voltages (VA,
VB, and VC) are applied to Δ-connected primary windings with double-pole, double-throw breakers
that can be used to reverse the applied polarity. The secondary voltage (V21) that is in phase with the
primary phase-to-phase voltage, but in quadrature with the primary phase-to-neutral voltage, is
connected in series with the transmission line. With proper polarities of the series-connected wind-
ings, the compensating secondary voltage is connected in series with the transmission line at 90 or
−90 to the primary phase-to-neutral voltage at the midpoints of the secondary windings. As shown
in Figure 4-13a, the LTCs are connected to the center taps; therefore, no compensating voltage is
applied. The sending-end voltage (Vs or V1) is the same as the modified sending-end voltage (Vs or
V2) as shown in the phasor diagram Figure 4-13b.
 4.2 Phase Angle Regulator (PAR) 333

(a)

VC VB
BUS01

BUS02
Psʹ , Qsʹ
A
IA In

V21A
Vs V1 V1A V2A V2 Vsʹ

VA VC

B (b)
IB
V1A V2A
V21B
V1B V2B

VB VA

V2C V1B
V1C
C V2B
IC

V21C
V1C V2C

Phase Angle Regulator (symmetric)

Figure 4-13 (a) PAR (sym) configuration in a bypass-mode of operation; (b) phasor diagram.

Figure 4-14a shows the PAR (sym) configuration for decreasing power flow. The secondary volt-
age (V21) that is in phase with the primary phase-to-phase voltage, but in quadrature with the pri-
mary phase-to-neutral voltage at the midpoints of the winding, is connected in series with the
transmission line. The polarity of the series-connected windings is set such that the compensating
secondary voltage is connected in series with the transmission line at −90 to the primary phase-to-
neutral voltage at the midpoints of the secondary windings. The resulting effect is that only the
phase angle of the line voltage between BUS01 and BUS02 nodes is decreased as shown in the pha-
sor diagram Figure 4-14b. A decrease in phase angle of the line voltage results in a decrease in
power flow in the line. Note that the magnitude of the voltage stays unchanged as shown in the
phasor diagram Figure 4-14b.
An ideal PAR (sym) is implemented in the datafile 411PAR2.DAT, using a TRANSFORMER
model in EMTP as shown in Code 4-15, which is the same as 404IDLAT.DAT, except the VRT
in a Shunt-Series configuration is replaced with a PAR (sym) model. The datafile 411PAR2.
DAT includes a datacard, which attaches the $INCLUDE file 412PAR2D.TRN that connects an
ideal PAR (sym) without any leakage impedance to the transmission line as shown in Code 4-16.
334 4 Transformer-Based Power Flow Controllers

(a)

VC VB

BUS02
BUS01

Psʹ , Qsʹ
A
IA I
V21A
Vs V1 V1A V2A V2 Vsʹ

VA VC

(b)
B
IB V21A

V1A V
V21B A V2A
V1B V2B
ψ
VB VA ψ
V2C V1B
VC ψ VB
V21C
V2B V21B
C V1C
IC

V21C
V1C V2C

Phase Angle Regulator (symmetric)

Figure 4-14 (a) PAR (sym) configuration for decreasing power flow; (b) phasor diagram.

Code 4-15 EMTP datafile for a PAR (sym), integrated in a two-generator/single-line power
system network (411PAR2.DAT).
BEGIN NEW DATA CASE
C File Name: 411PAR2.DAT
C IDEAL PHASE ANGLE REGULATOR (SYM) WITHOUT ANY LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ----dt<---tmax<---Xopt<---Copt<--Toler< >< >
8.3333-6150.00-3
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
(Continued )
 4.2 Phase Angle Regulator (PAR) 335

Code 4-15 (Continued)

C -Iprnt<--Iplot<-Idoubl<-KssOut<-MaxOut< >< ><---Icat<-Nenerg
30 10 1
TACS HYBRID
99CRD = 180 / PI
99CDR = 1 / CRD
99TWOPI = 2.0 * PI
C BASE VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND POWER
99Vbase = 112676.528
99Ibase = 946.662704
99Zbase = Vbase / Ibase
99Pbase = 1.5 * Vbase * Ibase
C INPUTS FROM NODE VOLTAGES AND LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 302MEAS1.SWT
C NORMALIZATION OF MEASURED VARIABLES AND COMPUTATION OF PEAK VOLTAGES/CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 303PTCT.SCL
C IDEAL PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
$INCLUDE 304IPLL.PLL
C COMPUTATION OF LINE RESISTANCE
$INCLUDE 305LINER.CMP
C TACS OUTPUT
33v12pu v1pu v2pu Prpu Qrpu
BLANK RECORD ENDING TACS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <---Nodes--><---Nodes--><----R<----L<----C V
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<-Ohms<---mH<---uF V
C REPRESENTATION OF A SHORT BETWEEN NODES VS AND BUS01
VSA BUS01A 0.001
VSB BUS01B 0.001
VSC BUS01C 0.001
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK 2 BRANCHES WITH DAMPING RESISTORS (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 311NTWK2.BRN
C CONNECTION OF AN IDEAL (NO LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE) SINGLE-CORE PAR (SYM)
$INCLUDE 412PAR2D.TRN
BLANK RECORD ENDING BRANCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<---Tclose<----Topen<-------Ie<----Flash<--Request<-----Target<--O
C MEASUREMENT OF LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 307MEAS2.SWT
BLANK RECORD ENDING SWITCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890

(Continued )
336 4 Transformer-Based Power Flow Controllers

Code 4-15 (Continued)

C CONNECTION OF NETWORK 1 OR 2 SOURCES (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 308NTWK1.SRC
BLANK RECORD ENDING SOURCES
BLANK RECORD ENDING NODE VOLTAGE OUTPUT
BLANK RECORD ENDING PLOT

Code 4-16 EMTP $INCLUDE file for an ideal single-core PAR (sym) for decreasing power flow
(412PAR2D.TRN).
C File Name: 412PAR2D.TRN
C IDEAL SINGLE-CORE PHASE ANGLE REGULATOR (SYM) WITHOUT ANY LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
C FOR DECREASING PHASE-SHIFT ANGLE
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ------PHASE ANGLE REGULATOR (SYM) FOR PHASE A------
C TRANSFORMER <--Refxxxxxx<--Iss<--Phi<-Name<-Rmag<----------------------------O
TRANSFORMER PARA
C NEXT LINE (9999 IN COLUMNS 13-16) INDICATES A LINEAR TRANSFORMER
9999
C <---Nodes--><----------><---Rk<---Lk<Volt|---------------------------------->O
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<----------><-Ohms<---mH<---kV---------------------------------->O
1BUSB BUSC 0.001 0.001 1.732
2BUS02ABUSA 0.001 0.001 0.075
3BUSA BUS01A 0.001 0.001 0.075
C ------PHASE ANGLE REGULATOR (SYM) FOR PHASE B------
TRANSFORMER PARB
9999
1BUSC BUSA 0.001 0.001 1.732
2BUS02BBUSB 0.001 0.001 0.075
3BUSB BUS01B 0.001 0.001 0.075
C ------PHASE ANGLE REGULATOR (SYM) FOR PHASE C------
TRANSFORMER PARC
9999
1BUSA BUSB 0.001 0.001 1.732
2BUS02CBUSC 0.001 0.001 0.075
3BUSC BUS01C 0.001 0.001 0.075

Figure 4-15a shows the PAR (sym) configuration for increasing power flow. The corresponding
$INCLUDE file 412PAR2I.TRN is shown in Code 4-17. The polarity of the series-connected
windings is set such that the compensating secondary voltage is connected in series with the trans-
mission line at 90 to the primary phase-to-neutral voltage at the midpoints of the secondary
 4.2 Phase Angle Regulator (PAR) 337

(a)

VC VB
BUS01

BUS02
A Psʹ , Qsʹ
IA I
V21A
Vs V1 V1A V2A V2 Vsʹ

VA VC

(b)
B V21A
IB
V2A V V1A
V21B A
V1B V2B
ψ
VB VA ψ
V1C V2B
VC ψ VB
V21C
V21B
C V2C V1B
IC

V21C
V1C V2C

Phase Angle Regulator (symmetric)

Figure 4-15 (a) PAR (sym) configuration for increasing power flow; (b) phasor diagram.

windings. The resulting effect is that only the phase angle of the line voltage between BUS01 and
BUS02 nodes is increased as shown in the phasor diagram (Figure 4-15b). An increase in phase
angle of the line voltage results in an increase in power flow in the line.

Code 4-17 EMTP $INCLUDE file for an ideal single-core PAR (sym) for increasing power flow
(412PAR2I.TRN).
C File Name: 412PAR2I.TRN
C IDEAL SINGLE-CORE PHASE ANGLE REGULATOR (SYM) WITHOUT ANY LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
C FOR INCREASING PHASE-SHIFT ANGLE
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ------PHASE ANGLE REGULATOR (SYM) FOR PHASE A------
C TRANSFORMER <--Refxxxxxx<--Iss<--Phi<-Name<-Rmag<----------------------------O
TRANSFORMER PARA
C NEXT LINE (9999 IN COLUMNS 13-16) INDICATES A LINEAR TRANSFORMER
9999

(Continued )
338 4 Transformer-Based Power Flow Controllers

Code 4-17 (Continued)

C <---Nodes--><----------><---Rk<---Lk<Volt|---------------------------------->O
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<----------><-Ohms<---mH<---kV---------------------------------->O
1BUSC BUSB 0.001 0.001 1.732
2BUS02ABUSA 0.001 0.001 0.075
3BUSA BUS01A 0.001 0.001 0.075
C ------PHASE ANGLE REGULATOR (SYM) FOR PHASE B------
TRANSFORMER PARB
9999
1BUSA BUSC 0.001 0.001 1.732
2BUS02BBUSB 0.001 0.001 0.075
3BUSB BUS01B 0.001 0.001 0.075
C ------PHASE ANGLE REGULATOR (SYM) FOR PHASE C------
TRANSFORMER PARC
9999
1BUSB BUSA 0.001 0.001 1.732
2BUS02CBUSC 0.001 0.001 0.075
3BUSC BUS01C 0.001 0.001 0.075

Table 4-13 Electrical system data.

Parameters Values

Source voltage (Vsrc) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠0 Vpeak

Source resistance (Rsrc) 1.0053 Ω
Source reactance (Xsrc) 7.43875 Ω (19.73 mH)
Receiving-end voltage (Vr) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠−20 Vpeak
Line resistance (R) 3.0159 Ω
Line reactance (X) 22.31625 Ω (59.19 mH)
PAR (sym) turns-ratio 1.732:(−0.15 to 0.15)
Secondary (center-tapped)
Primary winding resistance 0.001 Ω
Primary winding leakage inductance 0.001 mH
Secondary winding resistance 0.001 Ω
Secondary winding leakage inductance 0.001 mH

Table 4-13 shows the electrical system data for a two-generator/single-line power system net-
work, compensated by an ideal PAR (sym).
Table 4-14 shows the variation of the normalized series-compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s/
Vs) and its effects on simulated voltage (V21 or Vs s), the sending-end voltage magnitude (V1 or Vs),
the modified sending-end voltage magnitude (V2 or Vs ), and the resulting active and reactive power
flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end. Note that 0 15 × 0 976 √ 12 + 0 0752 = 0 146 where 0.15
is the turns-ratio and 0.146 pu is the actual compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s), since the
 4.2 Phase Angle Regulator (PAR) 339

Table 4-14 Effects of the variation of series-compensating voltage (Vs s) on simulated voltage (V21 or Vs s), the
sending-end and the modified sending-end voltages (V1 or Vs and V2 or Vs ), and the power flows (Pr and Qr) at
the receiving end.

Vs s/Vs V21 or Vs s (pu) V1 or Vs (pu) V2 or Vs (pu) Pr (pu) Qr (pu)

−0.150 −0.149 0.996 0.996 0.77 −0.19

−0.100 −0.099 0.994 0.994 0.95 −0.26
−0.050 −0.050 0.991 0.991 1.13 −0.34
0.000 0.000 0.988 0.988 1.31 −0.43
0.050 0.049 0.984 0.984 1.48 −0.53
0.100 0.098 0.980 0.980 1.65 −0.63
0.150 0.146 0.976 0.976 1.81 −0.75

sending-end voltage magnitude (Vs) decreases from its natural value (Vsn) of 0.988 to 0.976 pu as
shown in the last row of Table 4-14.
Figure 4-16 shows that the variation of the series-compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s) in the
range of −15 to 15% of the voltage (VA-B-C) at the midpoints of the compensating voltage

1.01

1.00 Vsʹ
Voltage (pu)

0.99 Vsn (0.988 pu)

0.98 Vs
Vsʹs (pu)
0.97
− 0.15 − 0.10 − 0.05 0 0.05 0.10 0.15

Pr

1.25 Prn (1.31 pu)

1.00

0.75

0.50
Power (pu)

0.25
Vsʹs (pu)
0
− 0.15 − 0.10 − 0.05 0 0.05 0.10 0.15
− 0.25
Qr Qrn (− 0.43 pu)
− 0.50

− 0.75

Figure 4-16 Ranges of voltage magnitudes (Vs and Vs ) at the sending and the modified sending ends and the
active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end with a TRANSFORMER model in EMTP to
represent a PAR (sym) without any leakage impedance. Note that the Δ–connected primary windings are
excited from the center-tapped series compensating windings.
340 4 Transformer-Based Power Flow Controllers

(secondary) windings results in a variation of the modified sending-end voltage magnitude (Vs ) in
the range of 0.996 to 0.976 pu and an identical voltage (Vs) at the sending end. The change in voltage
at the POC is solely due to the change in the loading effect of the line. The reactive power flow (Qr)
at the receiving end varies from −0.19 to −0.75 pu during the range of compensating voltage mag-
nitude (Vs s) from −15 to 15% of the voltage (VA-B-C) at the midpoints of the compensating voltage
(secondary) windings. However, the active power flow (Pr) at the receiving end varies in the range
of 0.77 to 1.81 pu for the same range of variation in the compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s).
Therefore, a range of −15 to 15% in compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s), in quadrature with
phase-to-neutral voltage varies the reactive power flow (Qr) by −0.56 pu and the active power flow
(Pr) by 1.04 pu.
 341

Mechanically-Switched Voltage Regulators and Power Flow Controllers

This chapter builds on the material that was presented in Chapter 2 where it was shown that a shunt-
connected capacitor increases the line voltage, whereas a shunt-connected reactor lowers the line
voltage at the Point of Connection (POC) to the utility. It was also shown that a series-connected reac-
tor lowers the active and reactive power flows in the line simultaneously, whereas a series-connected
capacitor increases the active and reactive power flows in the line simultaneously. The objective in
this chapter is to show that the mechanically-switched shunt- and series-connected capacitors and
reactors can be used as Voltage Regulators (VRs) and Power Flow Controllers (PFCs), respectively.
The operation of various VRs and PFCs are verified in a single-generator/single-line power system
network, considering a three-phase base power of 160 MVA and a phase-to-phase (P–P) base rms
voltage, Vrms(P-P), of 138 kVrms as defined in Chapter 3, Section 3.1. It is also shown how to model
a virtual impedance using a series-connected compensator.

5.1 Shunt Compensation

Both mechanically-switched capacitors and reactors are studied in this section.

5.1.1 Mechanically-Switched Capacitor (MSC)

It is shown in Chapters 2 and 4 that the effect of voltage regulation results in a change of active and
reactive power flows in the line. For an increase in the line voltage, the increase in the reactive
power flow is significantly more than the increase in the active power flow as described in
Figures 4-2, 4-3, 4-5, and 4-7. As an example, the value of the shunt-connected capacitor is adjusted
until the reactive current (I1q) drawn from the line at the POC is 1 pu. The resulting line voltage (V1)
is 1.035 pu. Therefore, the shunt-compensating reactance is X sh = V 1 I 1q = 1 035 1 = 1 035 pu,
which is 1 035 × Z base = 1 035 × 119 025 = 123 19 Ω Refer to Equation (3-4) in Chapter 3,
Section 3.1 for the definition of base impedance, Zbase. Therefore, the shunt-connected capacitor,
C sh = 1 ωX sh = 1 2 × π × 60 × 123 19 = 21 532 μF.
A shunt-compensating, mechanically-switched capacitor (Csh) is implemented in the Electromag-
netic Transients Program (EMTP) datafile 501SHREA.DAT as shown in Code 5-1. The datacard
“$INCLUDE 502SHREA.USR” attaches the $INCLUDE file 502SHREA.USR that defines the user’s
input as shown in Code 5-2. The datacard “$INCLUDE 503SHREA.CON” attaches the $INCLUDE
file 503SHREA.CON that performs mathematical calculations as shown in Code 5-3. The correspond-
ing shunt-compensating capacitor branch file is 504SHRE1.BRN as shown in Code 5-4.

Power Flow Control Solutions for a Modern Grid using SMART Power Flow Controllers, First Edition.
Kalyan K. Sen and Mey Ling Sen.
© 2022 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/sen/powerflowcontrol
342 5 Mechanically-Switched Voltage Regulators and Power Flow Controllers

BUS01

BUS02
Ps′ , Qs′
SRSBRK
I

Vs V2 Vs′
Qsh SHNBRKV
1

CNV01

I1q
E11

Csh

MSC

Figure 5-1 Shunt-compensating, mechanically-switched capacitor, connected to a line.

Code 5-1 EMTP datafile for a shunt-compensating, mechanically-switched capacitor,

integrated in a two-generator/single-line power system network (501SHREA.DAT).
BEGIN NEW DATA CASE
C File Name: 501SHREA.DAT
C OPERATION OF A SHUNT-COMPENSATING, MECHANICALLY-SWITCHED CAPACITOR
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ----dt<---tmax<---Xopt<---Copt<--Toler< >< >
16.666-6300.00-3
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C -Iprnt<--Iplot<-Idoubl<-KssOut<-MaxOut< >< ><---Icat<-Nenerg
5 10 1
TACS HYBRID
99TWOPI = 2.0 * PI
C BASE VOLTAGE, CURRENT, IMPEDANCE, AND POWER
99Vbase = 112676.528
99Ibase = 946.662704
(Continued )
 5.1 Shunt Compensation 343

Code 5-1 (Continued)

99Zbase = Vbase / Ibase
99Pbase = 1.5 * Vbase * Ibase
C INPUTS FROM NODE VOLTAGES AND LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 302MEAS1.SWT
C MEASUREMENT OF CURRENTS FLOWING THROUGH THE SHUNT-CONNECTED CAPACITOR
91CNV01A
91CNV01B
91CNV01C
C NORMALIZATION OF MEASURED VARIABLES AND COMPUTATION OF PEAK VOLTAGES/CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 303PTCT.SCL
C VECTOR PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
$INCLUDE 310VPLL.PLL
C USER’S INPUT FILE
$INCLUDE 502SHREA.USR
$INCLUDE 503SHREA.CON
C COMPUTATION OF LINE RESISTANCE
$INCLUDE 305LINER.CMP
C TACS OUTPUT
33v1pu v1Apu i1Apu i1q Qshpu
BLANK RECORD ENDING TACS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <---Nodes--><---Nodes--><----R<----L<----C V
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<-Ohms<---mH<---uF V
C REPRESENTATION OF SHORTED VS AND BUS01 NODES
VSA BUS01A 0.001
VSB BUS01B 0.001
VSC BUS01C 0.001
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK 2 BRANCHES WITH DAMPING RESISTORS (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 311NTWK2.BRN
C REPRESENTATION OF SHORTED BUS01 AND BUS02 NODES
BUS01ABUS02A 0.001
BUS01BBUS02B 0.001
BUS01CBUS02C 0.001
C HIGH RESISTANCES TO AVOID FLOATING NODES IN THE CIRCUIT
BUS01ACNV01A 1.00+8
BUS01BCNV01B 1.00+8
BUS01CCNV01C 1.00+8

(Continued )
344 5 Mechanically-Switched Voltage Regulators and Power Flow Controllers

Code 5-1 (Continued)

C CONNECTION OF SHUNT-CONNECTED CAPACITOR BRANCHES (FIGURE 5-1)
$INCLUDE 504SHRE1.BRN
BLANK RECORD ENDING BRANCHES
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<---Tclose<----Topen<-------Ie<----Flash<--Request<-----Target<--O
C SHUNT BREAKER TO CONNECT/DISCONNECT THE SHUNT CAPACITOR/REACTOR TO THE CIRCUIT
13BUS01ACNV01A SHNBRK
13BUS01BCNV01B SHNBRK
13BUS01CCNV01C SHNBRK
C MEASUREMENT OF LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 307MEAS2.SWT
C MEASUREMENT OF CURRENTS FLOWING THROUGH THE SHUNT CAPACITOR/REACTOR
CNV01Ae11A MEASURING
CNV01Be11B MEASURING
CNV01Ce11C MEASURING
BLANK RECORD ENDING SWITCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK 1 SOURCES (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 308NTWK1.SRC
BLANK RECORD ENDING SOURCES
BLANK RECORD ENDING NODE VOLTAGE OUTPUT
BLANK RECORD ENDING PLOT

Code 5-2 EMTP $INCLUDE file for user’s input (502SHREA.USR).

C File Name: 502SHREA.USR
C USER’S INPUT FILE FOR A SHUNT-COMPENSATING, MECHANICALLY-SWITCHED CAPACITOR
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C A SHUNT BREAKER IS CLOSED.
99SHNBRK = (TIMEX .GE. 0.05) .AND. (TIMEX .LE. 0.25)

Table 5-1 shows the electrical system data for a two-generator/single-line power system network,
compensated by a shunt-connected capacitor.
Figure 5-2 shows the EMTP simulation results from connecting a three-phase, shunt-
compensating capacitor (Csh) to the transmission line. Between 0 and 50 ms, the shunt breaker
(SHNBRK) stays open and the natural voltage at the POC is 0.99 pu. At 50 ms, the SHNBRK closes,
and the shunt-compensating capacitor is connected to the line. The inrush A-phase current (i1A)
exceeds 4 pu. The instantaneous A-phase voltage exceeds 0.75 pu over the nominal value. Under
 5.1 Shunt Compensation 345

Code 5-3 EMTP $INCLUDE file for calculation of exchanged power by a shunt compensator
(503SHREA.CON).
C File Name: 503SHREA.CON
C CALCULATION OF EXCHANGED POWER BY A SHUNT COMPENSATOR
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C SHUNT CURRENT COMPUTATION
99i1Apu = CNV01A / Ibase
99i1Bpu = CNV01B / Ibase
99i1Cpu = CNV01C / Ibase
C LINE CURRENT MAGNITUDE COMPUTATION PER EQUATION (3-15)
99i1pu = SQRT((i1Apu * i1Apu + i1Bpu * i1Bpu + i1Cpu * i1Cpu) * 2 / 3)
C LINE CURRENT MAGNITUDE COMPUTATION PER EQUATIONS (A-75a), (A-55b) and (3-23)
99i1ds = i1Apu
99i1qs = -(i1Apu + 2.0 * i1Cpu) / SQRT(3)
99i1d = i1ds * COSPLL + i1qs * SINPLL
99i1q = -i1ds * SINPLL + i1qs * COSPLL
99i1dq = SQRT(i1d * i1d + i1q * i1q)
C EXCHANGED POWER BY THE SHUNT UNIT AT THE POC
99Pshpu = (v1Apu * i1Apu + v1Bpu * i1Bpu + v1Cpu * i1Cpu) *Vbase*Ibase / Pbase
99Qshpu = (v1Apu * i1Cpu - v1Cpu * i1Apu) * SQRT(3) * Vbase * Ibase / Pbase

Code 5-4 EMTP $INCLUDE file for implementing a three-phase, shunt-compensating

capacitor (504SHRE1.BRN).
C File Name: 504SHRE1.BRN
C THREE-PHASE, SHUNT-COMPENSATING CAPACITOR TO DRAW 1 PU CURRENT
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <---Nodes--><---Nodes--><----R<----L<----C V
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<-Ohms<---mH<---uF V
e11A 21.532
e11B 21.532
e11C 21.532

a steady-state condition, the A-phase current (i1A) through the shunt-compensating capacitor leads
the A-phase line voltage (v1A) of by 90 with a magnitude of 1 pu. The line voltage becomes 1.03 pu
at the POC. Therefore, the compensating reactive power becomes −1.03 pu (capacitive). At 250 ms,
the SHNBRK opens to disconnect the shunt-compensating capacitor from the line, the current
through the shunt-compensating capacitor reduces to zero, and the line voltage at the POC becomes
346 5 Mechanically-Switched Voltage Regulators and Power Flow Controllers

Table 5-1 Electrical system data.

Parameters Values

Source voltage (Vsrc) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠0 Vpeak

Source resistance (Rsrc) 1.0053 Ω
Source reactance (Xsrc) 7.43875 Ω (19.73 mH)
Receiving-end voltage (Vr) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠−20 Vpeak
Line resistance (R) 3.0159 Ω
Line reactance (X) 22.31625 Ω (59.19 mH)
Shunt-compensating capacitor (Csh) 21.532 μF

the original 0.99 pu. When the shunt-compensating capacitor disconnects, a spike in voltage occurs
at the POC due to the sudden change in flow of current through the line reactor.
Just prior to closing the switch, the voltage on one side of the contact of the shunt breaker
(SHNBRK) is the shunt-compensating capacitor voltage, which is zero. On the other side of the
contact is the line voltage and it is different instantaneously on three different phases. The worst
inrush current will occur in any phase if the contact closes on a peak voltage. The most desirable
scenario is to close the contact on zero voltage.
The inrush current through the shunt-compensating capacitor (Csh) can be limited by
connecting the shunt-compensating capacitor through a series bypass reactor (Lbyp) as shown in
Figure 5-3. After some time, the series bypass reactor is shorted out by closing a bypass
breaker (BYPBRK) and leaving only the shunt-compensating capacitor in the circuit. The series
bypass reactor with an inductive reactance (Xbyp) is chosen to be 20% of the shunt-compensating
reactance (Xsh) with a quality factor, Q = 10. An inductive reactance of 20% of Xsh translates to a
reactor, Lbyp = X byp ω = 0 2 × X sh ω = 0 2 × 123 19 2 × π × 60 = 65 355 mH and a resistance,
Rbyp = X byp Q = 0 2 × 123 19 10 = 2 4638 Ω.
A shunt-compensating, mechanically-switched capacitor (Csh) with a bypass series-
connected resistor and reactor (Rbyp and Lbyp) is implemented in the datafile 505SHREA.
DAT, which is the same as 501SHREA.DAT, except with a change in the shunt-compensating
reactance file as shown in Code 5-5. The datacard “$INCLUDE 506SHREA.USR” attaches the
$INCLUDE file 506SHREA.USR that defines the user’s input as shown in Code 5-6. The
corresponding shunt-compensating capacitor branch file is 507SHRE2.BRN as shown in
Code 5-7.
Table 5-2 shows the electrical system data for a two-generator/single-line power system network,
compensated by a shunt-connected capacitor with a series reactor.
Figure 5-4 shows the EMTP simulation results when a three-phase shunt-compensating capacitor
is connected to the transmission line through a three-phase series reactor that is bypassed after a
designated time. Between 0 and 50 ms, the shunt breaker (SHNBRK) stays open and the natural
voltage at the POC is 0.99 pu. At 50 ms, the SHNBRK closes and the shunt capacitor with the series
reactor is connected to the line. The inrush A-phase current (i1A) barely exceeds 3.2 pu. The instan-
taneous A-phase voltage (v1A) reaches 0.18 pu over the nominal value. At 150 ms, the BYPBRK
closes to short out the series reactor, causing some transients to occur in the currents and the
 5.1 Shunt Compensation 347

Capacitive Natural
V, I, Q
(pu)
1
I1q time
(ms)
0
100 200 300
Qsh
−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

2
i1A
V1 v1A
1

−1

−2

−3

−4

Figure 5-2 Exchanged reactive power (Qsh), the resulting voltages (v1A and V1), and currents (i1A and I1q) due
to a shunt-compensating, mechanically-switched capacitor, connected to a line.
348 5 Mechanically-Switched Voltage Regulators and Power Flow Controllers

BUS01

BUS02
Ps′ , Qs′
SRSBRK
I

Vs V2 Vs′
Qsh SHNBRK
V1
CNV01

I1q
E11
Rbyp
BYPBRK Lbyp
E1
Csh

MSC with Series Reactor

Figure 5-3 Shunt-compensating, mechanically-switched capacitor with a series bypass reactor,

connected to a line.

Code 5-5 EMTP datafile for a shunt-compensating, mechanically-switched capacitor with a

series bypass reactor, integrated in a two-generator/single-line power system network
(505SHREA.DAT).
BEGIN NEW DATA CASE
C File Name: 505SHREA.DAT
C OPERATION OF A SHUNT-COMPENSATING, MECHANICALLY-SWITCHED CAPACITOR WITH A
C SERIES BYPASS REACTOR
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ----dt<---tmax<---Xopt<---Copt<--Toler< >< >
16.666-6300.00-3
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C -Iprnt<--Iplot<-Idoubl<-KssOut<-MaxOut< >< ><---Icat<-Nenerg
5 10 1
TACS HYBRID
99TWOPI = 2.0 * PI
C BASE VOLTAGE, CURRENT, IMPEDANCE, AND POWER
99Vbase = 112676.528
99Ibase = 946.662704
(Continued )
 5.1 Shunt Compensation 349

Code 5-5 (Continued)

99Zbase = Vbase / Ibase
99Pbase = 1.5 * Vbase * Ibase
C INPUTS FROM NODE VOLTAGES AND LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 302MEAS1.SWT
C MEASUREMENT OF CURRENTS FLOWING THRU SHUNT-CONNECTED CAPACITOR WITH REACTOR
91CNV01A
91CNV01B
91CNV01C
C NORMALIZATION OF MEASURED VARIABLES AND COMPUTATION OF PEAK VOLTAGES/CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 303PTCT.SCL
C VECTOR PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
$INCLUDE 310VPLL.PLL
C USER’S INPUT FILE
$INCLUDE 506SHREA.USR
$INCLUDE 503SHREA.CON
C COMPUTATION OF LINE RESISTANCE
$INCLUDE 305LINER.CMP
C TACS OUTPUT
33v1pu v1Apu i1Apu i1q Qshpu
BLANK RECORD ENDING TACS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <---Nodes--><---Nodes--><----R<----L<----C V
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<-Ohms<---mH<---uF V
C REPRESENTATION OF SHORTED VS AND BUS01 NODES
VSA BUS01A 0.001
VSB BUS01B 0.001
VSC BUS01C 0.001
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK 2 BRANCHES WITH DAMPING RESISTORS (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 311NTWK2.BRN
C REPRESENTATION OF SHORTED BUS01 AND BUS02 NODES
BUS01ABUS02A 0.001
BUS01BBUS02B 0.001
BUS01CBUS02C 0.001
C HIGH RESISTANCES TO AVOID FLOATING NODES IN THE CIRCUIT
BUS01ACNV01A 1.00+8
BUS01BCNV01B 1.00+8
BUS01CCNV01C 1.00+8
e11A e1A 1.00+8
e11B e1B 1.00+8
e11C e1C 1.00+8

(Continued )
350 5 Mechanically-Switched Voltage Regulators and Power Flow Controllers

Code 5-5 (Continued)

C SHUNT-CONNECTED CAPACITOR WITH SERIES REACTOR BRANCHES (FIGURE 5-3)
$INCLUDE 507SHRE2.BRN
BLANK RECORD ENDING BRANCHES
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<---Tclose<----Topen<-------Ie<----Flash<--Request<-----Target<--O
C SHUNT BREAKER TO CONNECT/DISCONNECT THE SHUNT CAPACITOR/REACTOR TO THE CIRCUIT
13BUS01ACNV01A SHNBRK
13BUS01BCNV01B SHNBRK
13BUS01CCNV01C SHNBRK
C MEASUREMENT OF LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 307MEAS2.SWT
C MEASUREMENT OF CURRENTS FLOWING THROUGH SHUNT CAPACITOR WITH SERIES REACTOR
CNV01Ae11A MEASURING
CNV01Be11B MEASURING
CNV01Ce11C MEASURING
13e11A e1A BYPBRK
13e11B e1B BYPBRK
13e11C e1C BYPBRK
BLANK RECORD ENDING SWITCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK 1 SOURCES (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 308NTWK1.SRC
BLANK RECORD ENDING SOURCES
BLANK RECORD ENDING NODE VOLTAGE OUTPUT
BLANK RECORD ENDING PLOT

Code 5-6 EMTP $INCLUDE file for user’s input (506SHREA.USR).

C File Name: 506SHREA.USR
C USER’S INPUT FILE FOR A SHUNT-COMPENSATING, MECHANICALLY-SWITCHED CAPACITOR
C WITH A SERIES BYPASS REACTOR
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C A SHUNT BREAKER IS CLOSED.
99SHNBRK = (TIMEX .GE. 0.05) .AND. (TIMEX .LE. 0.25)
99BYPBRK = (TIMEX .GE. 0.15)
 5.1 Shunt Compensation 351

Code 5-7 EMTP $INCLUDE file for implementing a three-phase, shunt-compensating

capacitor with a series bypass reactor (507SHRE2.BRN).
C File Name: 507SHRE2.BRN
C SHUNT-COMPENSATING CAPACITOR (WITH SERIES BYPASS REACTOR) TO DRAW 1 PU CURRENT
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <---Nodes--><---Nodes--><----R<----L<----C V
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<-Ohms<---mH<---uF V
e11A e1A 2.463865.355
e11B e1B 2.463865.355
e11C e1C 2.463865.355
e1A 21.532
e1B 21.532
e1C 21.532

Table 5-2 Electrical system data.

Parameters Values

Source voltage (Vsrc) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠0 Vpeak

Source resistance (Rsrc) 1.0053 Ω
Source reactance (Xsrc) 7.43875 Ω (19.73 mH)
Receiving-end voltage (Vr) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠−20 Vpeak
Line resistance (R) 3.0159 Ω
Line reactance (X) 22.31625 Ω (59.19 mH)
Shunt-compensating capacitor, Csh (with a series bypass resistor and 21.532 μF (2.4638 Ω,
reactor: Rbyp and Lbyp) 65.355 mH)

voltages. After the transients die out, the A-phase current (i1A) through the shunt capacitor leads the
A-phase line voltage (v1A) by 90 with a magnitude of 1 pu. From this point onward, the circuit oper-
ation is the same as what is shown in Figure 5-2.
The chosen shunt-compensating capacitor of 21.532 μF at Vrms(P-P) of 138 kVrms results in a ~155
Mvar rating. Switching the capacitor in one step would likely cause too much change in voltage,
which is >2.5%. Often the planners like to keep the change in voltage <1.5%. The solution is to
switch the capacitor in two or three steps, which lessens the impact of the switching transients
on the network.
There are two commercially-available controlled-switching techniques:

1) A two-step switching – a closing impedance (Rbyp, Lbyp), termed as a “lossy reactor,” is first
inserted in series with the shunt-compensating capacitor (Csh) as shown in Figure 5-3 and then
shorted out some time (8–20 ms) later.
2) Capacitor-switching at voltage zero-crossing – the capacitor is energized on each phase when
the voltage across the capacitor closely matches the instantaneous system voltage, meaning
the voltage across the closing pole being close to zero.
352 5 Mechanically-Switched Voltage Regulators and Power Flow Controllers

I, Q
(pu)
2 Capacitive Natural

1 1
I1q time
(ms)
0
100 200 300
Qsh
−1 –1

−2

V, I
(pu)
2
i1A
v1A
V1
1 1

−1 –1

−2

Figure 5-4 Exchanged reactive power (Qsh), the resulting voltages (v1A and V1), and currents (i1A and I1q) due to
a shunt-compensating, mechanically-switched capacitor (with a series bypass reactor), connected to a line.

Both of these controlled-switching techniques have similar performance in terms of reducing

inrush current and overvoltage. However, it is more challenging to determine when the voltage
across the capacitor is zero in the second technique. In the first technique, the closing resistors
may be an option as well. All of these commercially available controlled switching devices reduce
the inrush current by at least a factor of 3. Note that the chosen base power of 160 MVA is arbitrary;
so is the value of 1 pu capacitive current in this example. In reality, the compensating current and,
therefore, the generated var are based on the system’s need.
 5.1 Shunt Compensation 353

BUS01

BUS02
Ps′ , Qs′
SRSBRK
I

Vs V2 Vs′
Qsh SHNBRK
V1

CNV01

I1q
E11

Rs
Ls

MSR

Figure 5-5 Shunt-compensating, mechanically-switched reactor, connected to a line.

5.1.2 Mechanically-Switched Reactor (MSR)

It is discussed in Chapter 2 that a shunt-compensating reactor, shown in Figure 5-5, decreases the
line voltage at the POC and also decreases the delivery of reactive power to the receiving end of the
transmission line significantly more than the delivery of active power.
The shunt-connected reactor is adjusted until the reactive current (I1) drawn from the line at the
POC is 1 pu. The resulting line voltage (V1) is 0.94 pu. Therefore, the shunt-compensating reactance
is X sh = V 1 I 1q = 0 94 1 = 0 94 pu, which is 0 94 × Z base = 0 94 × 119 025 = 111 8835 Ω. There-
fore, the shunt-connected reactor Lp = X sh ω = 111 8835 2 × π × 60 = 296 78 mH.
A resistor (Rp), connected in parallel to the reactor, is Rp = Q × X sh = 10 × 111 8835 =
1118 835 Ω, where the quality factor Q = Rp X sh = 10. The equivalent series combination of a
resistor and a reactor is
1 1118 835 Q2 100
Rs = Rp 2 = = 11 077 Ω and Ls = Lp = 296 78 = 293 84 mH as
1+Q 101 1 + Q2 101
shown in Code 5-8.
A shunt-compensating, mechanically-switched reactor is implemented in the datafile
501SHREA.DAT. The corresponding shunt inductive reactance branch file is 508SHRE3.BRN
as shown in Code 5-8.
Table 5-3 shows the electrical system data for a two-generator/single-line power system network,
compensated by a shunt reactor.
Figure 5-6 shows the EMTP simulation results when a three-phase shunt-compensating induc-
tive reactance (Xsh) is connected to the transmission line. Between 0 and 50 ms, the shunt breaker
(SHNBRK) stays open and the natural voltage at the POC is 0.99 pu. At 50 ms, the SHNBRK closes
and the shunt reactor is connected to the line. After the closing of the breaker, the current through
354 5 Mechanically-Switched Voltage Regulators and Power Flow Controllers

Code 5-8 EMTP $INCLUDE file for implementing a three-phase, shunt-compensating reactor
(508SHRE3.BRN).
C File Name: 508SHRE3.BRN
C THREE-PHASE, SHUNT-COMPENSATING REACTOR TO DRAW 1 PU CURRENT
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <---Nodes--><---Nodes--><----R<----L<----C V
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<-Ohms<---mH<---uF V
e11A 11.077293.84
e11B 11.077293.84
e11C 11.077293.84

Table 5-3 Electrical system data.

Parameters Values

Source voltage (Vsrc) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠0 Vpeak

Source resistance (Rsrc) 1.0053 Ω
Source reactance (Xsrc) 7.43875 Ω (19.73 mH)
Receiving-end voltage (Vr) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠−20 Vpeak
Line resistance (R) 3.0159 Ω
Line reactance (X) 22.31625 Ω (59.19 mH)
Shunt-compensating resistor and reactor (Rs, Ls) 11.077 Ω, 293.84 mH

the reactor builds up from its zero initial condition. Under steady-state conditions, the A-phase cur-
rent (i1A) through the shunt reactor lags the A-phase line voltage (v1A) by 90 with a magnitude of 1
pu. The line voltage becomes 0.94 pu at the POC. Therefore, the compensating reactive power
becomes 0.94 pu. At 250 ms, the SHNBRK opens to disconnect the shunt reactor from the line.
The current through the shunt reactor becomes zero, causing a spike in voltage across the reactor.
There is also a spike in voltage at the POC due to the sudden change in flow of current through the
line inductance. The line voltage at the POC becomes the original 0.99 pu.

5.2 Series Compensation

Both mechanically-switched reactors and capacitors are studied in this section.

5.2.1 Mechanically-Switched Reactor (MSR)

It is discussed in Chapter 2 that a series-compensating reactor, shown in Figure 5-7, modifies the
effective reactance of the line between its two ends and regulates the active and reactive power
flows in the line simultaneously.
 5.2 Series Compensation 355

Inductive Natural

V, I, Q
(pu)
1
Qsh
time
(ms)
0
100 200 300
I1q

−1

v1A i1A
V1
1

−1

Figure 5-6 Exchanged reactive power (Qsh), the resulting voltages (v1A and V1), and currents (i1A and I1q) due to
a shunt-compensating, mechanically-switched reactor, connected to a line.

SRSBK1
Ps′ , Qs′
SRSBK2 SRSBK3
Qse I

Vs V1 R1se L1se L2se L3se V2 Vs′

MSR

Figure 5-7 Series-compensating, mechanically-switched reactors, connected in series with the line.

In this example, the series-compensating reactors are inserted in three stages. All three
series breakers (SRSBK1, SRSBK2, and SRSBK3) are closed initially, leaving the line with its
natural active power flow of 1.31 pu and reactive power flow of −0.43 pu at the receiving end. Each
of the three series-compensating reactances, X 1se = X 2se = X 3se = 0 15 × Z base = 0 15 × 119 02 =
17 854 Ω Therefore, each compensating reactor, L1se = L2se = L3se = X 1se ω = 17 854 2 × π
× 60 = 47 358 mH The first compensating reactance (X1se) has a quality factor (Q) of 10,
whereas the other two reactors (X2se and X3se) have a quality factor of ∞. Therefore, the series
resistance, R1se = X 1se 10 = 1 7854 Ω and that of X2se and X3se are R2se = X 2se ∞ = 0 and are
R3se = X 3se ∞ = 0. If the same operating points are studied using a VSC-based series compensator,
it may be considered that the compensating reactance (X1se) includes the leakage reactance of the
series-coupling transformer that is an integral part of the SSSC.
356 5 Mechanically-Switched Voltage Regulators and Power Flow Controllers

A series-compensating reactor is implemented in the datafile 509SEREA.DAT as shown in

Code 5-9. The datacard “$INCLUDE 510SEREA.USR” attaches the $INCLUDE file 510SEREA.
USR that defines the user’s input as shown in Code 5-10. The datacard “$INCLUDE 511SEREA.
CON” attaches the $INCLUDE file 511SEREA.CON that performs mathematical calculations as
shown in Code 5-11. The corresponding series reactor branch file is 512SERE1.BRN as shown in
Code 5-12.

Code 5-9 EMTP datafile for series-compensating, mechanically-switched reactors, integrated

in a two-generator/single-line power system network (509SEREA.DAT).
BEGIN NEW DATA CASE
C File Name: 509SEREA.DAT
C OPERATION OF SERIES-COMPENSATING, MECHANICALLY-SWITCHED REACTORS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ----dt<---tmax<---Xopt<---Copt<--Toler< >< >
16.666-6600.00-3
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C -Iprnt<--Iplot<-Idoubl<-KssOut<-MaxOut< >< ><---Icat<-Nenerg
40 40 1
TACS HYBRID
99CRD = 180 / PI
99CDR = 1 / CRD
99TWOPI = 2.0 * PI
C BASE VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND POWER
99Vbase = 112676.528
99Ibase = 946.662704
99Zbase = Vbase / Ibase
99Pbase = 1.5 * Vbase * Ibase
C INPUTS FROM NODE VOLTAGES AND LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 302MEAS1.SWT
C NORMALIZATION OF MEASURED VARIABLES AND COMPUTATION OF PEAK VOLTAGES/CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 303PTCT.SCL
C VECTOR PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
$INCLUDE 310VPLL.PLL
C USER’S INPUT FILE
$INCLUDE 510SEREA.USR
$INCLUDE 511SEREA.CON
C COMPUTATION OF LINE RESISTANCE
$INCLUDE 305LINER.CMP
C COMPENSATING VOLTAGE MAGNITUDE AND PHASE ANGLE COMPUTATION
99v12dsp = v12Apu
99v12qsp = -(v12Apu + 2.0 * v12Cpu) / SQRT(3)
(Continued )
 5.2 Series Compensation 357

Code 5-9 (Continued)

99v12dpu = v12dsp * COSPLL + v12qsp * SINPLL
99v12qpu = -v12dsp * SINPLL + v12qsp * COSPLL
99v12dqp = SQRT(v12dpu * v12dpu + v12qpu * v12qpu)
C LOW-PASS FILTER INTRODUCES A RAMP-RATE AND REDUCES SYSTEM TRANSIENTS
1v12dqf +v12dqp
1.0
1.0 0.0040
99zse = v12dqf / idqpu
99thv12a = ATAN( v12qpu / (v12dpu + 1.0E-8) )
99thv12b = thv12a + PI * (v12dpu .LT. 0.0)
99thv12 = thv12b + TWOPI * (thv12b .LT. 0.0) - TWOPI * (thv12b .GE. TWOPI)
C LOW-PASS FILTER INTRODUCES A RAMP-RATE AND REDUCES SYSTEM TRANSIENTS
1thv12f +thv12
1.0
1.0 0.0040
99tv12dq = thv12f  CRD
99theti = thetir + TWOPI * (thetir .LT. -PI) - TWOPI * (thetir .GE. PI)
99thidq = theti  CRD
99zsetha = thv12f - thetir
99zsethb = zsetha + TWOPI  (zsetha .LT. -PI) - TWOPI  (zsetha .GE. PI)
99thzse = zsethb  CRD
99beta = (thv12f + PI)  CRD
C The PI is added, since the polarity of V21 is opposite of the polarity of V12.
99tha2 = theta + PI / 2 + PI + beta * CDR
C This addition of PI/2 is because the compensating voltage is sine reference
C and the PLL is cosine reference.
C PI radian is added to reverse the polarity of the series-coupling transformer.
99theta2 = tha2 + TWOPI * (tha2 .LT. 0.0) - TWOPI * (tha2 .GE. TWOPI)
99vsrspk = v12dqf  Vbase
99e2A = vsrspk * SIN(theta2)
99e2B = vsrspk * SIN(theta2 - 120 * CDR)
99e2C = vsrspk * SIN(theta2 + 120 * CDR)
99e2Apu = e2A / Vbase
33v12ApuiApu Qsepu Prpu Qrpu v12dqftv12dqidqpu thidq zse thzse beta e2Apu
BLANK RECORD ENDING TACS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <---Nodes--><---Nodes--><----R<----L<----C V
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<-Ohms<---mH<---uF V
C REPRESENTATION OF SHORTED VS AND BUS01 NODES
VSA BUS01A 0.001

(Continued )
358 5 Mechanically-Switched Voltage Regulators and Power Flow Controllers

Code 5-9 (Continued)

VSB BUS01B 0.001
VSC BUS01C 0.001
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK 2 BRANCHES WITH DAMPING RESISTORS (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 311NTWK2.BRN
C HIGH RESISTANCES TO AVOID FLOATING NODES IN THE CIRCUIT
BUS01ABUS02A 1.00+8
BUS01BBUS02B 1.00+8
BUS01CBUS02C 1.00+8
C SERIES-CONNECTED REACTOR (FIGURE 5-7)
$INCLUDE 512SERE1.BRN
BLANK RECORD ENDING BRANCHES
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<--Vig---|<-Ihold--|<-Tdeion-|xxxxxxxxxxCLOSEDSAMEGRID->SIGNAL oo
C CLOSED SERIES BREAKERS AT START OF THE SIMULATION
13BUS01ABUS02A CLOSED SRSBK1
13BUS01BBUS02B CLOSED SRSBK1
13BUS01CBUS02C CLOSED SRSBK1
13BUS11ABUS12A CLOSED SRSBK2
13BUS11BBUS12B CLOSED SRSBK2
13BUS11CBUS12C CLOSED SRSBK2
13BUS12ABUS02A CLOSED SRSBK3
13BUS12BBUS02B CLOSED SRSBK3
13BUS12CBUS02C CLOSED SRSBK3
C MEASUREMENT OF LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 307MEAS2.SWT
BLANK RECORD ENDING SWITCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK 1 SOURCES (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 308NTWK1.SRC
BLANK RECORD ENDING SOURCES
BLANK RECORD ENDING NODE VOLTAGE OUTPUT
BLANK RECORD ENDING PLOT

Code 5-10 EMTP $INCLUDE file for user’s input (510SEREA.USR).

C File Name: 510SEREA.USR
C USER’S INPUT FILE FOR SERIES-COMPENSATING, MECHANICALLY-SWITCHED REACTORS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C NORMALLY-CLOSED SERIES BREAKERS ARE OPENED AND RECLOSED.
99SRSBK1 = 1 - ((TIMEX .GE. 0.025) .AND. (TIMEX .LE. 0.30))
99SRSBK2 = 1 - ((TIMEX .GE. 0.050) .AND. (TIMEX .LE. 0.30))
99SRSBK3 = 1 - ((TIMEX .GE. 0.175) .AND. (TIMEX .LE. 0.30))
 5.2 Series Compensation 359

Code 5-11 EMTP $INCLUDE file for calculation of exchanged-power by a series-compensator

(511SEREA.CON).
C File Name: 511SEREA.CON
C CALCULATION OF EXCHANGED POWER BY A SERIES COMPENSATOR
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C EXCHANGED POWER BY THE SERIES UNIT WITH THE LINE
99Psepu = (v12Apu * iApu + v12Bpu * iBpu + v12Cpu * iCpu) *Vbase*Ibase / Pbase
99Qsepu = (v12Apu * iCpu - v12Cpu * iApu) * SQRT(3) * Vbase * Ibase / Pbase

Code 5-12 EMTP $INCLUDE file for implementing three-phase, series-compensating reactors
(512SERE1.BRN).
C File Name: 512SERE1.BRN
C THREE-PHASE, SERIES-COMPENSATING REACTORS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <---Nodes--><---Nodes--><----R<----L<----C V
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<-Ohms<---mH<---uF V
BUS01ABUS11A 1.785447.358
BUS01BBUS11B 1.785447.358
BUS01CBUS11C 1.785447.358
BUS11ABUS12A 47.358
BUS11BBUS12B 47.358
BUS11CBUS12C 47.358
BUS12ABUS02A 47.358
BUS12BBUS02B 47.358
BUS12CBUS02C 47.358

Table 5-4 shows the electrical system data for a two-generator/single-line power system network,
compensated by series-connected reactors.
Figure 5-8 shows the EMTP simulation results when a three-phase series reactor bank is con-
nected to the line. The normally-closed series breaker 1 (SRSBK1) opens at 25 ms and stays open
for the next 275 ms to connect the reactance (R1se, L1se) in series with the transmission line between
the BUS01 and BUS02 nodes. A voltage (v12) develops between the BUS01 and BUS02 nodes. The A-
phase voltage (v12A) leads the line current (iA) in the corresponding phase by almost 90 because the
effective impedance of the line is inductive. Both the active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) in
the line decrease. Further increases in the inductive compensation by opening the series breakers
SRSBK2 (i.e. inserting L2se) at 50 ms and opening SRSBK3 (i.e. inserting L3se) at 175 ms decrease the
active and reactive power flows in the line simultaneously. These operating points are verified in
series compensation with VSCs Sen and Sen (2009). The compensating reactive power (Qse)
360 5 Mechanically-Switched Voltage Regulators and Power Flow Controllers

Table 5-4 Electrical system data.

Parameters Values

Source voltage (Vsrc) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠0 Vpeak

Source resistance (Rsrc) 1.0053 Ω
Source reactance (Xsrc) 7.43875 Ω (19.73 mH)
Receiving-end voltage (Vr) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠−20 Vpeak
Line resistance (R) 3.0159 Ω
Line reactance (X) 22.31625 Ω (59.19 mH)
Series-compensating resistor and reactor 1 (R1se, L1se) 1.7854 Ω, 47.358 mH
Series-compensating reactor 2 (L2se) 47.358 mH
Series-compensating reactor 3 (L3se) 47.358 mH

V, I, P, Q Qse
(pu) Inductive Natural
0
Pr
iA

0
Qr

−1 v12A
time
(ms)
200 400 600

Figure 5-8 Exchanged reactive power (Qse), the resulting voltage (v12A), current (iA), and the active and reactive
power flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end of a line due to series-compensating, mechanically-switched
reactors, connected to the line.

exchanged with the line is shown. At 300 ms, all the series breakers are closed, bypassing the series
inductive compensation. The line current and power flow return to the uncompensated levels.
Next, the impedance between BUS01 and BUS02 nodes is calculated from measuring the voltages
between the BUS01 and BUS02 nodes and the line current, and taking their ratio. This compensat-
ing voltage is connected in series with the line, replacing the series-compensating reactor to dem-
onstrate that the effect of a virtual reactor is the same as that of an actual reactor, described in
Section 5.2.3. Even though only the effect of a compensating reactor is studied in this section,
the steps for calculating the virtual impedance is the same as that in the case of a virtual reactance.
The instantaneous filtered magnitude (v1dqf) and the phase angle (θv12dq) of the voltage across the
series-compensated reactors with respect to the PLL are shown in Figures 5-9 and 5-10, respectively.
The corresponding datacards are shown in bold in Code 5-9.
 5.2 Series Compensation 361

v1dqf
(pu)

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
200 400 600
time
(ms)

Figure 5-9 Instantaneous filtered magnitude of the voltage across the series-compensating reactors.

θv12dq
(deg)

90

60

30

0
200 400 600
time
(ms)

Figure 5-10 Instantaneous filtered phase angle of the voltage across the series-compensating reactors with
respect to the PLL angle.

The instantaneous magnitude (idq) in pu of the line current, which is the current through
the series-connected reactor, and its phase angle (θidq) in degrees are shown in Figures 5-11 and
5-12, respectively. The corresponding datacards are shown in bold in Code 5-9.
The instantaneous magnitude (zse) and phase angle (θzse) of the impedance of the series-
compensating reactors are shown in Figures 5-13 and 5-14, respectively. The corresponding
datacards are shown in bold in Code 5-9. Note that the calculated magnitudes are the same
(0.15, 0.30, and 0.45 pu) as those that were used in this study. Also note that when various reactors
are connected in series with the line during the period from 25 to 300 ms, the voltage leads the line
current by nearly 90 . The exact phase angle depends on the quality factor (Q) of the total amount of
series-compensating reactor.
362 5 Mechanically-Switched Voltage Regulators and Power Flow Controllers

idq
(pu)
2.0

1.0

0
200 400 600
time
(ms)

Figure 5-11 Instantaneous magnitude (idq) of the current through the series-compensating reactors.

θidq
(deg)
30

20

10

0
200 400 600
time
(ms)
− 10

Figure 5-12 Instantaneous phase angle (θidq) of the current through the series-compensating reactors with
respect to the PLL angle.

Since V21 = − V12 , an angle of π radians needs to be added to the phase angle, shown in
Figure 5-10, to calculate the instantaneous relative phase angle (β) of the compensating voltage
(Vs s) as shown in Figure 5-15. This addition of π radians or 180 is also present in the calculation
of the relative phase angle (β) during the time when the line is uncompensated, which is of no con-
cern, since during no compensation, the magnitude of the series-compensating voltage is zero.
From the magnitude (v1dqf) of the compensating voltage, shown in Figure 5-9, and the relative
phase angle (β), shown in Figure 5-15, the three-phase compensating voltage in time domain is
calculated as shown in bold in Code 5-9. The A phase of the calculated compensating voltage
 5.2 Series Compensation 363

zse
(pu)

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
200 400 600
time
(ms)

Figure 5-13 Instantaneous magnitude (zse) of the impedance of the series-compensating reactors.

θzse
(deg)
90

60

30

0
200 400 600
time
(ms)

Figure 5-14 Instantaneous phase angle (θzse) of the voltage across the series-compensating reactors with
respect to the prevailing line current.

(v12Apu) and the A phase of the measured voltage (e2Apu) between BUS01 and BUS02 nodes are
superimposed in Figure 5-16 and found to be identical. Therefore, the process of generating the
compensating voltage is validated.

5.2.2 Mechanically-Switched Capacitor (MSC) with a Reactor

In this example, the series reactances from a three-phase reactor and a three-phase capacitor,
shown in Figure 5-17, are inserted in two stages. The two series breakers (SRSBK1 and SRSBK2)
364 5 Mechanically-Switched Voltage Regulators and Power Flow Controllers

β
(deg)
300

200

100

0
200 400 600
time
(ms)

Figure 5-15 Instantaneous relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage with respect to the
PLL angle.

Voltage
(pu) v12A
0.25 e2A

0
200 400 600
time
(ms)
− 0.25

Figure 5-16 Two superimposed voltages: (1) A phase of the calculated compensating voltage (v12Apu) and (2) A
phase of the measured voltage (e2Apu) between BUS01 and BUS02.

are closed initially, leaving the line with its natural active power flow of 1.31 pu and reactive power
flow of −0.43 pu at the receiving end. The first series-compensating reactance, X 1se =
0 15 × Z base = 0 15 × 119 025 = 17 854 Ω and corresponding reactor, L1se = X 1se ω = 17 854
2 × π × 60 = 47 358 mH Therefore, the series resistor, R1se = X 1se 10 = 1 7854 Ω , assuming
the quality factor (Q) is 10. The second series-compensating reactance, X 2se =
0 15 × Z base = 0 15 × 119 025 = 17 854 Ω and the corresponding capacitor, C 2se = 1 ωX 2se =
1 2 × π × 60 × 17 854 = 148 57μF.
A series-compensating reactor/capacitor is implemented in the datafile 513SEREA.DAT, which
is the same as 509SEREA.DAT, except with a change in the series reactance file as shown in Code
5-13. The datacard “$INCLUDE 514SERE2.BRN” attaches the $INCLUDE file 514SERE2.BRN that
connects a branch file as shown in Code 5-14.
Table 5-5 shows the electrical system data for a two-generator/single-line power system network,
compensated by a series-connected reactor/capacitor.
 5.2 Series Compensation 365

BUS01

BUS02
SRSBK1
Ps′ , Qs′

SRSBK2 I
Qse

Vs′
BUS11

BUS12
Vs C2se
R1se L1se V2
V1

MSC/R

Figure 5-17 Series-compensating, mechanically-switched capacitor with a reactor, connected to the line.

Figure 5-18 shows the EMTP simulation results when three-phase series reactor/capacitor banks
are connected to the transmission line. The normally-closed series breaker 1 (SRSBK1) opens at 25
ms and stays open for the next 275 ms to connect the inductive reactance (XL) in series with the
transmission line between the BUS01 and BUS02 nodes. A voltage (v12) develops between
BUS01 and BUS02 nodes. The A-phase voltage (v12A) leads or lags the line current (iA) when the
effective impedance of the line is inductive or capacitive, respectively. Both active and reactive
power flows (Pr and Qr) in the line decrease. At 50 ms, series breaker 2 (SRSBK2) is opened, adding

Code 5-13 EMTP datafile for a series-compensating, mechanically-switched capacitor with a

reactor, integrated in a two-generator/single-line power system network (513SEREA.DAT).
BEGIN NEW DATA CASE
C File Name: 513SEREA.DAT
C OPERATION OF A SERIES-COMPENSATING, MECHANICALLY-SWITCHED REACTOR/CAPACITOR
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ----dt<---tmax<---Xopt<---Copt<--Toler< >< >
16.666-6600.00-3
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C -Iprnt<--Iplot<-Idoubl<-KssOut<-MaxOut< >< ><---Icat<-Nenerg
40 10 1
TACS HYBRID
99CRD = 180 / PI
99CDR = 1 / CRD
99TWOPI = 2.0 * PI
C BASE VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND POWER
99Vbase = 112676.528
99Ibase = 946.662704
99Zbase = Vbase / Ibase
99Pbase = 1.5 * Vbase * Ibase

(Continued )
366 5 Mechanically-Switched Voltage Regulators and Power Flow Controllers

Code 5-13 (Continued)

C INPUTS FROM NODE VOLTAGES AND LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 302MEAS1.SWT
C NORMALIZATION OF MEASURED VARIABLES AND COMPUTATION OF PEAK VOLTAGES/CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 303PTCT.SCL
C VECTOR PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
$INCLUDE 310VPLL.PLL
C USER’S INPUT FILE
$INCLUDE 510SEREA.USR
$INCLUDE 511SEREA.CON
C COMPUTATION OF LINE RESISTANCE
$INCLUDE 305LINER.CMP
C COMPENSATING VOLTAGE MAGNITUDE AND PHASE ANGLE COMPUTATION
99v12dsp = v12Apu
99v12qsp = -(v12Apu + 2.0 * v12Cpu) / SQRT(3)
99v12dpu = v12dsp * COSPLL + v12qsp * SINPLL
99v12qpu = -v12dsp * SINPLL + v12qsp * COSPLL
99v12dqp = SQRT(v12dpu * v12dpu + v12qpu * v12qpu)
C LOW-PASS FILTER INTRODUCES A RAMP-RATE AND REDUCES SYSTEM TRANSIENTS
1v12dqf +v12dqp
1.0
1.0 0.0040
99zse = v12dqf / idqpu
99thv12a = ATAN( v12qpu / (v12dpu + 1.0E-8) )
99thv12b = thv12a + PI * (v12dpu .LT. 0.0)
99thv12 = thv12b + TWOPI * (thv12b .LT. 0.0) - TWOPI * (thv12b .GE. TWOPI)
C LOW-PASS FILTER INTRODUCES A RAMP-RATE AND REDUCES SYSTEM TRANSIENTS
1thv12f +thv12
1.0
1.0 0.0040
99tv12dq = thv12f * CRD
99theti = thetir + TWOPI * (thetir .LT. -PI) - TWOPI * (thetir .GE. PI)
99thidq = theti * CRD
99zsetha = thv12f - thetir
99zsethb = zsetha + TWOPI * (zsetha .LT. -PI) - TWOPI * (zsetha .GE. PI)
99thzse = zsethb * CRD
99beta = (thv12f + PI) * CRD
C The PI is added, since the polarity of V21 is opposite of the polarity of V12.
99tha2 = theta + PI / 2 + PI + beta * CDR
C This addition of PI/2 is because the compensating voltage is sine reference
C and the PLL is cosine reference.
C PI radian is added to reverse the polarity of the series-coupling transformer.
99theta2 = tha2 + TWOPI * (tha2 .LT. 0.0) - TWOPI * (tha2 .GE. TWOPI)
99vsrspk = v12dqf * Vbase
99e2a = vsrspk * SIN(theta2)
(Continued )
 5.2 Series Compensation 367

Code 5-13 (Continued)

99e2b = vsrspk * SIN(theta2 - 120 * CDR)
99e2c = vsrspk * SIN(theta2 + 120 * CDR)
99e2Apu = e2A / Vbase
33v12ApuiApu Qsepu Prpu Qrpu
BLANK RECORD ENDING TACS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <---Nodes--><---Nodes--><----R<----L<----C V
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<-Ohms<---mH<---uF V
C REPRESENTATION OF SHORTED VS AND BUS01 NODES
VSA BUS01A 0.001
VSB BUS01B 0.001
VSC BUS01C 0.001
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK 2 BRANCHES WITH DAMPING RESISTORS (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 311NTWK2.BRN
C HIGH RESISTANCES TO AVOID FLOATING NODES IN THE CIRCUIT
BUS01ABUS02A 1.00+8
BUS01BBUS02B 1.00+8
BUS01CBUS02C 1.00+8
C SERIES-CONNECTED REACTOR (FIGURE 5-7)
$INCLUDE 514SERE2.BRN
BLANK RECORD ENDING BRANCHES
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<--Vig---|<-Ihold--|<-Tdeion-|xxxxxxxxxxCLOSEDSAMEGRID->SIGNAL oo
C CLOSED SERIES BREAKERS AT START OF THE SIMULATION
13BUS01ABUS02A CLOSED SRSBK1
13BUS01BBUS02B CLOSED SRSBK1
13BUS01CBUS02C CLOSED SRSBK1
13BUS11ABUS12A CLOSED SRSBK2
13BUS11BBUS12B CLOSED SRSBK2
13BUS11CBUS12C CLOSED SRSBK2
13BUS12ABUS02A CLOSED SRSBK3
13BUS12BBUS02B CLOSED SRSBK3
13BUS12CBUS02C CLOSED SRSBK3
C MEASUREMENT OF LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 307MEAS2.SWT
BLANK RECORD ENDING SWITCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK 1 SOURCES (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 308NTWK1.SRC
BLANK RECORD ENDING SOURCES
BLANK RECORD ENDING NODE VOLTAGE OUTPUT
BLANK RECORD ENDING PLOT
368 5 Mechanically-Switched Voltage Regulators and Power Flow Controllers

Code 5-14 EMTP $INCLUDE file for implementing a three-phase series-connected

capacitor with a reactor (514SERE2.BRN).
C File Name: 514SERE2.BRN
C THREE-PHASE, SERIES-COMPENSATING CAPACITOR WITH A REACTOR
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <---Nodes--><---Nodes--><----R<----L<----C V
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<-Ohms<---mH<---uF V
BUS01ABUS11A 1.785447.358
BUS01BBUS11B 1.785447.358
BUS01CBUS11C 1.785447.358
BUS11ABUS12A 148.57
BUS11BBUS12B 148.57
BUS11CBUS12C 148.57
BUS12ABUS02A 0.001
BUS12BBUS02B 0.001
BUS12CBUS02C 0.001

Table 5-5 Electrical system data.

Parameters Values

Source voltage (Vsrc) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠0 Vpeak

Source resistance (Rsrc) 1.0053 Ω
Source reactance (Xsrc) 7.43875 Ω (19.73 mH)
Receiving-end voltage (Vr) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠−20 Vpeak
Line resistance (R) 3.0159 Ω
Line reactance (X) 22.31625 Ω (59.19 mH)
Series-connected resistor/reactor (R1se, L1se) 1.7854 Ω, 47.358 mH
Series-compensating capacitor (X2se) 148.57 μF

15% capacitive compensation that nullifies the inductive compensation that is already in place. This
is exactly what happens when a VSC-based SSSC is used. A part of the VSC’s capacitive rating is
used to nullify the effect of the added series inductive reactance, contributed by the series-coupling
transformer leakage reactance, which is typically 15% of the full power rating of the SSSC. These
operating points are verified in series compensation with VSCs in Sen and Sen (2009). The com-
pensating reactive power (Qse) exchanged with the line is shown. At 300 ms, all the series breakers
are closed, bypassing the series inductive and capacitive compensations. The line current and
power flow return to the uncompensated or natural levels.
 5.2 Series Compensation 369

V, I, P, Q
(pu) Inductive/capacitive Natural
0
Pr Qse
iA

0
Qr

−1
time
(ms)
v12A 200 400 600

Figure 5-18 Exchanged reactive power (Qse), the resulting voltage (v12A), current (iA), and the active and
reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end of a line due to a series-compensating, mechanically-
switched reactor/capacitor, connected to the line.

5.2.3 Series Reactance Emulator

The compensating voltage (Vs s), calculated in Section 5.2.1, is used to replace the series-connected
reactor between the BUS01 and BUS02 nodes as shown in Figure 5-19. The corresponding EMTP
datafile 515PQPFC.DAT and the user’s input file are shown in Code 5-15 and Code 5-16,
respectively.
Table 5-6 shows the electrical system data for a two-generator/single-line power system network,
compensated by an ideal series-connected PFC, operating as a virtual reactor.
Figure 5-20 shows the EMTP simulation results when the compensating voltage is integrated in a
two-generator/single-line power system network during the time from 75 to 300 ms. The normally-

Figure 5-19 Series-compensating voltage to

BUS02
BUS01

emulate a reactor in series with the line. SRSBRK

Ps′, Qs′
V12
I

SRSTR
Vs CNV02 V2 Vs′
V1
I22
GNDSW
E22
SRSDS
E2

RR
370 5 Mechanically-Switched Voltage Regulators and Power Flow Controllers

Code 5-15 EMTP datafile for a series-compensating reactor, integrated in a two-generator/

single-line power system network (515PQPFC.DAT).
BEGIN NEW DATA CASE
C File Name: 515PQPFC.DAT
C STUDY OF THE EMULATION OF A SERIES-COMPENSATING REACTOR, USING THE MATHEMATICAL
C MODEL OF ST WITH A SHUNT-CONNECTED CURRENT SOURCE (SHUNT UNIT) AND
C A SERIES-CONNECTED VOLTAGE SOURCE (SERIES UNIT),USING AN IDEAL
C SERIES-COUPLING TRANSFORMER WITHOUT ANY LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ----dt<---tmax<---Xopt<---Copt<--Toler< >< >
16.666-6600.00-3
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C -Iprnt<--Iplot<-Idoubl<-KssOut<-MaxOut< >< ><---Icat<-Nenerg
40 10 1
TACS HYBRID
99CRD = 180 / PI
99CDR = 1 / CRD
99TWOPI = 2.0 * PI
C BASE VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND POWER
99Vbase = 112676.528
99Ibase = 946.662704
99Zbase = Vbase / Ibase
99Pbase = 1.5 * Vbase * Ibase
C INPUTS FROM NODE VOLTAGES AND LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 302MEAS1.SWT
C MEASUREMENT OF CURRENTS FLOWING THROUGH THE SERIES UNIT
91CNV02A
91CNV02B
91CNV02C
C NORMALIZATION OF MEASURED VARIABLES AND COMPUTATION OF PEAK VOLTAGES/CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 303PTCT.SCL
C VECTOR PHASE-LOCKED LOOP
$INCLUDE 310VPLL.PLL
C USER’S INPUT FILE
$INCLUDE 516PQPFC.USR
C COMPUTATION OF LINE RESISTANCE
$INCLUDE 305LINER.CMP
C SERIES-COMPENSATING VOLTAGE
99tha2 = theta + PI / 2 + PI + beta
C This addition of PI/2 is because the compensating voltage is sine reference
C and the PLL is cosine reference.
C PI radian is added to reverse the polarity of the series-coupling transformer.
(Continued )
 5.2 Series Compensation 371

Code 5-15 (Continued)

99theta2 = tha2 + TWOPI * (tha2 .LT. 0.0) - TWOPI * (tha2 .GE. TWOPI)
99vsrspk = e2dqrf * Vbase
99e2a = vsrspk * SIN(theta2)
99e2b = vsrspk * SIN(theta2 - 120 * CDR)
99e2c = vsrspk * SIN(theta2 + 120 * CDR)
C Setting up the disconnect switches
99GNDSW = 0
99SRSDS = .NOT. GNDSW
33Prpu Qrpu
BLANK RECORD ENDING TACS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <---Nodes--><---Nodes--><----R<----L<----C V
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<-Ohms<---mH<---uF V
C REPRESENTATION OF SHORTED VS AND BUS01 NODES
VSA BUS01A 0.001
VSB BUS01B 0.001
VSC BUS01C 0.001
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK2 BRANCHES WITH DAMPING RESISTORS (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 311NTWK2.BRN
C HIGH RESISTANCES TO AVOID FLOATING NODES IN THE CIRCUIT
e2a e22a 1.00+8
e2b e22b 1.00+8
e2c e22c 1.00+8
e22a 1.00+8
e22b 1.00+8
e22c 1.00+8
C CONNECTION OF A 3-PHASE SERIES-COUPLING TRANSFORMER WITH NO LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
$INCLUDE 402IDLT2.TRN
BLANK RECORD ENDING BRANCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<---Tclose<----Topen<-------Ie<----Flash<--Request<-----Target<--O
C SERIES DISCONNECT SWITCH TO CONNECT/DISCONNECT THE SERIES UNIT TO THE CIRCUIT
13e2a e22a SRSDS
13e2b e22b SRSDS
13e2c e22c SRSDS
C TECHNIQUE TO SHORT THE SERIES-COMPENSATING VOLTAGE TO CALCULATE THE
C INITIAL CONDITIONS CORRECTLY
13e22a CLOSED GNDSW
13e22b CLOSED GNDSW
13e22c CLOSED GNDSW

(Continued )
372 5 Mechanically-Switched Voltage Regulators and Power Flow Controllers

Code 5-15 (Continued)

C MEASUREMENT OF LINE CURRENTS
$INCLUDE 307MEAS2.SWT
C MEASUREMENT OF CURRENTS FLOWING THROUGH THE SERIES UNIT
CNV02Ae22a MEASURING
CNV02Be22b MEASURING
CNV02Ce22c MEASURING
BLANK RECORD ENDING SWITCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C CONNECTION OF SERIES UNIT VOLTAGE SOURCES TO THE NETWORK
60e2a
60e2b
60e2c
C CONNECTION OF NETWORK1 SOURCES (FIGURE 3-5)
$INCLUDE 308NTWK1.SRC
BLANK RECORD ENDING SOURCES
BLANK RECORD ENDING NODE VOLTAGE OUTPUT
BLANK RECORD ENDING PLOT

Code 5-16 EMTP $INCLUDE file for user’s input (516PQPFC.USR).

C File Name: 516PQPFC.USR
C USER’S INPUT FILE FOR PQPFC
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C SETTING THE COMPENSATING VOLTAGE
99e2cm1 = 0.1889  (TIMEX .GE. 0.050)
99e2cm2 = 0.0339  (TIMEX .GE. 0.175)
99e2cm3 = 0.2228  (TIMEX .GE. 0.300)
99e2dqcm = e2cm1 + e2cm2 - e2cm3
C LOW-PASS FILTER INTRODUCES A RAMP-RATE AND REDUCES SYSTEM TRANSIENTS
1e2dqrf +e2dqcm
1.0
1.0 0.0160
99betcm1 = 264.31  (TIMEX .GE. 0.050)
99betcm2 = 0.68  (TIMEX .GE. 0.175)
99betcmd = (betcm1 - betcm2)  CDR
C LOW-PASS FILTER INTRODUCES A RAMP-RATE AND REDUCES SYSTEM TRANSIENTS
1beta +betcmd
1.0
1.0 0.0020
 5.2 Series Compensation 373

closed series breaker (SRSBRK) opens at 75 ms and stays open for the next 225 ms to connect the
compensating voltage (Vs s) whose magnitude and relative phase angle are shown in Figures 5-9
and 5-15, respectively. Both the active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end
of the line decrease. Further increase in the inductive compensation at 175 ms decreases the active
and reactive power flows at the receiving end of the line simultaneously. At 300 ms, the series-
compensating voltage is set to 0, and the line current and power flow return to the uncompensated
levels. The active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end of the line, shown in
Figure 5-8, due to a series inductive compensation are superimposed in Figure 5-20 and found
to be identical under steady-state operating conditions. Therefore, the series-compensating voltage
demonstrates that the effect of a virtual reactor is the same as that of an actual reactor as described
in Section 5.2.1.

Table 5-6 Electrical system data.

Parameters Values

Source voltage (Vsrc) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠0 Vpeak

Source resistance (Rsrc) 1.0053 Ω
Source reactance (Xsrc) 7.43875 Ω (19.73 mH)
Receiving-end voltage (Vr) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠−20 Vpeak
Line resistance (R) 3.0159 Ω
Line reactance (X) 22.31625 Ω (59.19 mH)
Series-coupling transformer (SRSTR) turns-ratio 1:1
Primary winding resistance 0.001 Ω
Primary winding leakage inductance 0.001 mH
Secondary winding resistance 0.001 Ω
Secondary winding leakage inductance 0.001 mH

P, Q
Inductive Natural
(pu)
Pr

0
Qr

−1
time
(ms)
200 400 600

Figure 5-20 Validation of a series-compensating voltage as an emulated reactor.

374 5 Mechanically-Switched Voltage Regulators and Power Flow Controllers

This technique of creating a series-compensating voltage may be extended further to make the
compensating voltage of any magnitude within the design limit and at any phase angle with respect
to the prevailing line current, which, in turn, emulates a four-quadrant, series-compensating
impedance Zse = Rse − jX se that consists of a resistance (Rse = + R or − R) and a reactance
(Xse = XC or − XL) in series with the line.
 375

Sen Transformer

Sen Transformer (ST), a power-regulating transformer, was presented in Introducing the Family of
Sen Transformers: A Set of Power Flow Controlling Transformers, by K. K. Sen and M. L. Sen at
Power Engineering Society Summer Meeting, Chicago, USA, 2002, and published in IEEE Trans.
on Power Delivery, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 149–157, January 2003. The ST is proposed as part of a broader
SMART Power Flow Controller (SPFC) concept that enhances the controllability in an electric
power transmission system by using functional requirements and cost-effective solutions. An SPFC
is an evolving technology that uses the best technical features from all previous concepts that have
been developed in the power flow control area until now. It uses any solution that is power
electronics-based, non-power electronics-based or a combination of both, irrespective of being
stationary or rotating, to meet the needs of utilities worldwide. The features of a Unified Power
Flow Controller (UPFC) – voltage regulation, resistance regulation, reactance regulation, imped-
ance regulation, phase angle regulation, and independent control of active and reactive power
flows – were demonstrated at American Electric Power’s Inez substation in 1998. The ST, a member
of an SPFC family, adopts the best features of a UPFC and the proven low-cost hardware, used in a
Phase Angle Regulator (PAR), to create a viable Power Flow Controller (PFC) that can be affordable
to utilities worldwide.
In this chapter, the discussion topics are as follows:

•• Power flows in uncompensated and compensated lines

Shunt-Shunt and Shunt-Series configurations and the associated Transformer/Load Tap
Changers (LTCs)-based solutions

• ST model using the Electro-Magnetic Transients Program (EMTP) software for the
– regulation of compensating voltage magnitude and phase angle
– selective programming of the Tap Control Unit to emulate an impedance in series with the line
– factory tests and power flow tests required for the verification of ST performance

• Multiline ST (MST) with either shunt-connected or series-connected Compensating-Voltage

Units

• Generalized ST (GST) with both shunt-connected and series-connected Compensating-Voltage

Units

• Summary of the comparison of the VRT, PAR, UPFC, and ST characteristics.

Power Flow Control Solutions for a Modern Grid using SMART Power Flow Controllers, First Edition.
Kalyan K. Sen and Mey Ling Sen.
© 2022 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/sen/powerflowcontrol
376 6 Sen Transformer

Today’s power grid has evolved into a massive integration of renewable generation, which is
intermittent in nature. The intermittency stems from clouds passing over a solar farm or
the wind changing its speed at the wind farm. Therefore, traditional steady-state power flow
controllers, such as series-connected reactor/capacitor concepts need to be updated with an
improved dynamic response. Additionally, increasing installation of roof-top solar and its
integration into a low-voltage distribution network has altered the traditional voltage profile
in the distribution network and increased the need for a bidirectional power flow controller
when the renewable generation is not available as outlined in PES-TR-77, titled “Stability
Definitions and Characterization of Dynamic Behavior in Systems with High Penetration of
Power Electronic Interfaced Technologies,” which is available at https://resourcecenter.
ieee-pes.org/technical-publications/technical-reports/PES_TP_TR77_PSDP_stability_051320.
html. The ST is capable of regulating a bidirectional power flow and maintaining the desired
voltage profile.
In Chapter 2, it was derived that any regulation technique whether it is voltage regulation, power
flow regulation, resistance regulation, reactance regulation, impedance regulation or phase angle
regulation is actually a direct or indirect implementation of an impedance regulation technique.
The ST can regulate the line impedance directly, which is beneficial in stabilizing Inverter-Based
Resources (IBRs), such as solar farms where numerous inverters are optimized to operate with their
control gains, which are tuned to match the parameters of the plant that the inverters are connected
to. In an event when a line trips, the impedance of the plant changes and the control parameters
become out-of-tune, causing the IBRs’ operation to become unstable and the IBRs to trip as outlined
in PES-TR-77. Therefore, utilizing the impedance regulation feature of ST, the IBRs can be operated
with stability during various network contingencies.
It is widely accepted that the active power flow in a line is primarily influenced by the phase
angle difference of the voltages at both ends of the line and reactive power flow in a line primarily
influenced by the magnitude difference of the voltages at both ends of the line. This is true when
the line reactance is more dominant than the line resistance. However, in low-voltage distribu-
tion lines, it is opposite where line resistance is more dominant than the line reactance. There-
fore, both the line resistance and reactance must be considered in determining the accurate power
flow in a line. If the line impedance needs to be altered, an Impedance Regulator (IR), such as ST,
is needed.
Modeling is essential for a successful implementation of a concept. Before the realization of a
utility project, a load flow and voltage stability study are usually performed. In these studies,
the power system network may consist of tens of thousands of voltage busses. However, a transient
study typically involves the simulation of a reduced power system network that consists of only a
few to tens of voltage busses around the installation site. The transients study can be performed
using a mathematical model of a particular controller, such as an IR. This model is also suitable
for a transient study during a fault and to formulate a protection scheme.
In this chapter, an ST model is developed using EMTP. The emphasis of this model is to pre-
serve the details of an ST configuration that cannot be obtained from a load flow model, since a
load flow model generates steady-state results, using a positive-sequence single-phase equivalent
circuit. The operation of the EMTP model is verified with the model connected to several different
power system networks that can easily be upgraded to a particular utility’s more representative
power system network. The model is run for a sufficiently long time until steady-state conditions
are reached for each operating point under consideration. These results give the transmission net-
work planners important information before proceeding further in the realization of an actual
installation.
 6.1 Existing Solutions 377

6.1 Existing Solutions

As described in detail in Chapter 2, the electric power flow through an AC transmission line is a
function of the line impedance (Z = R + jX), the magnitudes of the sending-end voltage (Vs = Vs ∠ δs)
and the receiving-end voltage (Vr = Vr ∠ δr), and the phase angle (δ) between these two voltages.
Figure 6-1 shows a two-generator/one-line power system network with only a line reactance (X), con-
necting the sending-end and receiving-end voltage sources. The difference between the sending-end
voltage (Vs) and the receiving-end voltage (Vr) determines the voltage (VXn) across the line reactance
(X) when the line resistance (R) is neglected. The voltage (VXn) determines the line current (In) and,
in turn, the active and reactive power flows (Psn and Qsn) at the sending end and (Prn and Qrn) at the
receiving end of the line. The suffix “n” indicates the natural power flow condition when the line is
uncompensated.
The natural active and reactive power flows (Psn and Qsn) at the sending end and the natural
active and reactive power flows (Prn and Qrn) at the receiving end are defined in Chapter 2 as
Psn = a × sin δ 2-40
where
V sV r
a= 2-41
X
and
δ = δs − δr , 2-27
Vs
Qsn = a − cos δ , 2-43
Vr
Prn = a × sin δ, 2-46
and
Vr
Qrn = a cos δ − 2-48
Vs
The natural or uncompensated power flow through a transmission line in a power network is,
in general, not optimal. It can be improved with a PFC by regulating the power flow control

(a) (b)
Psn , Qsn Prn , Qrn
VXn
In In
VXn

Vs In Vr
Vs Vr
δ
90°

Figure 6-1 (a) Two-generator/one-line uncompensated power system network; (b) phasor diagram.
378 6 Sen Transformer

parameters, such as line voltage magnitude, its phase angle, and line reactance. Any of the power
flow control parameters can be regulated with the use of the following equipment:

• Voltage-Regulating Transformer (VRT), shunt or parallel-connected switched reactor/capacitor,

also known as Shunt Reactor (SR)/Shunt Capacitor (SC), Static Var Compensator (SVC), or
STATic synchronous COMpensator (STATCOM) for voltage regulation

•• Phase Angle Regulator (PAR) or Phase-Shifting Transformer (PST) for phase angle regulation
Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) or Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC)
for series reactance regulation.

By regulating any one of the power flow control parameters using one of the above equipment,
both the active and reactive power flows (P and Q) in the line are affected simultaneously.
Consider that the Point of Connection (POC) to the utility is at its sending end. Assuming that
there are no changes in the line impedance and the receiving-end voltage, a PFC can control the
active and reactive power flows to be a particular pair of values by modifying the sending-end volt-
age to a specific magnitude and phase angle Vs = V s ∠δs .
This can be accomplished by connecting a compensating voltage in shunt with the line, using a
Shunt-Shunt configuration. In 2000, a Back-To-Back STATic synchronous COMpensator (BTB-
STATCOM) in the form of a Shunt-Shunt configuration was commissioned at the Eagle Pass sub-
station in Texas, USA, to connect two asynchronous networks – Comisión Federal de Electricidad
(CFE) in Mexico and American Electric Power (AEP) in USA. A ±36 MVA-rated BTB-STATCOM
asynchronous tie demonstrated for the first time that the active power could be transferred from
one power grid to another through the BTB-STATCOM while at the same time, independent shunt
reactive compensations could be provided at the points of connection with both power grids – CFE
and AEP. In some special cases for point-to-point transfer of power between two isolated networks
or interconnection of two power grids with different voltages or phase angles (or frequencies), this
scheme may be the preferred choice.
In a Shunt-Series configuration, referred to as an IR, a series-compensating voltage
(Vs s = V s s ∠ δs + β is connected in series with the line as shown in Figure 6-2a. When the

(a) (b)
Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr I
Vs′s Vs's
VX
I
β
X
Vs′
VX Vr
Pse Vr Vs
Vs
Qse Vs′

δ′

δ
δr δs δs′

Figure 6-2 (a) Two-generator/one-line power system network with a series-compensating voltage, Vs s;
(b) phasor diagram.
 6.1 Existing Solutions 379

series-compensating voltage is added to the sending-end voltage (Vs), the modified sending-end
voltage becomes Vs . The difference between the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) and the receiv-
ing-end voltage (Vr) determines the voltage (VX) across the line reactance (X). The voltage (VX)
determines the line current (I) and, in turn, the active and reactive power flows (P and Q) in
the line. The related phasor diagram is shown in Figure 6-2b. The circle, formed around the tip
of phasor (Vs) with radius (Vs s), is the locus of Vs . The circle defines the controllable area of
an IR. Several PFCs with a Shunt-Series configuration have been installed in USA, South Korea,
and China for use as UPFCs. In 1998, a ±160 MVA-rated UPFC, installed at AEP’s Inez substation
in Kentucky, USA, demonstrated for the first time that the active and reactive power flows in a line
could be regulated independently while maintaining a fixed line voltage at the POC.
Regardless of whether the compensating voltage is series- or shunt-connected, it is at any phase
angle with the prevailing line current; therefore, it exchanges active and reactive powers with the
line at the POC and emulates a four-quadrant, compensating impedance that consists of a positive
resistance (+R) or a negative resistance (−R) and a capacitive reactance (XC) or an inductive reac-
tance (XL) in series with the line. When a VSC-based Shunt-Series configuration, such as a UPFC, is
used, the exchanged active power by the Series Unit flows bidirectionally through the DC link to the
Shunt Unit. When a magnetic link-based Shunt-Series configuration, such as an ST, is used, the
exchanged active and reactive powers by the Series Unit flow bidirectionally through the link to
the Shunt Unit. Alternately, the exchanged active and reactive powers by the Series Unit flow bidir-
ectionally through the link to another Series Unit in a Series-Series configuration. In a VSC-based
Series-Series configuration, such as an Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC), only the exchanged
active power flows through the DC link. However, in a magnetic link-based Series-Series config-
uration, such as a Multi-line Sen Transformer (MST), the exchanged active and reactive powers
flow bidirectionally through the magnetic link.
In 2003, a ±100 MVA-rated IPFC, installed at New York Power Authority’s Marcy substation in
New York, USA, demonstrated for the first time that the active and reactive (P and Q) powers in a
transmission line could be transferred from one specific line to another specific line without alter-
ing the power flows in the remaining lines where several transmission lines are connected to a com-
mon bus. Note that in a similar situation, regulating power flow in one line using a Shunt-Series
configuration can affect the power flows in other lines.
When a VSC-based Shunt-Shunt configuration, such as a BTB-STATCOM, is used, the exchanged
active power by one Shunt Unit flows bidirectionally through the DC link to another Shunt Unit.
When a magnetic link-based Shunt-Shunt configuration, such as an ST, is used, the exchanged
active and reactive powers by one Shunt Unit flow bidirectionally through the link to the other
Shunt Unit as discussed in Section 6.8.
The active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs ) at the modified sending end and active and
reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end for a modified power angle (δ = δ + ψ)
are defined as

Ps = a sin δ 2-59

where

Vs Vr
a = 2-61
X
and

δ = δs − δr 2-62
380 6 Sen Transformer

or
δ = δ + ψ, 2-51a
Vs
Qs = a − cos δ , 2-60
Vr
Pr = a sin δ 2-74
and
Vr
Qr = a cos δ − 2-75
Vs
From Equations (2-74), (2-75), and (2-61), it can be found that for given active and reactive power
flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end, a PFC with a Shunt-Shunt configuration applies a voltage
(Vs ), such that
2
X V 2r
Vs = P2r + Qr + 2-81
Vr X

and
Pr
δ = tan − 1 , 2-82a
V2
Qr + r
X
which can be rearranged to obtain the phase-shift angle as
Pr
ψ = tan − 1 −δ 2-82b
V 2r
Qr +
X
using Equation (2-51b).
In an alternate approach, the same active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) can be obtained
using a PFC with a Shunt-Series configuration that applies a series-compensating voltage (Vs s)
such that
V s s ∠β = V s ∠ψ − V s ∠0 2-94b
with δs = 0 where
ψ = δ −δ 2-51b
The magnitude (Vs s) and relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) are

Vs s = V 2s + V 2s − 2Vs Vs cos ψ 2-100

and
V s sin ψ
β = tan − 1 2-101
V s cos ψ − V s

Transformer/Load Tap Changers (LTCs)-based solutions for PFCs, using Shunt-Shunt and
Shunt-Series configurations, integrated with a two-generator/one-line power system network,
and their phasor diagrams are shown in Figure 6-3. In Figure 6-3a, the primary three-phase wind-
ings (A, B, and C) are excited from the line voltage in Shunt Unit 1; the modified sending-end
 6.1 Existing Solutions 381

(a) (b)
Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr
VX I
Psrc , Qsrc I
1.20
Ps , Qs 1.15
Vs′ 0 1.10
X 1.05
1 Vs′ Vr 1.00
Vs VX Vr
P1sh P2sh
Plink A1 Vs′ Vs Vs′ Vs
A Q1sh Q2sh
Qlink
Shunt VA1
Unit 2 1
δ′
1.2

0 1.2
1

Shunt ψ
1.2

C1
1

Unit 1
δ
δr δs δs′
0

B1
0.00

0. 05
0. 10
0.
0.2 15
V C1

0
(d)
Va1
Sen Transformer (Shunt-Shunt) 0.20
(c) Vs′s
I
Vs′s 0.15
Psrc , Qsrc 0.10
Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr 0.05
Ps , Qs 1.00
Series β β
VX

0. 05
Vs′s Unit

0. 10
0.
0.2 15
I

0
1 V c1
Psh a1 0 VX Vr
Vs
Vs′ X Vr
Qsh Vs′ Vs Vs′ Vs
0.20
A b1
0

0.2

c1
0

δ′
Plink Pse
0 Qse ψ
Qlink
Shunt
Unit δ
Sen Transformer (Shunt-Series) δr δs δs′

Figure 6-3 Transformer/LTCs-based solutions for power flow controllers using (a) Shunt-Shunt configuration
and (b) its related phasor diagram; (c) Shunt-Series configuration and (d) its related phasor diagram.

voltage (Vs ), which is the shunt-compensating voltage with magnitude (Vs ) and phase-shift angle
(ψ), is generated for the A phase in Shunt Unit 2 by implementing the equation:
Vs A = VA1 + VB1 + VC1
or
V s A ∠ψ A = K A1 V sA + K B1 V sB + K C1 V sC = K A1 V sA + K B1 e − j2π 3 V sA + K C1 e j2π 3 V sA 6-1
where

VA1, VB1, and VC1 are active voltages in the shunt-compensating windings (A1, B1, and C1) of the
A phase,
K A1 = 1 05, K B1 = 0, and K C1 = 0 20 are the active turns-ratios of the secondary, shunt-compensating
windings in the A phase and the corresponding primary windings,
Vs A is the magnitude of the A-phase shunt-compensating voltage, which is also the voltage at the
modified sending end of the line,
ψ A is the phase-shift angle for the A-phase voltage at the modified sending end of the line, and
VsA is the magnitude of the A-phase voltage at the sending end of the line.
382 6 Sen Transformer

Note that the A-phase shunt-compensating winding is 105% active; the B-phase shunt-
compensating winding is inactive, since it is bypassed; the C-phase shunt-compensating winding
is 20% active at the particular operating point, shown in the Figure 6-3a. Figure 6-3b shows the
corresponding phasor diagram. Note that the filled dots in the phasor diagram (Figures 6-3b and
6-3d) represent the end of the A and C compensating phasors, respectively.
The same modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) can be generated by connecting the compensating
voltage (Vs s) with magnitude (Vs s) and the relative phase angle (β) in series with the sending-end
voltage (Vs). Figure 6-3c shows the implementation of the Equation (2-94a) with δs = 0 for the
A phase:
V s A ∠ψ A = V sA ∠0 + V s sA ∠βA 6-2
where
V s sA ∠βA = Vs sA = Va1 + Vb1 + Vc1
or
V s sA ∠βA = k a1 V sA + k b1 V sB + k c1 V sC = k a1 V sA + k b1 e − j2π 3 V sA + k c1 e j2π 3
V sA 6-3
where

Va1, Vb1, and Vc1 are active voltages in the series-compensating windings (a1, b1, and c1) of the
A phase,
ka1 = 0.05, kb1 = 0, and kc1 = 0.20 are the active turns-ratios of the secondary, series-compensating
windings in the A phase and the corresponding primary windings,
Vs sA is the magnitude of the series-compensating voltage in the A phase, and
βA is the relative phase angle of the series-compensating voltage in the A phase.

Note that the A-phase series-compensating winding is 5% active; the B-phase, series-
compensating winding is inactive, since it is bypassed; the C-phase series-compensating winding
is 20% active at the particular operating point, shown in Figure 6-3c. Figure 6-3d shows the corre-
sponding phasor diagram.
It is important to note that the compensating voltages in both the series- and shunt-connected
Compensating-Voltage Units are composed of three series-connected voltages from the three
phases: A, B, and C; however, the series-compensating voltage is connected in series with the line,
while the shunt-compensating voltage is connected in shunt with the line.
It is also important to note that in the Shunt-Series configuration, the series-compensating volt-
age carries the full line current and its terminal voltage rating is a fractional amount of the line
voltage. Therefore, the rating of the Shunt-Series configuration is only a fraction of the transmitted
power of the line. In the Shunt-Shunt configuration, the shunt-compensating voltage also carries
the full line current, but its terminal voltage rating is the same as the full line voltage. Therefore, the
rating of the Shunt-Shunt configuration is the same as the transmitted power of the line. For the
same amount of controllable transmitted power, the Shunt-Shunt configuration requires higher-
power-rated hardware than what is required in a Shunt-Series configuration. For the same amount
of transmitted power, the Shunt-Shunt configuration costs more than the Shunt-Series configura-
tion. Therefore, the preferred topology of a PFC uses a Shunt-Series configuration. A Shunt-Shunt
configuration may, however, be the preferred choice for the interconnection of two nearby grids
with different voltages or phase angles.
The Voltage-Sourced Converter (VSC)-based technology has the capability of providing a fast
dynamic response, but this capability is not required in most utility applications, where the
need is to regulate the line voltage and the power flow in the line(s) in a relatively slow manner.
 6.1 Existing Solutions 383

Although the UPFC offers a more versatile power flow control capability than any previously devel-
oped PFC, it has two major drawbacks: its high installation and operating costs. Over the decades,
the list of drawbacks has expanded to include component obsolescence, impracticability of reloca-
tion and, lack of interoperability. In order to address these issues, the ST is proposed as part of a
broader SPFC concept. The ST is based on the proven transformers/LTCs technology that is known
to the power industry worldwide for almost a century as reliable and cost-effective.
It is well established that for an optimum operation of a line, independent control of active and
reactive power flows in the line is necessary. These require the line voltage to be modified to a spe-
cific magnitude and phase angle. For many decades, the regulations of voltage magnitude and its
phase angle have been accomplished using the VRT and PAR, respectively. The ST performs both
voltage and phase angle regulations in one unit that is the most cost-effective solution.
The ST is a new family of power flow controlling transformers that provides the same independ-
ent control of active and reactive power flows as the UPFC, albeit at a reduced dynamic rate, but
with an estimated 5:1 reduction in equipment cost and a 10:1 reduction in operational cost. The
objective in this chapter is to describe the evolution of the ST and introduce it as the most cost-effec-
tive and independent active and reactive PFC in a utility application.

6.1.1 Voltage Regulation

The VRT, in a Shunt-Series configuration, consists of two parts: Exciter Unit and Voltage-
Regulating unit as shown in Figure 6-4a. The Exciter Unit consists of three-phase (A, B, and C),

(a)
IA
Vs′sA

VsA Vs′A
Vs′sB IB

VsB Vs′B
Vs′sC IC

VsC Vs′C

− 0.25
(b)
1
Vs′sA Vs′A
Exciter VsA
Unit A
+ 0.25
.25
+0

B
.25

Vs′C VsB
−0

C VsC
+0

Vs′sB
.25

Vs′sC
−0

Vs′B
.25

Voltage-
Regulating Unit

Figure 6-4 (a) Voltage-Regulating Transformer (Shunt-Series configuration); (b) phasor diagram.
384 6 Sen Transformer

Y-connected primary windings that are connected in shunt with the line. The three-phase primary
windings are excited from the three-phase line voltages (VsA, VsB, and VsC). A three-phase set of
bipolar compensating voltages (Vs sA, Vs sB, and Vs sC) in the range of 0.25 pu that are either in
phase or out of phase with the corresponding phase-to-neutral voltage are generated from the
induced secondary voltages. The Voltage-Regulating Unit consists of a total of six secondary wind-
ings (two windings in each phase). With the use of LTCs, the magnitude of the compensating volt-
age (Vs s) is varied. The compensating voltage is connected in series with the line to increase or
decrease the line voltage from an uncompensated voltage (Vs) to a compensated voltage (Vs ).
Figure 6-4b shows the related phasor diagram. Figure 6-4 shows that the line voltage can be regu-
lated between 0.75 and 1.25 pu. Note that the LTC taps are set to regulate the line voltage at
1.125 pu.
The VRT, in a Shunt-Shunt configuration, consists of two parts: Exciter Unit and Voltage-
Regulating Unit as shown in Figure 6-5a. The Exciter Unit consists of a three-phase (A, B, and
C), Y-connected primary windings that are connected in shunt with the line. The three-phase pri-
mary windings are excited from the three-phase line voltages (VsA, VsB, and VsC). Three-phase
compensating voltages (Vs A, Vs B, and Vs C) in the range of 1.25 pu that are in phase with the cor-
responding phase-to-neutral primary voltages are generated from the induced voltages in the sec-
ondary windings. The Voltage-Regulating Unit consists of a total of three secondary windings (one
winding in each phase). With the use of LTCs, the magnitude of the compensating voltage (Vs ) is
varied. The compensating voltage is connected in shunt with the line to increase or decrease the line
voltage from an uncompensated voltage (Vs) to a compensated voltage (Vs ). Figure 6-5b shows the
related phasor diagram. Figure 6-5 shows that the line voltage can be regulated up to 1.25 pu. Note
that the LTC taps are set to regulate the line voltage at 1.125 pu.

(a)
IA

VsA Vs′A
IB

VsB Vs′B
IC

VsC Vs′C

1.25 (b)
1
Vs′A
A A VsA

0 0
0
0

B C
0

Vs′C VsB
C
5

B
1

1.2

VsC
1

Vs′B
1.2
5

Exciter Unit Voltage-

Regulating Unit

Figure 6-5 (a) Voltage-Regulating Transformer (Shunt-Shunt configuration); (b) phasor diagram.
 6.1 Existing Solutions 385

6.1.2 Phase Angle Regulation

The effective phase angle of the line voltage is varied by using the PAR (asym). The PAR (asym) – a
Shunt-Series configuration gets excited from the shunt-connected line voltage and connects a com-
pensating voltage in series with the line; the compensating voltage is in quadrature with the phase-
to-neutral line voltage as shown in Figure 6-6a. In a typical configuration, the PAR (asym) consists
of two transformers. The first transformer (Exciter Unit) is called a regulating transformer. Its
three-phase (A, B, and C), Y-connected primary windings are connected in shunt with the line.
The three-phase primary windings are excited from the line voltages (VsA, VsB, and VsC) and
three-phase voltages (VA, VB, and VC) in the range of 0 to 0.25 pu are induced in the regulating
transformer secondary windings. For a series connection of this voltage to the line, an electrical
isolation is necessary. The second transformer (Series Unit) is called a series transformer, which
is connected in series with the line. The secondary voltages of the regulating transformer are
the primary voltages of the series transformer. These voltages are phase-to-phase voltages (VB −
VC, VC − VA, and VA − VB) in the range of 0 to 0.25 × √3 pu and in quadrature with the
phase-to-neutral voltages of the line. Three-phase, bipolar compensating voltages (Vs sA, Vs sB,
and Vs sC) that are in quadrature with the phase-to-neutral voltages of the line are induced in
the secondary windings of the series transformer. The magnitude of the series-compensating volt-
age is varied using the LTCs in the secondary windings of the regulating transformer. The induced
voltage of the series transformer is connected in series with the line. Figure 6-6b shows the related

(a)

VC VB Series
IA
Unit

VsA VA VC Vs′A
Vs′sA IB

VsB VB VA Vs′B
Vs′sB IC

VsC Vs′sC Vs′C

1 + 0.25 (b)
Vs′sA
Exciter VA
Unit Vs′A VsA Vs′A
A
− 0.25 ψA ψA
0 ψB Vs′B
.25

VC Vs′C ψC
−0

0
0
.25

B VsC VsB
+0

−0

ψC ψB
1

C
.25

Vs′sC Vs′sB
1

Vs′C Vs′B
+0

VB
.25

Figure 6-6 (a) Phase Angle Regulator (asymmetric); (b) phasor diagram.
386 6 Sen Transformer

phasor diagram. A positive compensating voltage creates a positive phase-shift angle (ψ) and vice
versa. Figure 6-6 shows that the compensating voltage can be regulated in the range of ± 0.25 × √3
pu, followed by a gain of 5:3 from the turns-ratio of the series transformer. Note that the LTC taps
are set to regulate the compensating voltage at −0.625/√3 pu, which is −0.125 × √3 × 5/3 pu.
The VRT, in either a Shunt-Series configuration or a Shunt-Shunt configuration, modifies the line
voltage by increasing or decreasing the magnitude, but not its phase angle. The phase angle remains
almost the same as that of the original voltage before compensation. The PAR (asym) modifies,
primarily, the phase angle of the line voltage and, secondarily, increases the magnitude of the volt-
age as discussed in Chapters 1 through 4. But, for a regulation of the active and reactive power flows
in the line independently, the PFC needs to modify the line voltage (Vs = Vs ∠ δs) to a specific mag-
nitude (Vs ) and phase angle (δs ) as desired.

6.2 Desired Solution

A series-compensating voltage (Vs s), shown in Figure 6-7a, modifies the magnitude and phase
angle of the line voltage independently as desired. For the desired amount of active and reactive
power flows in the line, the compensating voltage needs to be a specific magnitude (Vs s) and at
a relative phase angle (β) with respect to the line voltage.
The desired series-compensating voltage can be composed of two orthogonal voltages: one reg-
ulates the magnitude of the line voltage and the other regulates the phase angle of the line voltage as
can be implemented with the use of the VRT and PAR, respectively. The ST combines the functions
of the VRT and the PAR (asym) in a single unit that results in a reduced amount of hardware from
what is required separately for a VRT and a PAR.
Consider a two-generator/one-line power system network with a sending-end voltage (Vs = Vs ∠ δs),
a receiving-end voltage (Vr = Vr ∠ δr), the voltage (VX = VX ∠ θVX) across the line reactance (X), and a
compensating voltage (Vs s) as shown in Figure 6-7a. When the compensating voltage
Vs s = V s s ∠ δs + β is added in series with the line, the modified sending-end voltage becomes
Vs = Vs + Vs s. Figure 6-7b shows the phasor diagram related to the series-compensating voltage
with a fixed magnitude of 0.2 pu and its entire controllable range of the relative phase angle of
0 ≤ β ≤ 360 . The difference voltage VX = Vs − Vr provides the voltage (VX) across the line reac-
tance (X). As the relative phase angle (β) is varied over its full 360 range, the end of phasor (Vs s)
moves along a circle with its center located at the end of phasor (Vs). The rotation of phasor (Vs s)
modulates the magnitude and phase angle of phasor (VX). The figure also shows the characteristics
of a Voltage Regulator (VR), a PAR (symmetric and asymmetric), and a Reactance Regulator (RR).
In the transmission system considered above, the magnitude (Vs ) and phase angle (δs ) of the
modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) are modulated between Vs = Vs + Vs s and Vs = Vs − Vs s
and between δs = δs + ψ max and δs = δs − ψ max , respectively, where V s s = 0 2 pu and ψ max
= 11.54 during the relative phase angle ranges β12 and β34 as shown in Figure 6-7c. Note that
the line voltage is allowed to be controlled within a narrow band, for example 10% of the
nominal value.
The compensating voltage (Vs s) is at any phase angle with the prevailing line current (I) and,
therefore, exchanges with the line both active power (Pse = VdI) and reactive power (Qse = VqI),
where Vd = Vd and Vq = jVq are the respective active or direct and reactive or quadrature compo-
nents of the compensating voltage with load convention, meaning the line current (I) enters at the
higher potential terminal of the compensating voltage as shown in Figure 6-7a. These exchanged
active and reactive powers (Pse and Qse) are also sinusoidal functions of the relative phase angle (β)
 6.2 Desired Solution 387

as shown in Figure 6-7d. For a given magnitude of a compensating voltage, the exchanged capac-
itive power (Qse) by the compensating voltage (Vs s) is larger than its inductive counterpart due to
the fact that the capacitive compensation produces a larger line current. The compensating voltage,
being at any phase angle with the prevailing line current, emulates a four-quadrant, series-
compensating impedance (Z = Rse − jXse) that consists of a resistance (Rse = + R or − R) and a reac-
tance (Xse = XC or − XL) in series with the line. Therefore, the series-compensating voltage (Vs s)
acts as an IR.
The active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end vary with the relative phase
angle (β) in a sinusoidal manner as shown in Figure 6-7e. The relationship between Qr and Pr is a
circle centered at (Prn, Qrn) with a radius of ar, where Prn and Qrn are the natural active and reactive
power flows at the receiving end of the line without any compensation, and ar is the maximum
power flow enhancement. The active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end

(a)
Vs′s
Psrc , Qsrc Ps' , Qs' Pr , Qr
Ps , Qs Vd Vq
VX
I

X
Vs Vs' Vr

Pse Qse
= Vd I = Vq I

(b) I
′−R′ VR Line
with
PAR (asym)
Vs′s Line

Pse
β Vr
PAR (sym)
VX Line
with ′+R′ RR Line
δ
Vs' Vs (Vd = 0)
2

δ′

ψ
δ
δr δs δs′

Figure 6-7 (a, b) Effect of a series-compensating voltage on power flow in a two-generator/one-line power
system network: (a) power system network with a series-compensating voltage (Vs s); (b) phasor diagram; (c) the
variations of the line voltage magnitude (Vs ) at the modified sending end and phase-shift angle (ψ); (d) the
variations of the exchanged active and reactive powers by the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) as a function
of the relative phase angle (β); (e) variations of the receiving-end active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) as a
function of the relative phase angle (β); (f ) receiving-end Qr versus Pr.
388 6 Sen Transformer

(c) (pu)
Vs′ for Vs′s = 0.2 pu Vs′ for Vs′s = 0
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
β12 Vs′s β34
ψmax
10° 0.8 β3 β4 β
ψ
0 0
β1 β2
− 10° 180° 360°
− ψmax

(d) (pu) Pse XC XL XC

0.25 for Vs′s = 0.2 pu
β
0
180° 360°
− 0.25 Qse for Vs′s = 0.2 pu
−R +R −R

(e)

ar Pr for Vs′s = 0.2 pu

(pu)
1
Prn
ar

0.5 β
0
ar
180° 360°

Qrn
ar Qr for Vs′s = 0.2 pu
− 0.5
(f)
RR Line δ β = 0°
Qr (pu) (Pse = 0)
Pr (pu)
0
1
PAR ar
(asym) with ′−R′
Line
− 0.5 VR Line Pse
β
with ' +R'
(Pr*, Q*r)
PAR
− 1.0 (sym) (Prn , Qrn)
Line
Figure 6-7 (Continued)
 6.2 Desired Solution 389

of the line can be controlled within the range defined by the P-Q plot in Figure 6-7f by choosing the
magnitude (Vs s) of the compensating voltage (Vs s) within its rated value and the relative phase
angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 . If the magnitude (Vs s) of the compensating voltage is increased, the con-
trollable range of the power flows in the P-Q plane is also increased. When the controllable range
extends to all four quadrants, bidirectional and independent control of active and reactive power
flows are achieved. For the desired active and reactive power flows (Pr∗ and Qr∗), within the allow-
able control range, the required magnitude (Vs s) and the phase angle (β) between the voltage reg-
ulator line (i.e. β = 0 line) and the line that passes through (Prn, Qrn) and (Pr∗, Qr∗) can be
determined from Equations (2-138) and (2-139) as

X 2 2
Vs s = P∗r − Prn + Q∗r − Qrn
Vr
and
P∗r − Prn
β = tan − 1 −δ
Q∗r − Qrn
When a series-compensating voltage is used to modify the line voltage, the following occur.

• The compensating voltage can be either in phase or out of phase with the phase-to-neutral voltage
of the line to implement the function of the VRT.

• The compensating voltage can be in quadrature with the phase-to-neutral voltage of the line to
implement the function of the PAR (asym).

• The compensating voltage can be such that it provides a series reactance compensation because it
is in quadrature with the prevailing line current. If the circular controllable area is equally
divided by the reactance compensator line (Vd = 0 or Pse = 0), the upper and lower halves rep-
resent Pse due to −R and +R, respectively.

Any compensator that provides compensation for one power flow control parameter (voltage
magnitude, its phase angle, or line reactance) operates on a set of linear operating points inside
the P-Q circle as defined above. Since these operating characteristic lines are neither horizontal
nor vertical in the P-Q plane at the receiving end, controlling one parameter with the use of these
compensators affects both the active and reactive power flows in the line simultaneously as shown
in Figure 6-7f. The same conclusion can be drawn in regard to the active and reactive power flows
at the modified sending end.

6.2.1 ST as a New Voltage Regulator

Figure 6-8a shows a new voltage regulator with a Shunt-Series configuration, which is a three-phase
transformer with Y-connected primary windings (A, B, and C), called the Exciter Unit, and three
secondary windings (one winding in each phase: a1 on the core of the A phase, b2 on the core of the
B phase, and c3 on the core of the C phase), called the Compensating-Voltage Unit. The three-phase
sending-end voltages (VsA, VsB, and VsC) are applied to the Exciter Unit. The in-phase component
of the compensating voltage for any phase is induced in a secondary winding that is placed on the
corresponding phase of the transformer core. By choosing the number of turns of the secondary
windings with the use of LTCs, the magnitude of the compensating voltage (Vs s) is varied in
the range of 0 to 0.2 pu. Note that the three compensating windings (a1, b2, and c3) have the same
number of turns. The compensating voltage is connected in series with the line to increase the line
voltage from an uncompensated voltage (Vs) to a compensated voltage (Vs ). Figure 6-8b shows
the related phasor diagram. Figure 6-8 shows that the line voltage can be regulated between 1
and 1.2 pu. Note that the LTC taps are set to regulate the line voltage at 1.1 pu.
390 6 Sen Transformer

(a)

Vs′sA IA
VsA
0
a1 IB Vs′A
VsB 0.2
IC Vs′B
VsC
1 Vs′C
Vs′sB

A (b)
b2 Vs′sA Vs′A

0.2
VsA

0
0
0

Vs′sC Vs′C
0

VsB
V Vs′sB
B Vs′sCsC Vs′B
C
0. 2
1

0
1

c3

Exciter Unit Compensating-Voltage Unit

Figure 6-8 (a) Voltage-Regulating Transformer for increasing line voltage; (b) phasor diagram.

Figure 6-9a shows a new voltage regulator with a Shunt-Series configuration, which is a three-
phase transformer with Y-connected primary windings (A, B, and C), called the Exciter Unit, and
six secondary windings (two windings in each phase: a2 and a3 on the core of the A phase; b1 and b3
on the core of the B phase; and c1 and c2 on the core of the C phase), called the Compensating-
Voltage Unit. The three-phase sending-end voltages (VsA, VsB, and VsC) are applied to the Exciter
Unit. The out-of-phase component of the compensating voltage for any phase is derived from the
phasor sum of the voltages induced in two equal-turn windings that are placed on the remaining
two phases of the transformer core. By choosing the number of turns of the secondary windings
with the use of LTCs, the magnitude of the compensating voltage (Vs s) is varied in the range of
0 to 0.2 pu. Note that the six compensating windings (a2, a3, b1, b3, c1, and c2) have the same number
of turns. The compensating voltage is connected in series with the line to decrease the line voltage
from an uncompensated voltage (Vs) to a compensated voltage (Vs ). Figure 6-9b shows the related
phasor diagram. Figure 6-9 shows that the line voltage can be regulated between 0.8 and 1 pu. Note
that the LTC taps are set to regulate the line voltage at 0.9 pu.
Figure 6-10a shows the ST, which is a three-phase transformer with Y-connected primary wind-
ings (A, B, and C), called the Exciter Unit, and nine secondary windings (three windings in each
phase: a1, a2, and a3 on the core of the A phase; b1, b2, and b3 on the core of the B phase; and c1, c2,
and c3 on the core of the C phase), called the Compensating-Voltage Unit. The three-phase sending-
end voltages (VsA, VsB, and VsC) are applied to the Exciter Unit. The compensating voltage is con-
nected in series with the line to increase or decrease the line voltage from an uncompensated volt-
age (Vs) to a compensated voltage (Vs ). The in-phase component of the compensating voltage for
any phase is induced in a secondary winding that is placed on the corresponding phase of the trans-
former core. The out-of-phase component of the compensating voltage for any phase is derived
from the phasor sum of the voltages induced in two equal-turn windings that are placed on the
remaining two phases of the transformer core. By choosing the number of turns of the secondary
 6.2 Desired Solution 391

(a)
Vs′sA IA
VsA

IB Vs′A

0.2
VsB
b1

0
IC Vs′B

0.2
VsC c1

0
1 Vs′C
Vs′sB
0
A a2

0.2
0.2 (b)

0
VsA Vs′sA
c2
Vs′A
0
Vs′C
0

Vs′sC Vs′sC
0

VsB
0 VsC Vs′B
B a3 Vs′sB
C
0.2
1

b3
1

0.2

Exciter Unit Compensating-Voltage Unit

Figure 6-9 (a) Voltage-Regulating Transformer for decreasing line voltage; (b) phasor diagram.

(a)

Vs′sA IA
VsA
0
a1 IB Vs′A
0.2

VsB 0.2
b1
0

IC Vs′B
0.2

VsC c1
0

1 Vs′C
Vs′sB
0
a2
A (b)
0.2

0.2
b2 Vs′sA
0

Vs′A
0.2

c2 VsA
0

0
0

Vs′sC Vs′C VsB

0

0 VsC Vs′sB
B a3 Vs′sC Vs′B
C
0.2

0.2
1

b3
0
1

0.2

c3
0

Exciter Unit Compensating-Voltage Unit

Figure 6-10 (a) ST for voltage regulation; (b) phasor diagram.

windings with the use of LTCs, the magnitude of the compensating voltage (Vs s) is varied in the
range of 0 to 0.2 pu. Figure 6-10 shows that the line voltage can be regulated between 0.8 and 1.2 pu.
Note that the LTC taps are set to regulate the line voltage at 1 pu, since the sum of the three equal
magnitude and 120 phase-shifted compensating voltages is zero.
392 6 Sen Transformer

At this point, one might ask why should one use the ST as a voltage regulator when the VRT, as
shown in Figure 6-4a, offers the same functionality with a simpler configuration? This is described
in the next section.

6.2.2 ST as an Independent PFC

The circuit configuration, shown in Figure 6-10a, can also be used to form an IR. The effect of
impedance emulation is such that the series-compensating voltage is at any phase angle with
respect to the line voltage as shown in Figure 6-11a; therefore, the voltage (Vs ) at the modified
sending end can be regulated to a desired magnitude (Vs ) and phase-shift angle (ψ) and, in turn,
the active and reactive power flows in a line can be controlled independently as desired. The power
circuit is identical for both the VR and the IR. Figure 6-11b shows the related phasor diagram.
By choosing the number of turns from each of the three windings through three LTCs (LTC1,
LTC2, and LTC3) and, therefore, the magnitudes of the components of the three 120 phase-shifted
induced voltages, the compensating voltage (Vs s) in any phase is derived from the phasor sum of
the voltages induced in a three-phase secondary winding set (a1, b1, and c1 for compensation in the
A phase; a2, b2, and c2 for compensation in the B phase; and a3, b3, and c3 for compensation in the
C phase).
Since the LTCs that are used in the ST change their positions in steps, the compensating points in
the ST are discrete in the allowable control range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 . The
magnitude of the induced voltage (V), the voltage (x) across each tap of the LTC, and the number
(N) of taps in the LTC are related by the following equation:
V
N= 6-4
x
Assuming the sending-end voltage, Vs = 1 pu, the allowable magnitude (V) of the induced voltage
(V) to be 0.2 pu, and the voltage (x) across each tap of an LTC is 0.05 pu, there are N = 4 taps

(a)
Vs′sA IA
VsA
0
a1 Vs′A
2
3
IB
VsB 4
3
2

b1
1
0

Vs′B
IC
4
3

c1
2

VsC
1

(b)
Vs′C
Va1
0.20
Vs′sB 0.15

βA 0.10
0.05
0
1.00
a2 1
A V s′sA
5

2
0.0
0

3
0.1
5

V
0.1
0

V c1
4

0.2

b1
3

ψA
2
1

b2
Vs′A VsA
′sB
4
3

c2 Va3 Vs′B Va2

2

Vs
0

0.20
V sC ψB 0.15
V
ψC sB
0.10
0

βB
5
1.0

0.0

0.05
0.0
0

0.1

Vs′C
0.1

0
5

1.0 5
0.1

0
.15
0

Vs′sC
0.2
0.2

0
0.0
0

0.1

βC
0.1

V V
0

V c2
0.2

V c3
5

b3 b2
0

B
V s′

a3 1
C 2
sC

3
4

4
3
2

b3
0

c3
2
1
0

Exciter Unit Compensating-Voltage Unit

Figure 6-11 (a) ST for voltage compensation with V s s = 0 18 pu and β = 106.1 ; (b) phasor diagram; note that
the circle represents the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
 6.2 Desired Solution 393

associated with each secondary winding. Therefore, each of the taps in LTC1, LTC2, and LTC3 are
set at 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4; the corresponding secondary winding is active by 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20%, respec-
tively, and contributes 0.0, 0.05, 0.10, 0.15, and 0.20 pu toward forming the compensating voltage.
The total number of possible compensating points (cp) in this case is defined by

cp = 3N N + 1 6-5

and it is 60. The compensating secondary windings are labeled in Figure 6-11a in terms of taps at a
5% interval.
Note that for any relative phase angle (β), except β = 0 , 120 , and 240 , a compensating voltage is
composed of two neighboring available induced voltages. For example, for a compensating voltage
(Vs sA) with V s sA = 0 18 pu and βA = 106.1 (see later in Table 6-1), the A-phase series-
compensating winding is 5% active; the B-phase series-compensating winding is inactive, since
it is bypassed; the C-phase series-compensating winding is 20% active as shown in Figure 6-11.
It should also be noted that each of the windings (a1, b2, and c3) is tapped at the same number
of turns through LTC1; each of the windings (b1, c2, and a3) is tapped at the same number of turns
through LTC2; and each of the windings (c1, a2, and b3) is tapped at the same number of turns
through LTC3. However, the number of active turns in the a1-b2-c3 set, b1-c2-a3 set, and c1-a2-b3
set can be different from each other with one exception – when the ST is used as a voltage regulator
to decrease the modified sending-end voltage. Therefore, for the relative phase angle, β = 180 ,
there are the same number of turns in the two compensating windings in each phase as shown
in Figure 6-9. Note that under a balanced condition, the relative phase angle β = βA = βB = βC
and the phase-shift angle ψ = ψ A = ψ B = ψ C.
The compensating voltage Vs s = − Vdq) is also at any phase angle with respect to the prevailing
line current (I). The active or direct component (Vd = Vd) of the compensating voltage provides the
series resistance emulation (Rse = +R or −R). The positive resistance (+R) absorbs active power
from the line and the negative resistance (−R) delivers active power to the line. The reactive or
quadrature component (Vq = jV q) of the compensating voltage provides the series reactance emu-
lation (Xse = XC or −XL). The capacitive reactance (XC) reduces the effective reactance of the line
between its two ends and, in the process, increases the power flow of the line; the inductive reac-
tance (XL) increases the effective reactance of the line between its two ends, and in the process,
decreases the power flow of the line. Therefore, the desired compensating voltage is actually an
impedance emulator.
A comprehensive study of the power system network, integrated with the PFC can only show
how many taps is the right number. Figure 6-12 shows that the theoretical circular control area
is actually a hexagon. A larger number of taps in the LTCs make the compensating points closer
to each other and vice versa.
Figure 6-12a shows the theoretically possible compensating points of the modified sending-end
voltage with the use of the ST. Figure 6-12b shows the corresponding active and reactive power flows
at the receiving end within the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 . Figures 6-12c
and 6-12d show the practical control range of the ST. The filled dots, in Figure 6-12c, show a total of
36 compensating points of the ST within the allowable voltage range, which is 10% of the nominal
voltage in the relative phase angle range of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 . Figure 6-12d shows that the maximum
active power flow enhancement at the receiving end, within the allowable voltage range, is actually
0.35 pu, instead of the theoretically possible 0.40 pu as shown in Figure 6-12b.
In Chapter 2, Section 2.2.2.6.1, it was shown that the compensating voltage needed for a voltage
regulation is equivalent to a four-quadrant, series-compensating impedance (Z = Rse − jXse). There-
fore, both functions of voltage regulation and independent control of active and reactive power
394 6 Sen Transformer

(a) (b)
βA = 0°
Qr β = 0°
δ
0

β = 240°

− 0.5
βA = 120° βA = 240°
β = 120°
VsA − 1.0 (Prn, Qrn)
βC = 240° βB = 120°
V
sB
V sC
1.4 Pr
− 1.5
0 0.5 1.0 1.5

βC = 0° βB = 0°
βC = 120° βB = 240°

(c) βA = 0°
(d)
Qr β = 0°
δ
0

β = 240°

− 0.5
βA = 120° βA = 240°
(Prn, Qrn) β = 120°
VsA
− 1.0
βC = 240° βB = 120°
V 1.35 Pr
V sC sB
− 1.5
0 0.5 1.0 1.5

βC = 0° βB = 0°
βC = 120° βB = 240°

Figure 6-12 Compensating points with the use of the ST within the entire range of the relative phase angle of
0 ≤ β ≤ 360 . Theoretically possible (a) modified sending-end voltage and (b) active and reactive power flows
at the receiving end; practically possible (c) modified sending-end voltage and (d) active and reactive power
flows at the receiving end.

flows can be implemented in just one unit by proper programming of the Tap Control Unit for a
desired emulation of impedance Zse = R∗se − jX ∗se as shown in Figure 6-13.

6.2.3 Control of ST
The series-compensating voltage (Vs s) emulates a resistance (Rse = +R or −R) and a reactance
(Xse = XC or −XL) in series with the line without using any physical circuit component, except with
a transformer and LTCs. The control of the ST can be in several categories as described below. In
each category, first the compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s) and the relative phase angle (β) with
respect to the exciter voltage (Vs) are calculated. Depending on the operating range of the relative
phase angle of β (0 ≤ β ≤ 120 , 120 ≤ β ≤ 240 , or 240 ≤ β ≤ 360 ), the two neighboring active
 6.2 Desired Solution 395

compensating windings in each phase are selected. At β = 0 , 120 , and 240 , only one of the three
secondary windings in each phase is active. Then, from the measured magnitude of the exciter volt-
age (Vs), the Tap Control Unit determines the number of turns necessary on each winding of the
Compensating-Voltage Unit. Based on this calculation, the appropriate taps are switched on to con-
nect the required number of turns in series with the line. Since every turn of the compensating
winding is not likely to be connected to a tap, there will be a discrepancy between the required
number of active turns and the actual number of active turns through the connected tap.
A special control algorithm with a hysteresis must be implemented to avoid any possible jittering
effect between the neighboring taps.

6.2.3.1 Impedance Emulation

Figure 6-13 shows the general control block diagram of the series impedance emulation using the
ST. An instantaneous three-phase set of line voltages (vs) is used to calculate the Phase-Locked Loop
(PLL) angle (θ), which is phase locked to the A-phase line voltage (vsA). From an instantaneous
three-phase set of measured line currents (i), the magnitude (I) and its relative phase angle (θir)
with respect to the PLL angle (θ) are calculated. From the compensating resistance demand (Rse∗)
and the compensating reactance demand (Xse∗), the magnitude (Zse∗) and phase angle (θZse∗) of the
compensating impedance demand are calculated. The magnitude (I) of the line current multiplied
by the magnitude of the compensating impedance (Zse∗) demand is the magnitude (Vdq∗) of the
combined Vd∗ and Vq∗, which is same as the magnitude of the compensating voltage (Vs s∗)
demand. The relative phase angle (β) of the compensating voltage demand is θir+θZse∗+π. The addi-
tion of π is due to the fact that Vs s = − Vdq. Once the desired magnitude of the compensating volt-
age (Vs s∗) demand and the relative phase angle (β) are defined, the Tap Control Unit figures out the

2 2 Vs′s*
Zse* = Rse* + Xse*
Rse*
θZse = tan–1(− Xse*/ Rse*)
Xse*
Vs′s
* = V * = IZse*
dq
θZse
I
θir +
+ + π

Magnitude
i and Angle
Calculator

θ
β Tap
Vs Control Taps
Magnitude
vs and Angle Unit
Calculator

Controller

Figure 6-13 Series impedance emulation control block diagram of the ST.
396 6 Sen Transformer

contribution from each winding of a three-phase set (a1, b1, and c1 for compensation in the A phase;
a2, b2, and c2 for compensation in the B phase; and a3, b3, and c3 for compensation in the C phase) to
constitute (Vs s∗).

6.2.3.2 Resistance Emulation

As a special case, the control block diagram for the series resistance emulation (positive or negative)
is shown in Figure 6-14. The calculated magnitude (I) of the line current multiplied by the com-
pensating resistance (Rse∗) demand is the compensating voltage magnitude (Vd∗) demand. The
compensating resistance (Rse∗) is defined to be positive when it is a positive resistance (+R) and
negative when it is a negative resistance (−R). The relative phase angle (β) of this compensating
voltage demand is either θir+π if the demanding compensating resistance is positive or θir+2π if
the demanding compensating resistance is negative. Once the desired compensating voltage
V ∗s s = V ∗d demand and the relative phase angle (β) are defined, the Tap Control Unit figures
out the contribution from each winding of a three-phase set (a1, b1, and c1 for compensation in the A
phase; a2, b2, and c2 for compensation in the B phase; and a3, b3, and c3 for compensation in the C
phase) to constitute (Vs s∗).

6.2.3.3 Reactance Emulation

A simple modification to the control block diagram, shown in Figure 6-14, allows the emulation of a
series reactance. The desired block diagram is shown in Figure 6-15. The calculated magnitude (I) of
the line current multiplied by the compensating reactance demand (Xse∗) is the compensating volt-
age magnitude (Vq∗) demand. The compensating reactance (Xse∗) is defined to be positive when it is
a capacitive reactance and negative when it is an inductive reactance. The relative phase angle (β) of
this compensating voltage demand is either θir − π/2 + π if the demanding compensating reactance
is capacitive or θir+π/2+π if the demanding compensating reactance is inductive. Once the desired
compensating voltage V ∗s s = V ∗q demand and the relative phase angle (β) are defined, the Tap
Control Unit figures out the contribution from each winding of a three-phase set (a1, b1, and c1 for

ABS Vs′s* = |Vd*|

()
0 π

Vd* 1 0
1
Rse*
−0 +
I θir +
+ + π
Magnitude
i and Angle
Calculator

θ β Tap
Magnitude Vs Control Taps
vs and Angle Unit
Calculator

Controller

Figure 6-14 Series resistance emulation control block diagram of the ST.
 6.2 Desired Solution 397

ABS Vs′s* = |Vq*|

()

–π/2 π/2

Vq* 1 0
Xse* 1
−0 +
I θir +
+ + π
Magnitude
i and Angle
Calculator
θ
β Tap
Magnitude Vs Control Taps
vs and Angle Unit
Calculator

Controller

Figure 6-15 Series reactance emulation control block diagram of the ST.

compensation in the A phase; a2, b2, and c2 for compensation in the B phase; and a3, b3, and c3 for
compensation in the C phase) to constitute (Vs s∗).

6.2.3.4 Closed-Loop Power Flow Control

The closed-loop automatic power flow control block diagram is shown in Figure 6-16. The auto-
matic power flow control algorithm works in such a way that the desired active and reactive power
flows (Ps ∗ and Qs ∗) are compared with the measured active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs )

Ps′
i
Active and Reactive
Power Calculator Qs′
vs′

Ps*′

Qs*′
Error
ed eq Regulator

Magnitude Vs's
and Angle
Calculator β Tap
Magnitude Vs Control Taps
vs and Angle Unit
Calculator

Controller

Figure 6-16 Closed-loop automatic power flow control block diagram of the ST.
398 6 Sen Transformer

and the errors are passed through an error regulator, which produces, with respect to the exciter
voltage (Vs), the required direct and quadrature components (ed and eq) of the series-compensating
voltage. Next, the magnitude (Vs s) of the compensating voltage (vs s = − edq) and the relative phase
angle (β) with respect to the phase angle of the exciter voltage are calculated. Note that for desired
active and reactive power flows (Ps ∗ and Qs ∗), if the magnitude (Vs s) of the compensating voltage
exceeds the rated voltage of the Compensating-Voltage Unit, then Vs s is limited to its design rating
and the active and reactive power flows are regulated to an intermediate pair of values.

6.2.3.5 Open-Loop Power Flow Control

The controllable range of the active and reactive power flows can easily be determined with an
open-loop control by specifying to the Tap Control Unit the rated compensating voltage (Vs s∗)
and varying the relative phase angle (β) within its entire 360 range as shown in Figure 6-17.
Once the compensating voltage magnitude (Vs s) and the relative phase angle (β) are determined,
the tip of phasor (Vs s) falls within four possible operating points as shown in Figure 6-18.

Vs′s* Tap
β Control Taps
Unit
Vs
vs Magnitude
Calculator

Controller

Figure 6-17 Open-loop Compensating-Voltage Unit control block diagram of the ST.

Zone I
0° < β ≤ 120°
Phase c Phase c 1 4
r1 r4
0.4 r2 V4
Vxs′s V1
2 r3 3
0.3 y
Vs′s
0.2
V2 Vs′s
Vs′s V3
0.1
β β
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 Phase a Phase a
0.1

0.2
Zone II
0.3
120° < β ≤ 240°
0.4

Phase b Zone III Phase b

240° < β ≤ 360°

Figure 6-18 Selection of tap positions (Faruque and Dinavahi-2007).

 6.2 Desired Solution 399

The selected operating point is based on producing the least error given by the following
equation:
2 2
ε = rk 2 = V xk − V xs s + V yk − V ys s 6-6

where ε is the least error and rk is the error at a possible operating point for k = 1, 2, 3, and 4. Vkx and
Vs sx are the projections of voltages of possible operating points and the compensating voltage on
Phase a (i.e. x-axis). Vky and Vs sy are the projections of voltages of possible operating points and the
compensating voltage on the perpendicular to Phase a (i.e. y-axis). A hysteresis loop must be imple-
mented to eliminate jittering effect among the four neighboring taps that surround the tip of phasor
(Vs s). More discussion on this topic is given in “A tap-changing algorithm for the implementation
of Sen transformer,” by Faruque and Dinavahi (2007).
The magnitude (Vs s) and the relative phase angle (β) of the compensating voltage (Vs s) can be
calculated in terms of taps associated with a particular phase as shown in Figure 6-12. Note that the
windings (a1, b1, and c1) are associated with the compensating voltage for the A phase. Similarly, the
windings (a2, b2, and c2) are associated with the compensating voltage for the B phase; the windings
(a3, b3, and c3) are associated with the compensating voltage for the C phase. It should also be noted
that each of the windings (a1, b2, and c3) is tapped at the same number of turns through LTC1; each
of the windings (b1, c2, and a3) is tapped at the same number of turns through LTC2; and each of the
windings (c1, a2, and b3) is tapped at the same number of turns through LTC3. However, the number
of turns in the a1-b2-c3 set, b1-c2-a3 set, and c1-a2-b3 set can be different from each other. The com-
pensating voltage for the A phase and the relative phase angle in the range of 0 ≤ βA ≤ 360 is
derived as

V s sA ∠βA = k a1 V sA + k b1 e − j2π 3 V sA + k c1 e j2π 3

V sA 6-3
where
ka1, kb1, and kc1 are the active turns-ratios of the secondary, series-compensating windings in the A
phase and the corresponding primary windings.
Therefore,
V s sA cos βA + jV s sA sin βA = k a1 V sA + k b1 V sA −1 2 − j 3 2 + k c1 V sA −1 2 + j 3 2
or
V s sA cos βA + jV s sA sin βA = k a1 − k b1 2 − k c1 2 V sA + j 3 2 k c1 − k b1 V sA .

Equating the real and imaginary parts of both sides of the above equation, it can be written that
V s sA cos βA = k a1 − k b1 2 − k c1 2 V sA 6-7a
and

V s sA sin βA = 3 2 k c1 − k b1 V sA 6-7b

Equations (6-7a) and (6-7b) can be converted into a polar form as

sin βA
V s sA ∠βA = V 2s sA cos 2 βA + sin 2 βA ∠ tan − 1 using the identity (cos2βA + sin2βA = 1) or
cos βA
V s sA sin βA
V s sA ∠βA = V s sA cos βA 2 + V s sA sin βA 2 ∠ tan − 1 or
V s sA cos βA

3 k c1 − k b1
V s sA ∠βA = V sA k 2a1 + k 2b1 + k 2c1 − k a1 k b1 − k b1 k c1 − k c1 k a1 ∠ tan − 1 6-8
2k a1 − k b1 − k c1
400 6 Sen Transformer

For βA = 0 , the winding (a1) is active while the windings (b1 and c1) are inactive; for βA = 120 ,
the winding (c1) is active while the windings (a1 and b1) are inactive; for βA = 240 , the winding (b1)
is active while the windings (c1 and a1) are inactive.
For 0 < βA < 120 , the windings (a1 and c1) are active while the winding (b1) is inactive.
Therefore, setting k b1 = 0, Equations (6-7a) and (6-7b) can be written as
V s sA cos βA = k a1 − k c1 2 V sA 6-9a
and

V s sA sin βA = 3 2 k c1 V sA 6-9b

Solving Equations (6-9a) and (6-9b), it can be written that

V s sA V s sA
k a1 = cos βA + sin βA 6-10a
V sA 3V sA
and
2V s sA
k c1 = sin βA 6-10b
3V sA
As a special case of βA = 0 when the line voltage increases, it can be seen from Equation (6-9b)
that kc1 = 0. Therefore, from Equation (6-9a), it can be written that
V s sA
k a1 = 6-10c
V sA
For 120 < βA < 240 , the windings (b1 and c1) are active while the winding (a1) is inactive. There-
fore, setting ka1 = 0, Equations (6-7a) and (6-7b) can be written as
V s sA cos βA = − k b1 2 − k c1 2 V sA 6-11a
and

V s sA sin βA = 3 2 k c1 − k b1 V sA 6-11b

Solving Equations (6-11a) and (6-11b), it can be written that

V s sA V s sA
k b1 = − sin βA − cos βA 6-12a
3V sA V sA
and

V s sA V s sA
k c1 = sin βA − cos βA 6-12b
3V sA V sA

As a special case of βA = 180 when the line voltage decreases, it can be seen from
Equation (6-11b) that kb1 = kc1. Therefore, from Equation (6-11a), it can be written that
V s sA
k b1 = k c1 = 6-10c
V sA
The same conclusion can be derived from the Equations (6-12a) and (6-12b).
For 240 < βA < 360 , the windings (a1 and b1) are active while the winding (c1) is inactive. There-
fore, setting kc1 = 0, Equations (6-7a) and (6-7b) can be written as
 6.2 Desired Solution 401

V s sA cos βA = k a1 − k b1 2 V sA 6-13a
and
V s sA sin βA = 3 2 − k b1 V sA 6-13b

Solving Equations (6-13a) and (6-13b), it can be written that

V s sA V s sA
k a1 = cos βA − sin βA 6-14a
V sA 3V sA
and
2V s sA
k b1 = − sin βA 6-14b
3V sA
Equation (6-2) can be further derived as
V s A ∠ψ A = V sA + V s sA ∠βA 6-2
or
V s A cos ψ A + jV s A sin ψ A = V sA + V s sA cos βA + jV s sA sin βA .
Equating the real and imaginary parts of both sides of the above equation, it can be written that
V s A cos ψ A = V sA + V s sA cos βA 6-15a
and
V s A sin ψ A = V s sA sin βA 6-15b
Using Equations (6-7a) and (6-7b), Equations (6-15a) and (6-15b) can be combined as
V s A cos ψ A = V sA + k a1 − k b1 2 − k c1 2 V sA 6-16a
and

V s A sin ψ A = 3 2 k c1 − k b1 V sA 6-16b

Equations (6-16a) and (6-16b) can be converted into a polar form as

sin ψ A
V s A ∠ψ A = V 2s A cos 2 ψ A + sin 2 ψ A ∠ tan − 1 using the identity cos 2 ψ A + sin 2 ψ A = 1
cos ψ A
or
V s A sin ψ A
V s A ∠ψ A = V s A cos ψ A 2
+ V s A sin ψ A 2 ∠ tan − 1 or
V s A cos ψ A

V s A ∠ψ A = V sA 1 + k 2a1 + k 2b1 + k 2c1 − k a1 k b1 − k b1 k c1 − k c1 k a1 + 2k a1 − k b1 − k c1

6-17a
3 k c1 − k b1
∠ tan − 1
2 + 2k a1 − k b1 − k c1
or

2
V s A ∠ψ A = V sA 1 + k a1 + k 2b1 + k 2c1 − 1 + k a1 k b1 − k b1 k c1 − k c1 1 + k a1
6-17b
3 k c1 − k b1
∠ tan − 1
2 1 + k a1 − k b1 − k c1
402 6 Sen Transformer

For an equivalent shunt compensation, the active turns-ratios (KA1, KB1, and KC1) of the shunt-
compensating windings and the active turns-ratios (ka1, kb1, and kc1) of the series-compensating
windings, shown in Figure 6-3, may be related as
K A1 = 1 + k a1 6-18a
K B1 = k b1 6-18b
K C1 = k c1 6-18c
Therefore, Equations (6-16a) and (6-16b) can be rewritten as
V s A cos ψ A = K A1 − K B1 2 − K C1 2 V sA 6-19a
and

V s A sin ψ A = 3 2 K C1 − K B1 V sA 6-19b

Either combining Equations (6-19a) and (6-19b) as shown later in the chapter or substituting
Equations (6-18a), (6-18b), and (6-18c) into Equation (6-17b), it can be written that

3 K C1 − K B1
V s A ∠ψ A = V sA K 2A1 + K 2B1 + K 2C1 − K A1 K B1 − K B1 K C1 − K C1 K A1 ∠ tan − 1
2K A1 − K B1 − K C1
6-20
For ψ A = 0 , the winding (A1) is active while the windings (B1 and C1) are inactive; for ψ A = 120 ,
the winding (C1) is active while the windings (A1 and B1) are inactive; for ψ A = 240 , the winding
(B1) is active while the windings (C1 and A1) are inactive. However, only the cases −90 < ψ A < 90
are considered in this book.
For 0 < ψ A < 120 , the windings (A1 and C1) are active while the winding (B1) is inactive. There-
fore, setting K B1 = 0, Equations (6-19a) and (6-19b) can be written as
V s A cos ψ A = K A1 − K C1 2 V sA 6-21a
and

V s A sin ψ A = 3 2 K C1 V sA 6-21b

Solving Equations (6-21a) and (6-21b), it can be written that

Vs A Vs A
K A1 = cos ψ A + sin ψ A 6-22a
V sA 3V sA
and
2V s A
K C1 = sin ψ A 6-22b
3V sA
As a special case of ψ A = 0 , it can be seen from Equation (6-21b) that kC1 = 0. Therefore, from
Equation (6-21a), it can be written that

Vs A
k A1 = 6-22c
V sA

For 240 < ψ A < 360 , the windings (A1 and B1) are active while the winding (C1) is inactive.
Therefore, setting K C1 = 0, Equations (6-19a) and (6-19b) can be written as
 6.2 Desired Solution 403

V s A cos ψ A = K A1 − K B1 2 V sA 6-23a
and

V s A sin ψ A = 3 2 −K B1 V sA 6-23b

Solving Equations (6-23a) and (6-23b), it can be written that

Vs A Vs A
K A1 = cos ψ A − sin ψ A 6-24a
V sA 3V sA
and
2V s A
K B1 = − sin ψ A 6-24b
3V sA
Once the magnitude (Vs ) and the phase-shift angle (ψ) of the modified sending-end voltage (Vs )
are known, the compensated active and reactive power flows (Pr and Qr) at the receiving end of the
line can be determined using the following equations:
A Vr
Pr = R cos δ − + sin δ B-43
2
R +X 2 Vs
and
A Vr
Qr = − R sin δ + X cos δ − B-44
2
R +X 2 Vs
where the magnitude of the voltage at the modified sending end is Vs and the modified power angle
is given by
δ =δ+ψ 2-51a
and
Vs Vr
A = B-34
R2 + X 2
Note that Vs and ψ in Equations (B-43), (B-44), and (2-51a) can be substituted using Vs A and ψ A
from Equation (6-20) when assuming a balanced three-phase system.
Using Equations (B-43) and (B-44), the apparent power (Sr) at the receiving end and the line cur-
rent (I) can be determined using the following equations:

Sr = P2r + Q2r 2-76

Sr
I= 2-77
Vr
For a series-compensating voltage Vs s = V s s ∠β , the exchanged active and reactive powers (Pse
and Qse) by the Compensating-Voltage Unit (Series Unit) can be determined by using the following
equations:

RV 2s s 1
Pse = − + − R As cos β − Ar cos δ + β + X As sin β − Ar sin δ + β
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2

B-101
404 6 Sen Transformer

and

XV 2s s 1
Qse = − + − R As sin β − Ar sin δ + β − X As cos β − Ar cos δ + β
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2

B-102
where

V sV s s
As = B-62
R2 + X 2
V rV s s
Ar = B-76
R2 + X 2

Using Equations (B-101) and (B-102), the exchanged apparent power (Sse) by the Compensating-
Voltage Unit (Series Unit) can be determined by using the following equation:

Sse = P2se + Q2se 2-182

The effect of implementing an open-loop control in voltage-injection mode, traveling from one
operating point to the next in one particular hexagon in each phase, is studied, using an electrical
system data as shown in Table 2-1, which is reproduced below.
Table 6-1 shows the active turns-ratios of the three secondary, series-compensating windings in
the A phase for the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ βA ≤ 360 . The table shows the
variations of the relative phase angle (βA) and the phase-shift angle (ψ A) due to the change in turns-
ratios. The theoretical values of the compensating voltage (Vs sA) and the modified sending-end volt-
age (Vs A) are calculated using Equations (6-8) and (6-17a) or (6-17b), respectively, considering the
sending-end voltage (VsA) to be 1 pu during the entire range of the relative phase angle of
0 ≤ βA ≤ 360 and shown in Table 6-1. The table is expanded for each hexagon, related to 5,
10, 15, and 20% compensating voltages.
To generate the compensating voltage (Vs sB) and the modified sending-end voltage (Vs B) for the
B phase, Equations (6-2) and (6-3) may be rewritten as

V s B ∠ψ B = V sB ∠0 + V s sB ∠βB 6-25

where
V s sB ∠βB = Vs sB = Vb2 + Vc2 + Va2 or

V s sB ∠βB = k b2 V sB + k c2 V sC + k a2 V sA = k b2 e − j2π 3 V sA + k c2 e j2π 3 V sA + k a2 V sA 6-26

Table 2-1 Electrical system data.

Parameters Values

Sending-end voltage (Vs) at reference phase angle 1∠0 pu

Receiving-end voltage (Vr) and power angle (−δ) 1∠−30 pu
Line resistance (R) 0 pu
Line reactance (X) 0.5 pu
 6.2 Desired Solution 405

Table 6-1 Active turns-ratios of the secondary, series-compensating

windings in the a phase, corresponding series-compensating voltage, and
modified sending-end voltage.

Case for natural power flow (center point of the hexagon characteristic)

Turns-ratios Vs sA βA Vs A ψA
(pu) (deg) (pu) (deg)
ka1 kb1 kc1

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 360.00 1.00 0.00

Case for 0.05 pu compensating voltage (smallest hexagon)

Turns-ratios Vs sA βA Vs A ψA
(pu) (deg) (pu) (deg)
ka1 kb1 kc1

0.05 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 1.05 0.00

0.05 0.00 0.05 0.05 60.00 1.03 2.42

0.00 0.00 0.05 0.05 120.00 0.98 2.54

0.00 0.05 0.05 0.05 180.00 0.95 0.00

0.00 0.05 0.00 0.05 240.00 0.98 −2.54

0.05 0.05 0.00 0.05 300.00 1.03 −2.42

0.05 0.00 0.00 0.05 360.00 1.05 0.00

Case for 0.10 pu compensating voltage (second smallest hexagon)

Turns-ratios Vs sA βA Vs A ψA
(pu) (deg) (pu) (deg)
ka1 kb1 kc1

0.10 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.00 1.10 0.00

0.10 0.00 0.05 0.09 30.00 1.08 2.31

0.10 0.00 0.10 0.10 60.00 1.05 4.72

0.05 0.00 0.10 0.09 90.00 1.00 4.95

0.00 0.00 0.10 0.10 120.00 0.95 5.21

0.00 0.05 0.10 0.09 150.00 0.93 2.68

0.00 0.10 0.10 0.10 180.00 0.90 0.00

0.00 0.10 0.05 0.09 210.00 0.93 −2.68

0.00 0.10 0.00 0.10 240.00 0.95 −5.21

(Continued)
406 6 Sen Transformer

0.05 0.10 0.00 0.09 270.00 1.00 −4.95

0.10 0.10 0.00 0.10 300.00 1.05 −4.72

0.10 0.05 0.00 0.09 330.00 1.08 −2.31

0.10 0.00 0.00 0.10 360.00 1.10 0.00

Case for 0.15 pu compensating voltage (second largest hexagon)

Turns-ratios Vs sA βA Vs A ψA
(pu) (deg) (pu) (deg)
ka1 kb1 kc1

0.15 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.00 1.15 0.00

0.15 0.00 0.05 0.13 19.11 1.13 2.20

0.15 0.00 0.10 0.13 40.89 1.10 4.50

0.15 0.00 0.15 0.15 60.00 1.08 6.89

0.10 0.00 0.15 0.13 79.11 1.03 7.22

0.05 0.00 0.15 0.13 100.89 0.98 7.59

0.00 0.00 0.15 0.15 120.00 0.93 7.99

0.00 0.05 0.15 0.13 139.11 0.90 5.50

0.00 0.10 0.15 0.13 160.89 0.88 2.83

0.00 0.15 0.15 0.15 180.00 0.85 0.00

0.00 0.15 0.10 0.13 199.11 0.88 −2.83

0.00 0.15 0.05 0.13 220.89 0.90 −5.50

0.00 0.15 0.00 0.15 240.00 0.93 −7.99

0.05 0.15 0.00 0.13 259.11 0.98 −7.59

0.10 0.15 0.00 0.13 280.89 1.03 −7.22

0.15 0.15 0.00 0.15 300.00 1.08 −6.89

0.15 0.10 0.00 0.13 319.11 1.10 −4.50

0.15 0.05 0.00 0.13 340.89 1.13 −2.20

0.15 0.00 0.00 0.15 360.00 1.15 0.00

 6.2 Desired Solution 407

Table 6-1 (Continued)

Case for 0.20 pu compensating voltage (largest hexagon)

Turns-ratios Vs sA βA Vs A ψA
(pu) (deg) (pu) (deg)
ka1 kb1 kc1

0.20 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.00 1.20 0.00

0.20 0.00 0.05 0.18 13.90 1.18 2.11

0.20 0.00 0.10 0.17 30.00 1.15 4.31

0.20 0.00 0.15 0.18 46.10 1.13 6.59

0.20 0.00 0.20 0.20 60.00 1.11 8.95

0.15 0.00 0.20 0.18 73.90 1.06 9.37

0.10 0.00 0.20 0.17 90.00 1.01 9.83

0.05 0.00 0.20 0.18 106.10 0.97 10.33

0.00 0.00 0.20 0.20 120.00 0.92 10.89

0.00 0.05 0.20 0.18 133.90 0.88 8.44

0.00 0.10 0.20 0.17 150.00 0.85 5.82

0.00 0.15 0.20 0.18 166.10 0.83 3.00

0.00 0.20 0.20 0.20 180.00 0.80 0.00

0.00 0.20 0.15 0.18 193.90 0.83 −3.00

0.00 0.20 0.10 0.17 210.00 0.85 −5.82

0.00 0.20 0.05 0.18 226.10 0.88 −8.44

0.00 0.20 0.00 0.20 240.00 0.92 −10.89

0.05 0.20 0.00 0.18 253.90 0.97 −10.33

0.10 0.20 0.00 0.17 270.00 1.01 −9.83

0.15 0.20 0.00 0.18 286.10 1.06 −9.37

0.20 0.20 0.00 0.20 300.00 1.11 −8.95

0.20 0.15 0.00 0.18 313.90 1.13 −6.59

0.20 0.10 0.00 0.17 330.00 1.15 −4.31

0.20 0.05 0.00 0.18 346.10 1.18 −2.11

0.20 0.00 0.00 0.20 360.00 1.20 0.00

408 6 Sen Transformer

where

Vb2, Vc2, and Va2 are active voltages in the series-compensating windings (b2, c2, and a2) of the
B phase,
kb2 = 0.05, kc2 = 0, and ka2 = 0.20 are the active turns-ratios of the secondary, series-compensating
windings in the B phase and the corresponding primary windings,
Vs sB is the magnitude of the series-compensating voltage in the B phase, and
βB is the relative phase angle of the series-compensating voltage in the B phase.

Using Equations (6-8) and (6-17a) or (6-17b) and replacing ka1, kb1, and kc1 with kb2, kc2, and ka2,
respectively, it can be written that

3 k a2 − k c2
V s sB ∠βB = V sB k 2b2 + k 2c2 + k 2a2 − k b2 k c2 − k c2 k a2 − k a2 k b2 ∠ tan − 1 6-27
2k b2 − k c2 − k a2
and

V s B ∠ψ B = V sB 1 + k 2b2 + k 2c2 + k 2a2 − k b2 k c2 − k c2 k a2 − k a2 k b2 + 2k b2 − k c2 − k a2

6-28a
3 k a2 − k c2
∠ tan − 1
2 + 2k b2 − k c2 − k a2
or
2
V s B ∠ψ B = V sB 1 + k b2 + k 2c2 + k 2a2 − 1 + k b2 k c2 − k c2 k a2 − k a2 1 + k b2
6-28b
3 k a2 − k c2
∠ tan − 1
2 1 + k b2 − k c2 − k a2
Table 6-2 shows the active turns-ratios of the three secondary, series-compensating windings in
the B phase for the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ βB ≤ 360 . The table shows the
variations of the relative phase angle (βB) and the phase-shift angle (ψ B) due to the change in turns-
ratios. The theoretical values of the compensating voltage (Vs sB) and the modified sending-end volt-
age (Vs B) are calculated using Equations (6-27) and (6-28a) or (6-28b), respectively, considering the
sending-end voltage (VsB) to be 1 pu during the entire range of the relative phase angle of
0 ≤ βB ≤ 360 and shown in Table 6-2. The table is expanded for each hexagon, related to 5,
10, 15, and 20% compensating voltages.
To generate the compensating voltage (Vs sC) and the modified sending-end voltage (Vs C) for the
C phase, Equations (6-2) and (6-3) may be rewritten as
V s C ∠ψ C = V sC ∠0 + V s sC ∠βC 6-29
where
V s sC ∠βC = Vs sC = Vc3 + Va3 + Vb3
or
V s sC ∠βC = k c3 V sC + k a3 V sA + k b3 V sB = k c3 e j2π 3
V sA + k a3 V sA + k b3 e − j2π 3 V sA 6-30
where

Vc3, Va3, and Vb3 are active voltages in the series-compensating windings (c3, a3, and b3) of the
C phase,
kc3 = 0.05, ka3 = 0, and kb3 = 0.20 are the active turns-ratios of the secondary, series-compensating
windings in the C phase and the corresponding primary windings,
 6.2 Desired Solution 409

Table 6-2 Active turns-ratios of the secondary, series-compensating

windings in the B phase, corresponding series-compensating voltage, and
modified sending-end voltage.

Case for natural power flow (center point of the hexagon characteristic)

Turns-ratios Vs sB βB Vs B ψB
(pu) (deg) (pu) (deg)
kb2 kc2 ka2

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 360.00 1.00 0.00

Case for 0.05 pu compensating voltage (smallest hexagon)

Turns-ratios Vs sB βB Vs B ψB
(pu) (deg) (pu) (deg)
kb2 kc2 ka2

0.05 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 1.05 0.00

0.05 0.00 0.05 0.05 60.00 1.03 2.42

0.00 0.00 0.05 0.05 120.00 0.98 2.54

0.00 0.05 0.05 0.05 180.00 0.95 0.00

0.00 0.05 0.00 0.05 240.00 0.98 −2.54

0.05 0.05 0.00 0.05 300.00 1.03 −2.42

0.05 0.00 0.00 0.05 360.00 1.05 0.00

Case for 0.10 pu compensating voltage (second smallest hexagon)

Turns-ratios Vs sB βB Vs B ψB
(pu) (deg) (pu) (deg)
kb2 kc2 ka2

0.10 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.00 1.10 0.00

0.10 0.00 0.05 0.09 30.00 1.08 2.31

0.10 0.00 0.10 0.10 60.00 1.05 4.72

0.05 0.00 0.10 0.09 90.00 1.00 4.95

0.00 0.00 0.10 0.10 120.00 0.95 5.21

0.00 0.05 0.10 0.09 150.00 0.93 2.68

0.00 0.10 0.10 0.10 180.00 0.90 0.00

0.00 0.10 0.05 0.09 210.00 0.93 −2.68

(Continued)
410 6 Sen Transformer

Table 6-2 (Continued)

Case for 0.10 pu compensating voltage (second smallest hexagon)

Turns-ratios Vs sB βB Vs B ψB
(pu) (deg) (pu) (deg)
kb2 kc2 ka2

0.00 0.10 0.00 0.10 240.00 0.95 −5.21

0.05 0.10 0.00 0.09 270.00 1.00 −4.95

0.10 0.10 0.00 0.10 300.00 1.05 −4.72

0.10 0.05 0.00 0.09 330.00 1.08 −2.31

0.10 0.00 0.00 0.10 360.00 1.10 0.00

Case for 0.15 pu compensating voltage (second largest hexagon)

Turns-ratios Vs sB βB Vs B ψB
(pu) (deg) (pu) (deg)
kb2 kc2 ka2

0.15 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.00 1.15 0.00

0.15 0.00 0.05 0.13 19.11 1.13 2.20

0.15 0.00 0.10 0.13 40.89 1.10 4.50

0.15 0.00 0.15 0.15 60.00 1.08 6.89

0.10 0.00 0.15 0.13 79.11 1.03 7.22

0.05 0.00 0.15 0.13 100.89 0.98 7.59

0.00 0.00 0.15 0.15 120.00 0.93 7.99

0.00 0.05 0.15 0.13 139.11 0.90 5.50

0.00 0.10 0.15 0.13 160.89 0.88 2.83

0.00 0.15 0.15 0.15 180.00 0.85 0.00

0.00 0.15 0.10 0.13 199.11 0.88 −2.83

0.00 0.15 0.05 0.13 220.89 0.90 −5.50

0.00 0.15 0.00 0.15 240.00 0.93 −7.99

0.05 0.15 0.00 0.13 259.11 0.98 −7.59

0.10 0.15 0.00 0.13 280.89 1.03 −7.22

0.15 0.15 0.00 0.15 300.00 1.08 −6.89

0.15 0.10 0.00 0.13 319.11 1.10 −4.50

 6.2 Desired Solution 411

Table 6-2 (Continued)

Case for 0.15 pu compensating voltage (second largest hexagon)

Turns-ratios Vs sB βB Vs B ψB
(pu) (deg) (pu) (deg)
kb2 kc2 ka2

0.15 0.05 0.00 0.13 340.89 1.13 −2.20

0.15 0.00 0.00 0.15 360.00 1.15 0.00

Case for 0.20 pu compensating voltage (largest hexagon)

Turns-ratios Vs sB βB Vs B ψB
(pu) (deg) (pu) (deg)
kb2 kc2 ka2

0.20 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.00 1.20 0.00

0.20 0.00 0.05 0.18 13.90 1.18 2.11

0.20 0.00 0.10 0.17 30.00 1.15 4.31

0.20 0.00 0.15 0.18 46.10 1.13 6.59

0.20 0.00 0.20 0.20 60.00 1.11 8.95

0.15 0.00 0.20 0.18 73.90 1.06 9.37

0.10 0.00 0.20 0.17 90.00 1.01 9.83

0.05 0.00 0.20 0.18 106.10 0.97 10.33

0.00 0.00 0.20 0.20 120.00 0.92 10.89

0.00 0.05 0.20 0.18 133.90 0.88 8.44

0.00 0.10 0.20 0.17 150.00 0.85 5.82

0.00 0.15 0.20 0.18 166.10 0.83 3.00

0.00 0.20 0.20 0.20 180.00 0.80 0.00

0.00 0.20 0.15 0.18 193.90 0.83 −3.00

0.00 0.20 0.10 0.17 210.00 0.85 −5.82

0.00 0.20 0.05 0.18 226.10 0.88 −8.44

0.00 0.20 0.00 0.20 240.00 0.92 −10.89

0.05 0.20 0.00 0.18 253.90 0.97 −10.33

0.10 0.20 0.00 0.17 270.00 1.01 −9.83

0.15 0.20 0.00 0.18 286.10 1.06 −9.37

(Continued)
412 6 Sen Transformer

Table 6-2 (Continued)

Case for 0.15 pu compensating voltage (second largest hexagon)

Turns-ratios Vs sB βB Vs B ψB
(pu) (deg) (pu) (deg)
kb2 kc2 ka2

0.20 0.20 0.00 0.20 300.00 1.11 −8.95

0.20 0.15 0.00 0.18 313.90 1.13 −6.59

0.20 0.10 0.00 0.17 330.00 1.15 −4.31

0.20 0.05 0.00 0.18 346.10 1.18 −2.11

0.20 0.00 0.00 0.20 360.00 1.20 0.00

Vs sC is the magnitude of the series-compensating voltage in the C phase, and

βC is the relative phase angle of the series-compensating voltage in the C phase.

Using Equations (6-8) and (6-17a) or (6-17b) and replacing ka1, kb1, and kc1 with kc3, ka3, and kb3,
respectively, it can be written that
3 k b3 − k a3
V s sC ∠βC = V sC k 2c3 + k 2a3 + k 2b3 − k c3 k a3 − k a3 k b3 − k b3 k c3 ∠ tan − 1 6-31
2k c3 − k a3 − k b3
and

V s C ∠ψ C = V sC 1 + k 2c3 + k 2a3 + k 2b3 − k c3 k a3 − k a3 k b3 − k b3 k c3 + 2k c3 − k a3 − k b3

6-32a
3 k b3 − k a3
∠ tan − 1
2 + 2k c3 − k a3 − k b3
or

2
V s C ∠ψ C = V sC 1 + k c3 + k 2a3 + k 2b3 − 1 + k c3 k a3 − k a3 k b3 − k b3 1 + k c3
6-32b
3 k b3 − k a3
∠ tan − 1
2 1 + k c3 − k a3 − k b3
Table 6-3 shows the active turns-ratios of the three secondary, series-compensating windings in
the C phase for the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ βC ≤ 360 . The table shows the
variations of the relative phase angle (βC) and the phase-shift angle (ψ C) due to the change in turns-
ratios. The theoretical values of the compensating voltage (Vs sC) and the modified sending-end volt-
age (Vs C) are calculated using Equations (6-31) and (6-32a) or (6-32b), respectively, considering the
sending-end voltage (VsC) to be 1 pu during the entire range of the relative phase angle of
0 ≤ βC ≤ 360 and shown in Table 6-3. The table is expanded for each hexagon, related to 5,
10, 15, and 20% compensating voltages.
It should be noted that each of the windings (a1, b2, and c3) is tapped at the same number of turns
through LTC1; each of the windings (b1, c2, and a3) is tapped at the same number of turns through
LTC2; and each of the windings (c1, a2, and b3) is tapped at the same number of turns through LTC3.
However, the number of turns in the a1-b2-c3 set, b1-c2-a3 set, and c1-a2-b3 set can be different from
each other.
 6.2 Desired Solution 413

Table 6-3 Active turns-ratios of the secondary, series-compensating

windings in the C phase, corresponding series-compensating voltage, and
modified sending-end voltage.

Case for natural power flow (center point of the hexagon characteristic)

Turns-ratios Vs sC βC Vs C ψC
(pu) (deg) (pu) (deg)
kc3 ka3 kb3

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 360.00 1.00 0.00

Case for 0.05 pu compensating voltage (smallest hexagon)

Turns-ratios Vs sC βC Vs C ψC
(pu) (deg) (pu) (deg)
kc3 ka3 kb3

0.05 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 1.05 0.00

0.05 0.00 0.05 0.05 60.00 1.03 2.42

0.00 0.00 0.05 0.05 120.00 0.98 2.54

0.00 0.05 0.05 0.05 180.00 0.95 0.00

0.00 0.05 0.00 0.05 240.00 0.98 −2.54

0.05 0.05 0.00 0.05 300.00 1.03 −2.42

0.05 0.00 0.00 0.05 360.00 1.05 0.00

Case for 0.10 pu compensating voltage (second smallest hexagon)

Turns-ratios Vs sC βC Vs C ψC
(pu) (deg) (pu) (deg)
kc3 ka3 kb3

0.10 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.00 1.10 0.00

0.10 0.00 0.05 0.09 30.00 1.08 2.31

0.10 0.00 0.10 0.10 60.00 1.05 4.72

0.05 0.00 0.10 0.09 90.00 1.00 4.95

0.00 0.00 0.10 0.10 120.00 0.95 5.21

0.00 0.05 0.10 0.09 150.00 0.93 2.68

0.00 0.10 0.10 0.10 180.00 0.90 0.00

0.00 0.10 0.05 0.09 210.00 0.93 −2.68

(Continued)
414 6 Sen Transformer

Table 6-3 (Continued)

Case for 0.10 pu compensating voltage (second smallest hexagon)

Turns-ratios Vs sC βC Vs C ψC
(pu) (deg) (pu) (deg)
kc3 ka3 kb3

0.00 0.10 0.00 0.10 240.00 0.95 −5.21

0.05 0.10 0.00 0.09 270.00 1.00 −4.95

0.10 0.10 0.00 0.10 300.00 1.05 −4.72

0.10 0.05 0.00 0.09 330.00 1.08 −2.31

0.10 0.00 0.00 0.10 360.00 1.10 0.00

Case for 0.15 pu compensating voltage (second largest hexagon)

Turns-ratios Vs sC βC Vs C ψC
(pu) (deg) (pu) (deg)
kc3 ka3 kb3

0.15 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.00 1.15 0.00

0.15 0.00 0.05 0.13 19.11 1.13 2.20

0.15 0.00 0.10 0.13 40.89 1.10 4.50

0.15 0.00 0.15 0.15 60.00 1.08 6.89

0.10 0.00 0.15 0.13 79.11 1.03 7.22

0.05 0.00 0.15 0.13 100.89 0.98 7.59

0.00 0.00 0.15 0.15 120.00 0.93 7.99

0.00 0.05 0.15 0.13 139.11 0.90 5.50

0.00 0.10 0.15 0.13 160.89 0.88 2.83

0.00 0.15 0.15 0.15 180.00 0.85 0.00

0.00 0.15 0.10 0.13 199.11 0.88 −2.83

0.00 0.15 0.05 0.13 220.89 0.90 −5.50

0.00 0.15 0.00 0.15 240.00 0.93 −7.99

0.05 0.15 0.00 0.13 259.11 0.98 −7.59

0.10 0.15 0.00 0.13 280.89 1.03 −7.22

0.15 0.15 0.00 0.15 300.00 1.08 −6.89

 6.2 Desired Solution 415

Table 6-3 (Continued)

Case for 0.15 pu compensating voltage (second largest hexagon)

Turns-ratios Vs sC βC Vs C ψC
(pu) (deg) (pu) (deg)
kc3 ka3 kb3

0.15 0.10 0.00 0.13 319.11 1.10 −4.50

0.15 0.05 0.00 0.13 340.89 1.13 −2.20

0.15 0.00 0.00 0.15 360.00 1.15 0.00

Case for 0.20 pu compensating voltage (largest hexagon)

Turns-ratios Vs sC βC Vs C ψC
(pu) (deg) (pu) (deg)
kc3 ka3 kb3

0.20 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.00 1.20 0.00

0.20 0.00 0.05 0.18 13.90 1.18 2.11

0.20 0.00 0.10 0.17 30.00 1.15 4.31

0.20 0.00 0.15 0.18 46.10 1.13 6.59

0.20 0.00 0.20 0.20 60.00 1.11 8.95

0.15 0.00 0.20 0.18 73.90 1.06 9.37

0.10 0.00 0.20 0.17 90.00 1.01 9.83

0.05 0.00 0.20 0.18 106.10 0.97 10.33

0.00 0.00 0.20 0.20 120.00 0.92 10.89

0.00 0.05 0.20 0.18 133.90 0.88 8.44

0.00 0.10 0.20 0.17 150.00 0.85 5.82

0.00 0.15 0.20 0.18 166.10 0.83 3.00

0.00 0.20 0.20 0.20 180.00 0.80 0.00

0.00 0.20 0.15 0.18 193.90 0.83 −3.00

0.00 0.20 0.10 0.17 210.00 0.85 −5.82

0.00 0.20 0.05 0.18 226.10 0.88 −8.44

0.00 0.20 0.00 0.20 240.00 0.92 −10.89

0.05 0.20 0.00 0.18 253.90 0.97 −10.33

(Continued)
416 6 Sen Transformer

Table 6-3 (Continued)

Case for 0.20 pu compensating voltage (largest hexagon)

Turns-ratios Vs sC βC Vs C ψC
(pu) (deg) (pu) (deg)
kc3 ka3 kb3

0.10 0.20 0.00 0.17 270.00 1.01 −9.83

0.15 0.20 0.00 0.18 286.10 1.06 −9.37

0.20 0.20 0.00 0.20 300.00 1.11 −8.95

0.20 0.15 0.00 0.18 313.90 1.13 −6.59

0.20 0.10 0.00 0.17 330.00 1.15 −4.31

0.20 0.05 0.00 0.18 346.10 1.18 −2.11

0.20 0.00 0.00 0.20 360.00 1.20 0.00

0.20
Compensating Voltage, Vs′s (pu)

0.15

Vs′s = 0.20
0.10 Vs′s = 0.15
Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05
0.05
Vs′s = 0

0.00
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-19 Compensating voltage (Vs s) in pu during the entire range of the relative phase angle
of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

The compensating voltage (Vs s), given in Table 6-1 through Table 6-3, during the entire range of
the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 is shown in Figure 6-19.
The modified sending-end voltage (Vs ), given in Table 6-1 through Table 6-3, during the entire
range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 is shown in Figure 6-20.
The phase-shift angle (ψ), given in Table 6-1 through Table 6-3, during the entire range of the
relative phase angle 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 is shown in Figure 6-21.
 6.2 Desired Solution 417

1.20
Modified Sending-end Voltage, Vs′ (pu)

1.15

1.10

1.05 Vs′s = 0.20

1.00 Vs′s = 0.15

0.95 Vs′s = 0.10

Vs′s = 0.05
0.90
Vs′s = 0
0.85

0.80
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-20 Modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) in pu during the entire range of the relative phase angle
of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

12.00
10.00
8.00
6.00
Phase-Shift Angle, ψ (°)

4.00
2.00 Vs′s = 0.20
0.00 Vs′s = 0.15
− 2.00 Vs′s = 0.10
− 4.00
Vs′s = 0.05
− 6.00
− 8.00 Vs′s = 0
− 10.00
− 12.00
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-21 Phase-shift angle (ψ) in degrees during the entire range of the relative phase angle
of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

Table 6-4 shows the variations of the theoretical magnitude (Vs s) of the compensating voltage
(Vs s) and the theoretical magnitude (Vs ) of the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) as a function
of the relative phase angle (β), considering the sending-end voltage (Vs) to be 1 pu. The resulting active
power (Pr), reactive power (Qr), and apparent power (Sr) flows at the receiving end, exchanged active
power (Pse), reactive power (Qse), and apparent power (Sse) by the Compensating-Voltage Unit (Series
Unit), and the prevailing line current (I) are also shown during the entire range of the relative phase
angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 in Table 6-4 for the ka1-kb1-kc1 active turns-ratios from Table 6-1, kb2-kc2-ka2
active turns-ratios from Table 6-2, and kc3-ka3-kb3 active turns-ratios from Table 6-3. The table is
expanded for each hexagon, related to 5, 10, 15, and 20% compensating voltages.
418 6 Sen Transformer

Table 6-4 Compensating voltage, modified sending-end voltage, power flows at the receiving end, exchanged
powers by the Series Unit and the line current for electrical system data, shown in Table 2-1, and the active turns-ratios
of the secondary, series-compensating windings in the A, B, and C phases per respective Tables 6-1, 6-2, and 6-3.

Case for natural power flows (center point of the hexagon characteristic)

Vs s β Vs Pr (pu) Qr (pu) Sr (pu) Pse Qse Sse I (pu)

(pu) (deg) (pu) (pu) (pu) (pu)

0.00 0.00 1.00 1.0000 −0.2679 1.0353 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1.0353

0.00 360.00 1.00 1.0000 −0.2679 1.0353 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1.0353

Case for 0.05 pu compensating voltage (smallest hexagon)

Vs s β Vs Pr (pu) Qr (pu) Sr (pu) Pse (pu) Qse (pu) Sse I (pu)

(pu) (deg) (pu) (pu)

0.05 0.00 1.05 1.0500 −0.1813 1.0655 −0.0500 −0.0184 0.0533 1.0655

0.05 60.00 1.03 1.1000 −0.2679 1.1322 −0.0134 −0.0550 0.0566 1.1322

0.05 120.00 0.98 1.0500 −0.3546 1.1082 0.0366 −0.0416 0.0554 1.1082

0.05 180.00 0.95 0.9500 −0.3546 1.0140 0.0500 0.0084 0.0507 1.0140

0.05 240.00 0.98 0.9000 −0.2679 0.9390 0.0134 0.0450 0.0470 0.9390

0.05 300.00 1.03 0.9500 −0.1813 0.9672 −0.0366 0.0316 0.0484 0.9672

0.05 360.00 1.05 1.0500 −0.1813 1.0655 −0.0500 −0.0184 0.0533 1.0655

Case for 0.10 pu compensating voltage (second smallest hexagon)

Vs s β Vs Pr (pu) Qr (pu) Sr (pu) Pse (pu) Qse (pu) Sse I (pu)

(pu) (deg) (pu) (pu)

0.10 0.00 1.10 1.1000 −0.0947 1.1041 −0.1000 −0.0468 0.1104 1.1041

0.09 30.00 1.08 1.1500 −0.1813 1.1642 −0.0634 −0.0784 0.1008 1.1642

0.10 60.00 1.05 1.2000 −0.2679 1.2296 −0.0268 −0.1200 0.1230 1.2296

0.09 90.00 1.00 1.1500 −0.3546 1.2034 0.0232 −0.1016 0.1042 1.2034

0.10 120.00 0.95 1.1000 −0.4412 1.1852 0.0732 −0.0932 0.1185 1.1852

0.09 150.00 0.93 1.0000 −0.4412 1.0930 0.0866 −0.0382 0.0947 1.0930

0.10 180.00 0.90 0.9000 −0.4412 1.0023 0.1000 0.0068 0.1002 1.0023

0.09 210.00 0.93 0.8500 −0.3546 0.9210 0.0634 0.0484 0.0798 0.9210

0.10 240.00 0.95 0.8000 −0.2679 0.8437 0.0268 0.0800 0.0844 0.8437

0.09 270.00 1.00 0.8500 −0.1813 0.8691 −0.0232 0.0716 0.0753 0.8691
 6.2 Desired Solution 419

Table 6-4 (Continued)

Case for 0.10 pu compensating voltage (second smallest hexagon)

Vs s β Vs Pr (pu) Qr (pu) Sr (pu) Pse (pu) Qse (pu) Sse I (pu)

(pu) (deg) (pu) (pu)

0.10 300.00 1.05 0.9000 −0.0947 0.9050 −0.0732 0.0532 0.0905 0.9050

0.09 330.00 1.08 1.0000 −0.0947 1.0045 −0.0866 0.0082 0.0870 1.0045

0.10 360.00 1.10 1.1000 −0.0947 1.1041 −0.1000 −0.0468 0.1104 1.1041

Case for 0.15 pu compensating voltage (second smallest hexagon)

Vs s β Vs Pr (pu) Qr (pu) Sr (pu) Pse (pu) Qse (pu) Sse I (pu)

(pu) (deg) (pu) (pu)

0.15 0.00 1.15 1.1500 −0.0081 1.1500 −0.1500 −0.0852 0.1725 1.1500

0.13 19.11 1.13 1.2000 −0.0947 1.2037 −0.1134 −0.1118 0.1592 1.2037

0.13 40.89 1.10 1.2500 −0.1813 1.2631 −0.0768 −0.1484 0.1671 1.2631

0.15 60.00 1.08 1.3000 −0.2679 1.3273 −0.0402 −0.1950 0.1991 1.3273

0.13 79.11 1.03 1.2500 −0.3546 1.2993 0.0098 −0.1716 0.1719 1.2993

0.13 100.89 0.98 1.2000 −0.4412 1.2785 0.0598 −0.1582 0.1691 1.2785

0.15 120.00 0.93 1.1500 −0.5278 1.2653 0.1098 −0.1548 0.1898 1.2653

0.13 139.11 0.90 1.0500 −0.5278 1.1752 0.1232 −0.0948 0.1555 1.1752

0.13 160.89 0.88 0.9500 −0.5278 1.0868 0.1366 −0.0448 0.1438 1.0868

0.15 180.00 0.85 0.8500 −0.5278 1.0005 0.1500 −0.0048 0.1501 1.0005

0.13 199.11 0.88 0.8000 −0.4412 0.9136 0.1134 0.0418 0.1209 0.9136

0.13 220.89 0.90 0.7500 −0.3546 0.8296 0.0768 0.0784 0.1097 0.8296

0.15 240.00 0.93 0.7000 −0.2679 0.7495 0.0402 0.1050 0.1124 0.7495

0.13 259.11 0.98 0.7500 −0.1813 0.7716 −0.0098 0.1016 0.1021 0.7716

0.13 280.89 1.03 0.8000 −0.0947 0.8056 −0.0598 0.0882 0.1066 0.8056

0.15 300.00 1.08 0.8500 −0.0081 0.8500 −0.1098 0.0648 0.1275 0.8500

0.13 319.11 1.10 0.9500 −0.0081 0.9500 −0.1232 0.0248 0.1257 0.9500

0.13 340.89 1.13 1.0500 −0.0081 1.0500 −0.1366 −0.0252 0.1389 1.0500

0.15 360.00 1.15 1.1500 −0.0081 1.1500 −0.1500 −0.0852 0.1725 1.1500

(Continued)
420 6 Sen Transformer

Table 6-4 (Continued)

Case for 0.20 pu compensating voltage (second largest hexagon)

Vs s β Vs Pr (pu) Qr (pu) Sr (pu) Pse (pu) Qse (pu) Sse I (pu)

(pu) (deg) (pu) (pu)

0.20 0.00 1.20 1.2000 0.0785 1.2026 −0.2000 −0.1336 0.2405 1.2026

0.18 13.90 1.18 1.2500 −0.0081 1.2500 −0.1634 −0.1552 0.2254 1.2500

0.17 30.00 1.15 1.3000 −0.0947 1.3034 −0.1268 −0.1868 0.2258 1.3034

0.18 46.10 1.13 1.3500 −0.1813 1.3621 −0.0902 −0.2284 0.2456 1.3621

0.20 60.00 1.11 1.4000 −0.2679 1.4254 −0.0536 −0.2800 0.2851 1.4254

0.18 73.90 1.06 1.3500 −0.3546 1.3958 −0.0036 −0.2516 0.2516 1.3958

0.17 90.00 1.01 1.3000 −0.4412 1.3728 0.0464 −0.2332 0.2378 1.3728

0.18 106.10 0.97 1.2500 −0.5278 1.3568 0.0964 −0.2248 0.2446 1.3568

0.20 120.00 0.92 1.2000 −0.6144 1.3481 0.1464 −0.2264 0.2696 1.3481

0.18 133.90 0.88 1.1000 −0.6144 1.2599 0.1598 −0.1614 0.2271 1.2599

0.17 150.00 0.85 1.0000 −0.6144 1.1736 0.1732 −0.1064 0.2033 1.1736

0.18 166.10 0.83 0.9000 −0.6144 1.0897 0.1866 −0.0614 0.1964 1.0897

0.20 180.00 0.80 0.8000 −0.6144 1.0087 0.2000 −0.0264 0.2017 1.0087

0.18 193.90 0.83 0.7500 −0.5278 0.9171 0.1634 0.0252 0.1653 0.9171

0.17 210.00 0.85 0.7000 −0.4412 0.8274 0.1268 0.0668 0.1433 0.8274

0.18 226.10 0.88 0.6500 −0.3546 0.7404 0.0902 0.0984 0.1335 0.7404

0.20 240.00 0.92 0.6000 −0.2679 0.6571 0.0536 0.1200 0.1314 0.6571

0.18 253.90 0.97 0.6500 −0.1813 0.6748 0.0036 0.1216 0.1217 0.6748

0.17 270.00 1.01 0.7000 −0.0947 0.7064 −0.0464 0.1132 0.1223 0.7064

0.18 286.10 1.06 0.7500 −0.0081 0.7500 −0.0964 0.0948 0.1352 0.7500

0.20 300.00 1.11 0.8000 0.0785 0.8038 −0.1464 0.0664 0.1608 0.8038

0.18 313.90 1.13 0.9000 0.0785 0.9034 −0.1598 0.0314 0.1629 0.9034

0.17 330.00 1.15 1.0000 0.0785 1.0031 −0.1732 −0.0136 0.1737 1.0031

0.18 346.10 1.18 1.1000 0.0785 1.1028 −0.1866 −0.0686 0.1988 1.1028

0.20 360.00 1.20 1.2000 0.0785 1.2026 −0.2000 −0.1336 0.2405 1.2026
 6.2 Desired Solution 421

Note that as the compensating voltages increases from inner hexagons to outer ones, the ratio
(Sr/Sse) decreases, which corroborates Figure 2-49.
Figure 6-22 shows the active power (Pr), reactive power (Qr), and apparent power (Sr) flows at the
receiving end, given in Table 6-4, during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

(a)
1.50
1.40
Receiving-end Active Power, Pr (pu)

1.30
1.20
1.10 Vs′s = 0.20

1.00 Vs′s = 0.15

0.90 Vs′s = 0.10
0.80 Vs′s = 0.05
0.70 Vs′s = 0
0.60
0.50
0 60 120 180 240 300 360

Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

(b)
0.10
Receiving-end Reactive Power, Qr (pu)

0.00

− 0.10

− 0.20 Vs′s = 0.20

-0.30 Vs′s = 0.15

− 0.40 Vs′s = 0.10

Vs′s = 0.05
− 0.50
Vs′s = 0
− 0.60

− 0.70
0 60 120 180 240 300 360

Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

(c)
1.50
1.40
Receiving-end Apparent Power, Sr (pu)

1.30
1.20
1.10 Vs′s = 0.20

1.00 Vs′s = 0.15

0.90 Vs′s = 0.10
0.80 Vs′s = 0.05
0.70 Vs′s = 0
0.60
0.50
0 60 120 180 240 300 360

Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-22 (a) Active power (Pr), (b) reactive power (Qr), and (c) apparent power (Sr) flows in pu at the
receiving end during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
422 6 Sen Transformer

0.10
Receiving-end Reactive Power, Qr (pu)

0.00

− 0.10

− 0.20 Vs′s = 0.20

− 0.30 Vs′s = 0.15

− 0.40 Vs′s = 0.10

Vs′s = 0.05
− 0.50
Vs′s = 0
− 0.60

− 0.70
0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50
Receiving-end Active Power, Pr (pu)

Figure 6-23 Active power (Pr) versus reactive power (Qr) in pu at the receiving end during the entire range of
the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

Figure 6-23 shows the active power (Pr) versus reactive power (Qr) at the receiving end, given in
Table 6-4, during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
Figure 6-24 shows the exchanged active power (Pse), reactive power (Qse), and apparent power
(Sse) by the Compensating-Voltage Unit (Series Unit), given in Table 6-4, during the entire range
of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
Figure 6-25 shows the exchanged active power (Pse) versus reactive power (Qse) by the Compen-
sating-Voltage Unit (Series Unit), given in Table 6-4, during the entire range of the relative phase
angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
Figure 6-26 shows the prevailing line current (I), given in Table 6-4, during the entire range of the
relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
The summary of the study results for a 20% compensating voltage is given below.

•• The line voltage at the POC is fixed at one pu.

Active power flow at the receiving end changes from the natural flow of one pu by 0.4 and
−0.4 pu.

• Reactive power flow at the receiving end changes from the natural flow of −0.2679 pu by 0.3464
and −0.3465 pu.

• Rating of the ST: 0.2851 pu.

Note that a 0.2851 pu-rated ST regulates 1.4254 pu apparent power in the line as shown in
Figures 6-24c and 6-22c, respectively.
 6.2 Desired Solution 423

(a) 0.20

0.15
Exchanged Active Power, Pse (pu)

0.10

0.05 Vs′s = 0.20

0.00 Vs′s = 0.15

− 0.05 Vs′s = 0.10

Vs′s = 0.05
− 0.10
Vs′s = 0
− 0.15

− 0.20
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

(b) 0.20
0.15
Exchanged Reactive Power, Qse (pu)

0.10
0.05
0.00 Vs′s = 0.20
− 0.05 Vs′s = 0.15
− 0.10 Vs′s = 0.10
− 0.15 Vs′s = 0.05
− 0.20 Vs′s = 0
− 0.25
− 0.30
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

(c)
0.30
Exchanged Apparent Power, Sse (pu)

0.25

0.20
Vs′s = 0.20
0.15 Vs′s = 0.15
Vs′s = 0.10
0.10
Vs′s = 0.05
Vs′s = 0
0.05

0.00
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-24 (a) Exchanged active power (Pse), (b) reactive power (Qse), and (c) apparent power (Sse) by the
Series Unit in pu during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
424 6 Sen Transformer

0.20
Exchanged Reactive Power, Qse (pu)

0.10

0.00 Vs′s = 0.20

Vs′s = 0.15
− 0.10 Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05
− 0.20 Vs′s = 0

− 0.30
− 0.20 − 0.15 − 0.10 − 0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Exchanged Active Power, Pse (pu)

Figure 6-25 Exchanged active power (Pse) versus reactive power (Qse) in pu by the Series Unit during the entire
range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

1.50
1.40
1.30
Line Current, I (pu)

1.20
Vs′s = 0.20
1.10
Vs′s = 0.15
1.00
Vs′s = 0.10
0.90
Vs′s = 0.05
0.80
Vs′s = 0
0.70
0.60
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-26 Line current (I) in pu during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
 6.2 Desired Solution 425

6.2.4 Simulation of ST Integrated in a Two-Generator/One-Line

Power System Network
A basic simulation of an ideal ST, without any leakage reactance, was carried out and the results are
shown in this section. The operation of the ST is verified in a two-generator/one-line power system
network, considering a three-phase base power of 160 MVA and a phase-to-phase (P–P) base rms
voltage, Vrms(P-P), of 138 kVrms as defined in Chapter 3, Section 3.1. The network model of Figure 3-5
is used with the short between BUS01 and BUS02, which is replaced with the ST as shown in
Figure 6-27. The corresponding EMTP datafile 601IDLST.DAT is shown in Code 6-1. The EMTP
code in bold is the additional code that is not discussed yet.

(a)
BUS01

BUS02
Ps′, Qs′
IA
V21A I
0
Vs V1 V1A a1 1
2
IB V2A V2 Vs′
3
3
2

b1
1
0

V1B IC V2B
4
3

c1
(b)
2
1

V1C V2C Va1

V
V21B 21
A βA

0 V2A
a2 1
2 ψA V
3 V c1 b1
4

A
3
2

b2
1

V1A
Va3 Va2
3

c2
2
1

V 1C
0

V B
1B ψB V2B V 21
ψC βB
V21C βC V2C V V
V c3 b3 V c2 b2

a3 1 V21C
2
3
B 4
3

C
2

b3
1
0

c3
2
1
0

Compensating-Voltage Unit
Exciter Unit

Sen Transformer

Figure 6-27 (a) Sen Transformer (ST) and (b) phasor diagram.

Code 6-1 EMTP datafile for an ST integrated in a two-bus network (601IDLST.DAT)

BEGIN NEW DATA CASE
C File Name: 601IDLST.DAT
C IDEAL SEN TRANSFORMER WITHOUT ANY LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ----dt<---tmax<---Xopt<---Copt<--Toler< >< >
16.666-6150.00-3
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C -Iprnt<--Iplot<-Idoubl<-KssOut<-MaxOut< >< ><---Icat<-Nenerg
20 10 1

(Continued )
426 6 Sen Transformer

Code 6-1 (Continued)

TACS HYBRID
99TWOPI = 2.0 * PI
C BASE VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND POWER
99Vbase = 112676.528
99Ibase = 946.662704
99Zbase = Vbase / Ibase
99Pbase = 1.5 * Vbase * Ibase
$INCLUDE 302MEAS1.SWT
$INCLUDE 303PTCT.SCL
$INCLUDE 304IPLL.PLL
$INCLUDE 305LINER.CMP
C EXCHANGED POWER IN PU BY THE SERIES UNIT WITH THE LINE
99P2sepu = (v12Apu * iApu + v12Bpu * iBpu + v12Cpu * iCpu) *Vbase*Ibase / Pbase
99Q2sepu = (v12Apu * iCpu - v12Cpu * iApu) * SQRT(3) * Vbase * Ibase / Pbase
C EXCHANGED MW AND MVAR BY THE SERIES UNIT WITH THE LINE
99P2seMW = P2sepu * Pbase / 1e6
99Q2seMV = Q2sepu * Pbase / 1e6
C EXCHANGED MVA WITH THE LINE PER EQUATION (2-182)
99S2seMV = SQRT(P2seMW * P2seMW + Q2seMV * Q2seMV)
C RMS LINE CURRENT
99Irms = ipu * Ibase / SQRT(2)
C TACS OUTPUT
33v1pu v12pu v2pu PrMW QrMVARSrMVA P2seMWQ2seMVS2seMVIrms
BLANK RECORD ENDING TACS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<----R<----L<----C V
VSA BUS01A 0.0001
VSB BUS01BVSA BUS01A
VSC BUS01CVSA BUS01A
$INCLUDE 306NTWK1.BRN
$INCLUDE 602IDLST.TRN
BLANK RECORD ENDING BRANCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<---Tclose<----Topen<-------Ie<----Flash<--Request<-----Target<--O
$INCLUDE 307MEAS2.SWT
BLANK RECORD ENDING SWITCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
$INCLUDE 308NTWK1.SRC
BLANK RECORD ENDING SOURCES
BLANK RECORD ENDING NODE VOLTAGE OUTPUT
BLANK RECORD ENDING PLOT
 6.2 Desired Solution 427

The datafile 601IDLST.DAT includes a card, which attaches the $INCLUDE file 602IDLST.TRN
that connects an ST, without any leakage impedance, to the transmission line as shown in Code 6-2.
The EMTP code is set up corresponding to the operating point when no compensating voltage
(V s s = 0 0 pu and β = 0 ) is used. Therefore, all nine secondary windings of the ST were set to
a turns-ratio of a near-zero value by using a small number, i.e. 1.0 × 10−6.

Code 6-2 EMTP $INCLUDE file for an ST with an operating point, V s s = 0 0 pu and β = 0
(602IDLST.TRN).
C File Name: 602IDLST.TRN
C 3-PHASE IDEAL SEN TRANSFORMER WITHOUT ANY LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ------SERIES COMPENSATING TRANSFORMER FOR THE A PHASE------
C TRANSFORMER <--Refxxxxxx<--Iss<--Phi<-Name<-Rmag<----------------------------O
TRANSFORMER SRSTRA
C NEXT LINE (9999 IN COLUMNS 13-16) INDICATES A LINEAR TRANSFORMER
9999
C <---Nodes--><----------><-Ohms<---mH<---kV
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<----------><---Rk<---Lk<Volt|---------------------------------->O
1BUS01A 1.0E-61.0E-6 1.0
2A1HEADA1TAIL 1.0E-61.0E-61.0E-6
3A2HEADA2TAIL 1.0E-61.0E-61.0E-6
4A3HEADA3TAIL 1.0E-61.0E-61.0E-6
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<----R<----L<----C V
A1HEADBUS02A 1.0E-6
A2HEADBUS02B 1.0E-6
A3HEADBUS02C 1.0E-6
C ------SERIES COMPENSATING TRANSFORMER FOR THE B PHASE------
TRANSFORMER SRSTRB
9999
1BUS01B 1.0E-61.0E-6 1.0
2B1HEADB1TAIL 1.0E-61.0E-61.0E-6
3B2HEADB2TAIL 1.0E-61.0E-61.0E-6
4B3HEADB3TAIL 1.0E-61.0E-61.0E-6
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<----R<----L<----C V
B1HEADA1TAIL 1.0E-6
B2HEADA2TAIL 1.0E-6
B3HEADA3TAIL 1.0E-6

(Continued )
428 6 Sen Transformer

Code 6-2 (Continued)

C ------SERIES COMPENSATING TRANSFORMER FOR THE C PHASE------
TRANSFORMER SRSTRC
9999
1BUS01C 1.0E-61.0E-6 1.0
2C1HEADC1TAIL 1.0E-61.0E-61.0E-6
3C2HEADC2TAIL 1.0E-61.0E-61.0E-6
4C3HEADC3TAIL 1.0E-61.0E-61.0E-6
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<----R<----L<----C V
C1HEADB1TAIL 1.0E-6
C2HEADB2TAIL 1.0E-6
C3HEADB3TAIL 1.0E-6
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<----R<----L<----C V
C1TAILBUS01A 1.0E-6
C2TAILBUS01B 1.0E-6
C3TAILBUS01C 1.0E-6

The ST consists of three primary windings and nine secondary windings (three for series connec-
tion in each of the three phases). The primary and secondary windings are considered to have
one pu and 0.2 pu voltage ratings, respectively. Considering an LTC contact located at every 5%
tap setting, each secondary winding consists of four LTC taps. The leakage resistance and reactance
of the ST were set to 1.0 × 10−6 Ω and 1.0 × 10−6 mH, respectively, since the secondary effects are
not of interest for a preliminary study. Using the above datacase with zero turns-ratio, the uncom-
pensated or natural active and reactive power flows (Prn and Qrn) at the receiving end of the line are
simulated to be 209.87 MW (1.3117 pu) and −66.97 Mvar (−0.4185 pu), respectively. To study the
effects of other operating points of an ST, the active turns-ratios are set according to Table 6-1
through Table 6-3, which show the active turns-ratios of the three secondary, compensating-
windings in the A, B, and C phases for the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
The effect of implementing an open-loop control in voltage-injection mode, traveling from one
operating point to the next in four hexagons, related to 5, 10, 15, and 20% compensating voltages,
is studied, using an electrical system data as shown in Table 3-2.

Table 3-2 Electrical system data.

Parameters Values

Source voltage (Vsrc) phase-to-neutral 1 pu (112,676.528 Vpeak)∠0

Source resistance (Rsrc) 0.0084 pu (1.0053 Ω)
Source reactance (Xsrc) 0.0625 pu (19.73 mH)
Receiving-end voltage (Vr) phase-to-neutral 1 pu (112,676.528 Vpeak)∠−20
Line resistance (R) 0.0253 pu (3.0159 Ω)
Line reactance (X) 0.1875 pu (59.19 mH)
 6.2 Desired Solution 429

It is recommended to create a $INCLUDE file, such as, ST4060P0.TRN, for each of the operating
points of ST, following Code 6-2. Code 6-3 shows the setup of LTCs for a series-compensating volt-
age (Vs s) with magnitude, V s s = 0 20 pu, and the relative phase angle, β = 60 . These $INCLUDE
files can be created and edited, using a text editor, such as NOTEPAD. Each $INCLUDE file name
consists of eight characters, followed by the .TRN extension, such as ST4060P0.TRN. According to
the convention, followed in this book, the first two characters (ST) in the $INCLUDE file name are
reserved for Sen Transformer. The third character is reserved for the highest tap setting, such as 4,
which represents V s s = 0 20 pu, assuming 0.05 pu across each LTC tap. The five characters from
fourth through eighth are reserved for the relative phase angle (β), such as 060P0 to represent
β = 60.0 . Note that the turns-ratios for the appropriate secondary windings in this $INCLUDE file
have changed from 1.0E-6, shown in Code 6-2, to 0.20 pu.

Code 6-3 EMTP $INCLUDE file for an ST with an operating point, V s s = 0 20 pu and β = 60.0
(ST4060P0.TRN).
C File Name: ST4060P0.TRN
C 3-PHASE IDEAL SEN TRANSFORMER WITHOUT ANY LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
C OPERATING POINT: Vs s = 0.20 pu and beta = 60.0 degrees.
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ------SERIES COMPENSATING TRANSFORMER FOR THE A PHASE------
C TRANSFORMER <--Refxxxxxx<--Iss<--Phi<-Name<-Rmag<----------------------------O
TRANSFORMER SRSTRA
C NEXT LINE (9999 IN COLUMNS 13-16) INDICATES A LINEAR TRANSFORMER
9999
C <---Nodes--><----------><-Ohms<---mH<---kV
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<----------><---Rk<---Lk<Volt|---------------------------------->O
1BUS01A 1.0E-61.0E-6 1.0
2A1HEADA1TAIL 1.0E-61.0E-6 0.20
3A2HEADA2TAIL 1.0E-61.0E-6 0.20
4A3HEADA3TAIL 1.0E-61.0E-61.0E-6
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<----R<----L<----C V
A1HEADBUS02A 1.0E-6
A2HEADBUS02B 1.0E-6
A3HEADBUS02C 1.0E-6
C ------SERIES COMPENSATING TRANSFORMER FOR THE B PHASE------
TRANSFORMER SRSTRB
9999
1BUS01B 1.0E-61.0E-6 1.0
2B1HEADB1TAIL 1.0E-61.0E-61.0E-6
3B2HEADB2TAIL 1.0E-61.0E-6 0.20
4B3HEADB3TAIL 1.0E-61.0E-6 0.20

(Continued )
430 6 Sen Transformer

Code 6-3 (Continued)

C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<----R<----L<----C V
B1HEADA1TAIL 1.0E-6
B2HEADA2TAIL 1.0E-6
B3HEADA3TAIL 1.0E-6
C ------SERIES COMPENSATING TRANSFORMER FOR THE C PHASE------
TRANSFORMER SRSTRC
9999
1BUS01C 1.0E-61.0E-6 1.0
2C1HEADC1TAIL 1.0E-61.0E-6 0.20
3C2HEADC2TAIL 1.0E-61.0E-61.0E-6
4C3HEADC3TAIL 1.0E-61.0E-6 0.20
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<----R<----L<----C V
C1HEADB1TAIL 1.0E-6
C2HEADB2TAIL 1.0E-6
C3HEADB3TAIL 1.0E-6
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<----R<----L<----C V
C1TAILBUS01A 1.0E-6
C2TAILBUS01B 1.0E-6
C3TAILBUS01C 1.0E-6

Table 6-5 shows the variations of theoretical magnitude (Vs s) of the compensating voltage (Vs s)
and the theoretical magnitude (Vs ) of the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) as a function of the
relative phase angle (β), considering the sending-end voltage (Vs) is 1 pu. The table also shows the
corresponding values of simulated magnitude (Vs s) of the compensating voltage (Vs s), the simu-
lated magnitude (Vs) of sending-end voltage (Vs), and the simulated magnitude (Vs ) of modified
sending-end voltage (Vs ). The resulting active power (Pr), reactive power (Qr), and apparent power
(Sr) flows at the receiving end, exchanged active power (Pse), reactive power (Qse), and apparent
power (Sse) by the Compensating-Voltage Unit (Series Unit), and the prevailing line current (I)
are also shown during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 in Table 6-5
for the ka1-kb1-kc1 active turns-ratios from Table 6-1, kb2-kc2-ka2 active turns-ratios from Table 6-
2, and kc3-ka3-kb3 active turns-ratios from Table 6-3. The table is expanded for each hexagon, related
to 5, 10, 15, and 20% compensating voltages.
Figure 6-28 shows the magnitude of the sending-end voltage (Vs), given in Table 6-5, during the
entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 . The voltage (Vs) keeps changing from its
original (uncompensated) value because of the variation of line current and the resulting voltage
across the line impedance between the POC and the infinite bus. Due to this variation in the
Table 6-5 Compensating voltage, modified sending-end voltage, power flows at the receiving end, exchanged powers by the Series Unit and the line current for electrical system
data, shown in Table 3-2, and the active turns-ratios of the secondary, series-compensating windings in the A, B, and C phases per respective Tables 6-1, 6-2, and 6-3.

Case for natural power flows (center point of the hexagon characteristic)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.00 0.00 1.00 0.9886 0.0000 0.9886 209.8713 −66.9674 220.2966 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 921.6545

0.00 360.00 1.00 0.9886 0.0000 0.9886 209.8713 −66.9674 220.2966 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 921.6545

Case for 0.05 pu compensating voltage (smallest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.05 0.00 1.05 0.9757 0.0488 1.0245 219.0008 −37.9146 222.2586 −10.8009 −0.9508 10.8427 929.8627

0.05 60.00 1.03 0.9791 0.0490 1.0045 238.4317 −64.8420 247.0914 −6.2068 −10.3819 12.0958 1033.756

0.05 120.00 0.98 0.9916 0.0496 0.9678 229.5456 −94.9013 248.3896 4.6252 −11.4133 12.3149 1039.187

0.05 180.00 0.95 1.0010 0.0500 0.9509 200.0051 −97.4233 222.4710 10.9389 −2.0753 11.1340 930.7513

0.05 240.00 0.98 0.9973 0.0499 0.9733 180.3229 −69.0618 193.0955 5.5525 7.8665 9.6287 807.8534

0.05 300.00 1.03 0.9846 0.0492 1.0101 190.4236 −39.6402 194.5058 −5.3248 7.9581 9.5752 813.7535

0.05 360.00 1.05 0.9757 0.0488 1.0245 219.0008 −37.9146 222.2586 −10.8009 −0.9508 10.8427 929.8627

(Continued)
Table 6-5 (Continued)

Case for 0.10 pu compensating voltage (second smallest hexagon)

Theoretical Β (deg) Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.10 0.00 1.10 0.9623 0.0962 1.0585 227.4150 −10.2654 227.6466 −21.4199 −4.5869 21.9056 952.4044

0.09 30.00 1.08 0.9660 0.0837 1.0393 246.5931 −36.1864 249.2340 −16.9077 −12.2011 20.8503 1042.72

0.10 60.00 1.05 0.9687 0.0969 1.0206 265.9381 −62.6947 273.2283 −13.0807 −23.0101 26.4683 1143.105

0.09 90.00 1.00 0.9814 0.0850 0.9851 258.0261 −92.3275 274.0471 −2.3813 −23.1693 23.2913 1146.53

0.10 120.00 0.95 0.9935 0.0993 0.9477 249.3795 −123.3573 278.2215 8.3926 −26.3347 27.6397 1163.994

0.09 150.00 0.93 1.0035 0.0869 0.9292 219.9132 −126.3575 253.6297 15.5381 −15.6326 22.0411 1061.11

0.10 180.00 0.90 1.0126 0.1013 0.9113 189.3842 −129.2707 229.2974 21.9676 −7.5183 23.2185 959.3109

0.09 210.00 0.93 1.0094 0.0874 0.9347 169.4773 −99.8812 196.7201 16.5770 4.5746 17.1966 823.0175

0.10 240.00 0.95 1.0051 0.1005 0.9588 149.8632 −71.1161 165.8809 10.4785 12.9679 16.6723 693.9957

0.09 270.00 1.00 0.9926 0.0860 0.9963 160.9309 −41.3573 166.1601 −0.4562 14.2760 14.2833 695.1635

0.10 300.00 1.05 0.9795 0.0980 1.0320 171.2644 −12.9956 171.7568 −11.1929 12.5605 16.8240 718.5783

0.09 330.00 1.08 0.9713 0.0841 1.0450 199.7975 −11.6211 200.1352 −16.0133 5.1947 16.8348 837.305

0.10 360.00 1.10 0.9623 0.0962 1.0585 227.4150 −10.2654 227.6466 −21.4199 −4.5869 21.9056 952.4044
Table 6-5 (Continued)

Case for 0.15 pu compensating voltage (second largest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.15 0.00 1.15 0.9484 0.1423 1.0907 235.1379 15.9884 235.6808 −31.8173 −10.5745 33.5285 986.0172

0.13 19.11 1.13 0.9525 0.1260 1.0723 254.0543 −8.9321 254.2113 −27.4311 −16.5373 32.0304 1063.543

0.13 40.89 1.10 0.9556 0.1264 1.0544 273.1410 −34.4630 275.3065 −23.6532 −25.5273 34.8011 1151.799

0.15 60.00 1.08 0.9577 0.1436 1.0370 292.3349 −60.5339 298.5365 −20.6196 −37.6019 42.8844 1248.986

0.13 79.11 1.03 0.9704 0.1284 1.0026 285.3844 −89.7123 299.1530 −10.0826 −37.0558 38.4030 1251.566

0.13 100.89 0.98 0.9826 0.1300 0.9665 277.7151 −120.2854 302.6454 0.5251 −39.3359 39.3394 1266.177

0.15 120.00 0.93 0.9941 0.1491 0.9286 269.3012 −152.2419 309.3554 11.1448 −44.7649 46.1314 1294.249

0.13 139.11 0.90 1.0048 0.1329 0.9085 239.9764 −155.7705 286.0999 19.1842 −32.8363 38.0296 1196.955

0.13 160.89 0.88 1.0146 0.1342 0.8889 209.5153 −159.1908 263.1318 26.4771 −23.3729 35.3176 1100.863

0.15 180.00 0.85 1.0235 0.1535 0.8699 177.9953 −162.4845 241.0053 33.0339 −16.6634 36.9988 1008.293

0.13 199.11 0.88 1.0208 0.1350 0.8943 157.8746 −132.0820 205.8398 27.7033 −2.2607 27.7954 861.171

0.13 220.89 0.90 1.0169 0.1345 0.9194 138.0478 −102.2630 171.7990 21.5727 8.2893 23.1105 718.7553

0.15 240.00 0.93 1.0119 0.1518 0.9452 118.5807 −73.1211 139.3129 14.8211 15.0811 21.1448 582.843

0.13 259.11 0.98 0.9997 0.1322 0.9833 130.6034 −43.0590 137.5185 3.8420 17.7758 18.1862 575.3357

0.13 280.89 1.03 0.9869 0.1306 1.0196 141.8894 −14.3846 142.6167 −6.9268 17.2822 18.6187 596.6652

0.15 300.00 1.08 0.9735 0.1460 1.0542 152.4510 12.8982 152.9956 −17.4530 13.9477 22.3416 640.0873

(Continued)
Table 6-5 (Continued)

Case for 0.15 pu compensating voltage (second largest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.13 319.11 1.10 0.9660 0.1278 1.0659 180.8804 13.9692 181.4190 −21.6963 8.1669 23.1825 759.0017

0.13 340.89 1.13 0.9576 0.1267 1.0781 208.4650 15.0000 209.0039 −26.4755 −0.0828 26.4756 874.4089

0.15 360.00 1.15 0.9484 0.1423 1.0907 235.1379 15.9884 235.6808 −31.8173 −10.5745 33.5285 986.0172

Case for 0.20 pu compensating voltage (largest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.20 0.00 1.20 0.9342 0.1868 1.1211 242.1959 40.8642 245.6191 −41.9581 −18.5920 45.8927 1027.596

0.18 13.90 1.18 0.9386 0.1692 1.1035 260.8427 16.9331 261.3917 −37.7361 −23.0660 44.2273 1093.584

0.17 30.00 1.15 0.9420 0.1632 1.0863 279.6624 −7.6260 279.7664 −34.0514 −30.3967 45.6449 1170.458

0.18 46.10 1.13 0.9444 0.1703 1.0696 298.5951 −32.7497 300.3857 −31.0325 −40.6536 51.1443 1256.723

0.20 60.00 1.11 0.9459 0.1892 1.0534 317.5775 −58.3680 322.8967 −28.8081 −53.8688 61.0881 1350.902

0.18 73.90 1.06 0.9587 0.1728 1.0203 311.5698 −87.0678 323.5067 −18.4657 −52.7767 55.9138 1353.454

0.17 90.00 1.01 0.9710 0.1682 0.9855 304.8625 −117.1550 326.5983 −8.0549 −54.3341 54.9279 1366.389

0.18 106.10 0.97 0.9827 0.1772 0.9489 297.4265 −148.6235 332.4928 2.3651 −58.8547 58.9022 1391.05

0.20 120.00 0.92 0.9936 0.1987 0.9107 289.2355 −181.4549 341.4426 12.7300 −66.6496 67.8544 1428.492

0.18 133.90 0.88 1.0050 0.1812 0.8890 260.1203 −185.5608 319.5237 21.7143 −53.6609 57.8879 1336.791
Table 6-5 (Continued)

Case for 0.20 pu compensating voltage (largest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.17 150.00 0.85 1.0154 0.1759 0.8676 229.7973 −189.5392 297.8790 29.9330 −42.9949 52.3884 1246.236

0.18 166.10 0.83 1.0249 0.1848 0.8467 198.3388 −193.3682 277.0010 37.3840 −34.9565 51.1812 1158.888

0.20 180.00 0.80 1.0334 0.2067 0.8268 165.8300 −197.0263 257.5247 44.0829 −29.8296 53.2270 1077.406

0.18 193.90 0.83 1.0313 0.1859 0.8520 145.5061 −165.6337 220.4689 38.8826 −12.9714 40.9892 922.3753

0.17 210.00 0.85 1.0279 0.1780 0.8782 125.4775 −134.7765 184.1448 32.7845 −0.1007 32.7846 770.4061

0.18 226.10 0.88 1.0233 0.1845 0.9052 105.8126 −104.5569 148.7563 25.9755 8.8532 27.4428 622.3515

0.20 240.00 0.92 1.0176 0.2035 0.9327 86.5736 −75.0674 114.5866 18.6386 14.0168 23.3210 479.3958

0.18 253.90 0.97 1.0058 0.1813 0.9713 99.5315 −44.7385 109.1240 7.6215 18.2597 19.7865 456.5419

0.17 270.00 1.01 0.9933 0.1720 1.0081 111.7553 −15.7833 112.8644 −3.1695 19.1569 19.4173 472.1904

0.18 286.10 1.06 0.9802 0.1767 1.0431 123.2523 11.7896 123.8149 −13.7057 17.0541 21.8790 518.0041

0.20 300.00 1.11 0.9666 0.1933 1.0764 134.0345 37.9830 139.3125 −23.9618 12.2955 26.9323 582.8413

0.18 313.90 1.13 0.9597 0.1730 1.0869 162.3042 38.7963 166.8766 −27.7082 8.1147 28.8721 698.1614

0.17 330.00 1.15 0.9520 0.1649 1.0979 189.7989 39.5479 193.8754 −31.9354 1.4333 31.9676 811.1159

0.18 346.10 1.18 0.9435 0.1701 1.1093 216.4496 40.2373 220.1579 −36.6780 −7.5435 37.4457 921.0739

0.20 360.00 1.20 0.9342 0.1868 1.1211 242.1959 40.8642 245.6191 −41.9581 −18.5920 45.8927 1027.596
436 6 Sen Transformer

magnitude of the sending-end voltage (Vs), the magnitudes of the actual compensating voltage (Vs s)
and the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) will vary from their theoretical values for a fixed send-
ing-end voltage of one pu as listed in Tables 6-1, 6-2, and 6-3, and shown in Figures 6-19 and 6-20,
respectively. While the magnitude of the sending-end voltage is dependent on line current and line
impedance, the relative phase angle (β) and the phase-shift angle (ψ) are not affected, since these
angles are only dependent on turns-ratios, according to Equations (6-8) and (6-17a) or (6-17b) for
the A phase, (6-27) and (6-28a) or (6-28b) for the B phase, and (6-31) and (6-32a) or (6-32b) for the C
phase, respectively.
The magnitude of the varying compensating voltage (Vsʹs) at various operating points can either
be simulated or calculated from Equation (6-8, 6-27, or 6-31), taking into account that the sending-
end voltage (Vs) varies as shown in Figure 6-28. The simulated magnitude (Vs s) of the compensating
voltage in pu, given in Table 6-5, during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360
is shown in Figure 6-29.
Similarly, the varying modified sending-end voltage (Vsʹ) at various operating points can either be
simulated or calculated from Equation (6-17a or 6-17b, 6-28a or 6-28b, or 6-32a or 6-32b), taking
into account that the sending-end voltage (Vs) varies as shown in Figure 6-28. The simulated mag-
nitude (Vs ) of the modified sending-end voltage in pu, given in Table 6-5, during the entire range of
the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 is shown in Figure 6-30.
Figure 6-31 shows the active power (Pr), reactive power (Qr), and apparent power (Sr) flows at
the receiving end, given in Table 6-5, during the entire range of the relative phase angle of
0 ≤ β ≤ 360 . Figure 6-32 shows the active power (Pr) versus reactive power (Qr) flow at the
receiving end, given in Table 6-5, during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
The P-Q plot is somewhat different from an ideal hexagon (shown in Figure 6-23) due to the fact
that the primary voltage (Vs) keeps changing from its original (uncompensated) value because of
the change of line current and the resulting voltage across the line impedance between the POC

1.04

1.02
Sending-end Voltage, Vs (pu)

1.00
Vs′s = 0.20
0.98 Vs′s = 0.15
Vs′s = 0.10
0.96
Vs′s = 0.05
0.94 Vs′s = 0

0.92
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-28 Magnitude of the simulated sending-end voltage (Vs) in pu during the entire range of the relative
phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
 6.2 Desired Solution 437

0.25
Compensating Voltage, Vs′s (pu)

0.20

0.15 Vs′s = 0.20

Vs′s = 0.15
0.10 Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05
0.05
Vs′s = 0

0.00
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-29 Magnitude of the simulated compensating voltage (Vs s) in pu during the entire range of the
relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

1.15
Modified Sending-end Voltage, Vs′ (pu)

1.10

1.05
Vs′s = 0.20
1.00
Vs′s = 0.15
0.95
Vs′s = 0.10
0.90 Vs′s = 0.05

0.85 Vs′s = 0

0.80
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-30 Magnitude of the simulated modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) in pu during the entire range of
the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

and the infinite bus on the source side. A more ideal hexagon-like characteristic results if the
POC is closer to an infinite bus.
Figure 6-33 shows the exchanged active power (Pse), reactive power (Qse), and apparent power
(Sse) by the Compensating-Voltage Unit (Series Unit), given in Table 6-5, during the entire range
of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
438 6 Sen Transformer

(a) Receiving-end Active Power, Pr (MW) 325

275

225 Vs′s = 0.20

Vs′s = 0.15
175 Vs′s = 0.10

Vs′s = 0.05
125 Vs′s = 0

75
0 60 120 180 240 300 360

Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

(b) 50
Receiving-end Reactive Power, Qr (Mvar)

− 50 Vs′s = 0.20
Vs′s = 0.15
− 100 Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05
− 150 Vs′s = 0

− 200
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

(c) 350
Receiving-end Apparent Power, Sr (MVA)

300

250 Vs′s = 0.20

Vs′s = 0.15
200 Vs′s = 0.10

Vs′s = 0.05
150 Vs′s = 0

100
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-31 (a) Active power (Pr) in MW, (b) reactive power (Qr) in Mvar, and (c) apparent Power (Sr) in MVA at
the receiving end during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
 6.2 Desired Solution 439

50
Receiving-end Reactive Power, Qr (Mvar)

− 50 Vs′s = 0.20
Vs′s = 0.15
− 100 Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05
− 150 Vs′s = 0

− 200
75 125 175 225 275 325
Receiving-end Active Power, Pr (MW)

Figure 6-32 Active power (Pr) in MW versus reactive power (Qr) in Mvar at the receiving end during the entire
range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

Figure 6-34 shows the exchanged active power (Pse) versus reactive power (Qse) by the Compen-
sating-Voltage Unit (Series Unit), given in Table 6-5, during the entire range of the relative phase
angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
Figure 6-35 shows the prevailing line current (I), given in Table 6-5, during the entire range of the
relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
The summary of the study results for a 20% compensating voltage is given below.

• The variation of line voltage at the POC is between 0.9342 and 1.0334 pu, whereas the natural
voltage is 0.9866 pu.

• Active power flow at the receiving end changes from the natural flow of 210 MW (1.31 pu) by 108
and −123 MW.

• Reactive power flow at the receiving end changes from the natural flow of −67 Mvar (−0.42 pu)
by 59 and −130 Mvar.

• Rating of the ST: 68 MVA.

Note that a 68 MVA-rated ST regulates 342 MVA in the line as shown in Figures 6-33c and 6-31c,
respectively.

6.2.5 Simulation of ST Integrated in a Three-Generator/Four-Line Power

System Network
Since the power system network is more complex than what is considered so far in this book, the
simulation of ST was repeated with a more realistic network as shown in Figure 6-36, using an elec-
trical system data as shown in Table 6-6. The corresponding EMTP datafile 603IDLST.DAT is
shown in Code 6-4. The difference between this file and 601IDLST.DAT is that they have different
branch and source files. The updated branches are defined in the $INCLUDE file 604NTWK4.BRN
as shown in Code 6-5. The updated sources are defined in the $INCLUDE file 605NTWK4.SRC as
440 6 Sen Transformer

(a) 50
40
Exchanged Active Power, Pse (MW)

30
20
10 Vs′s = 0.20
0 Vs′s = 0.15
− 10 Vs′s = 0.10
− 20 Vs′s = 0.05
− 30 Vs′s = 0
− 40
− 50
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

(b) 30
20
Exchanged Reactive Power, Qse (Mvar)

10
0
− 10 Vs′s = 0.20
− 20 Vs′s = 0.15
− 30 Vs′s = 0.10

− 40 Vs′s = 0.05

− 50 Vs′s = 0

− 60
− 70
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

(c) 70
Exchanged Apparent Power, Sse (MVA)

60

50

40 Vs′s = 0.20
Vs′s = 0.15
30 Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05
20
Vs′s = 0
10

0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-33 (a) Exchanged active power (Pse) in MW, (b) reactive power (Qse) in Mvar, and (c) apparent power
(Sse) in MVA by the Series Unit during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
 6.2 Desired Solution 441

30

20
Exchanged Reactive Power, Qse (Mvar)

10

− 10 Vs′s = 0.20
− 20 Vs′s = 0.15

− 30 Vs′s = 0.10

− 40 Vs′s = 0.05
Vs′s = 0
− 50

− 60

− 70
− 50 − 40 − 30 − 20 − 10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Exchanged Active Power, Pse (MW)

Figure 6-34 Exchanged active power (Pse) in MW versus reactive power (Qse) in Mvar by the Series Unit during
the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

1500
1400
1300
Line Current, I (Arms)

1200
1100 Vs′s = 0.20
1000
Vs′s = 0.15
900
800 Vs′s = 0.10
700 Vs′s = 0.05
600 Vs′s = 0
500
400
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-35 Line current (I) in Arms during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

shown in Code 6-6. The short between BUS01 and BUS02 was replaced with the ST. The uncom-
pensated or natural active and reactive power flows (Prn and Qrn) at the receiving end of the line are
simulated to be 167.89 MW (1.0494 pu) and −53.57 Mvar (−0.3348 pu), respectively. To study the
effects of other operating points of an ST, the active turns-ratios are set according to Table 6-1
through Table 6-3, which show the active turns-ratios of the three secondary, series-compensating
windings in the A, B, and C phases for the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
442 6 Sen Transformer

BUS02
BUS01
Pr , Qr

Shunt Series I
Unit Vs′s Unit
Rsrc Xsrc R1 X1
Vsrc V1 Vs′
V2

R2 X2
Plink Vr

Qlink
Sen Transformer

R3 X3
Vs Vr2

Figure 6-36 Three-generator/four-line power system network, integrated with a Sen Transformer.

Table 6-6 Electrical system data.

Parameters Values

Source voltage (Vsrc) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠0 Vpeak

Source resistance (Rsrc) 1.0053 Ω

Source reactance (Xsrc) 19.73 mH

Receiving-end voltage (Vr) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠−20 Vpeak

Line 1 resistance (R1) 3.0159 Ω

Line 1 reactance (X1) 59.19 mH

Line 2 resistance (R2) 3.0159 Ω

Line 2 reactance (X2) 59.19 mH

Line 3 resistance (R3) 3.0159 Ω

Line 3 reactance (X3) 59.19 mH

Receiving-end 2 voltage (Vr2) phase-to-neutral 112,676.528∠−20 Vpeak

Table 6-7 shows the variations of theoretical magnitude (Vs s) of the compensating voltage (Vs s)
and the theoretical magnitude (Vs ) of the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) as a function of the
relative phase angle (β), considering the sending-end voltage (Vs) is 1 pu. The table also shows cor-
responding values of simulated magnitude (Vs s) of compensating voltage (Vs s), simulated magni-
tude (Vs) of sending-end voltage (Vs), and simulated magnitude (Vs ) of modified sending-end
voltage (Vs ). The resulting active power (Pr), reactive power (Qr), and apparent power (Sr) flows
 6.2 Desired Solution 443

Code 6-4 EMTP datafile for an ST integrated in a three-generator/four-line power system

network (603IDLST.DAT).
BEGIN NEW DATA CASE
C File Name: 603IDLST.DAT
C IDEAL SEN TRANSFORMER WITHOUT ANY LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ----dt<---tmax<---Xopt<---Copt<--Toler< >< >
16.666-6150.00-3
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C -Iprnt<--Iplot<-Idoubl<-KssOut<-MaxOut< >< ><---Icat<-Nenerg
20 10 1
TACS HYBRID
99TWOPI = 2.0 * PI
C BASE VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND POWER
99Vbase = 112676.528
99Ibase = 946.662704
99Zbase = Vbase / Ibase
99Pbase = 1.5 * Vbase * Ibase
$INCLUDE 302MEAS1.SWT
$INCLUDE 303PTCT.SCL
$INCLUDE 304IPLL.PLL
$INCLUDE 305LINER.CMP
C EXCHANGED POWER IN PU BY THE SERIES UNIT WITH THE LINE
99P2sepu = (v12Apu * iApu + v12Bpu * iBpu + v12Cpu * iCpu) *Vbase*Ibase / Pbase
99Q2sepu = (v12Apu * iCpu - v12Cpu * iApu) * SQRT(3) * Vbase * Ibase / Pbase
C EXCHANGED MW AND MVAR BY THE SERIES UNIT WITH THE LINE
99P2seMW = P2sepu * Pbase / 1e6
99Q2seMV = Q2sepu * Pbase / 1e6
C EXCHANGED MVA WITH THE LINE PER EQUATION (2-182)
99S2seMV = SQRT(P2seMW * P2seMW + Q2seMV * Q2seMV)
C RMS LINE CURRENT
99Irms = ipu * Ibase / SQRT(2)
C TACS OUTPUT
33v1pu v12pu v2pu PrMW QrMVARSrMVA P2seMWQ2seMVS2seMVIrms
BLANK RECORD ENDING TACS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<----R<----L<----C V
VSA BUS01A 0.0001
VSB BUS01BVSA BUS01A
VSC BUS01CVSA BUS01A
$INCLUDE 604NTWK4.BRN
$INCLUDE 602IDLST.TRN
BLANK RECORD ENDING BRANCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778

(Continued )
444 6 Sen Transformer

Code 6-4 (Continued)

C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<---Tclose<----Topen<-------Ie<----Flash<--Request<-----Target<--O
$INCLUDE 307MEAS2.SWT
BLANK RECORD ENDING SWITCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
$INCLUDE 605NTWK4.SRC
BLANK RECORD ENDING SOURCES
BLANK RECORD ENDING NODE VOLTAGE OUTPUT
BLANK RECORD ENDING PLOT

Code 6-5 EMTP $INCLUDE file for implementing four-line branches (604NTWK4.BRN).
C File Name: 604NTWK4.BRN
C SOURCE IMPEDANCES & LINE IMPEDANCES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<----R<----L<----C V
VSRCA VSA 1.0053 19.73
VSRCB VSB VSRCA VSA
VSRCC VSC VSRCA VSA
VSPA VRA 3.0159 59.19
VSPB VRB VSPA VRA
VSPC VRC VSPA VRA
VSA VR2A 3.0159 59.19
VSB VR2B VSA VR2A
VSC VR2C VSA VR2A
VR2A VRA 3.0159 59.19
VR2B VRB VR2A VRA
VR2C VRC VR2A VRA

Code 6-6 EMTP $INCLUDE file for implementing three-generator sources (605NTWK4.SRC).
C File Name: 605NTWK4.SRC
C SOURCE VOLTAGES AND RECEIVING-END VOLTAGES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <--Bus<I<-----Ampl<-----Freq<----Phase<-------A1<------T1><---Tstart<----Tstop
14VSRCA 112676.528 60.00 0.00 -1.0
14VSRCB 112676.528 60.00 -120.00 -1.0
14VSRCC 112676.528 60.00 120.00 -1.0
14VRA 112676.528 60.00 -20.00 -1.0
14VRB 112676.528 60.00 -140.00 -1.0
14VRC 112676.528 60.00 100.00 -1.0
14VR2A 112676.528 60.00 -20.00 -1.0
14VR2B 112676.528 60.00 -140.00 -1.0
14VR2C 112676.528 60.00 100.00 -1.0
Table 6-7 Compensating voltage, modified sending-end voltage, power flows at the receiving end, exchanged powers by the Series Unit and the line current for electrical system
data, shown in Table 6-6, and the active turns-ratios of the secondary, series-compensating windings in the A, B, and C phases per respective Tables 6-1, 6-2, and 6-3.

Case for natural power flows (left point of the hexagon characteristic)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.00 0.00 1.00 0.9854 0.0000 0.9854 167.8971 −53.5739 176.2373 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 737.3236

0.00 360.00 1.00 0.9854 0.0000 0.9854 167.8971 −53.5739 176.2373 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 737.3236

Case for 0.05 pu compensating voltage (smallest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.05 0.00 1.05 0.9752 0.0488 1.0240 177.1905 −22.2712 178.5847 −8.6780 −0.7189 8.7077 747.1443

0.05 60.00 1.03 0.9783 0.0489 1.0036 198.9843 −48.8321 204.8885 −5.3581 −8.4691 10.0217 857.1917

0.05 120.00 0.98 0.9881 0.0494 0.9644 189.9523 −80.9602 206.4859 3.2371 −9.6744 10.2017 863.8745

0.05 180.00 0.95 0.9950 0.0498 0.9453 158.0533 −86.0990 179.9830 8.5884 −2.5338 8.9544 752.9944

0.05 240.00 0.98 0.9918 0.0496 0.9680 136.0127 −58.3573 148.0035 4.7809 5.5686 7.3394 619.2018

0.05 300.00 1.03 0.9818 0.0491 1.0073 146.1122 −26.6767 148.5275 −3.8748 6.1765 7.2913 621.3942

0.05 360.00 1.05 0.9752 0.0488 1.0240 177.1905 −22.2712 178.5847 −8.6780 −0.7189 8.7077 747.1443

(Continued)
Table 6-7 (Continued)

Case for 0.10 pu compensating voltage (second smallest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.10 0.00 1.10 0.9645 0.0964 1.0609 185.9395 7.7919 186.1027 −17.4020 −4.3975 17.9491 778.5975

0.09 30.00 1.08 0.9679 0.0838 1.0413 207.4645 −17.9332 208.2381 −14.0464 −10.3610 17.4543 871.2054

0.10 60.00 1.05 0.9704 0.0970 1.0224 229.2082 −44.1446 233.4205 −11.3192 −19.6206 22.6515 976.5608

0.09 90.00 1.00 0.9805 0.0849 0.9842 220.9932 −75.8488 233.6473 −2.7308 −19.6506 19.8394 977.5095

0.10 120.00 0.95 0.9900 0.0990 0.9444 212.2188 −108.7666 238.4680 5.7143 −22.9052 23.6072 997.6779

0.09 150.00 0.93 0.9974 0.0864 0.9236 180.3627 −114.2952 213.5277 11.6920 −14.2640 18.4435 893.3353

0.10 180.00 0.90 1.0040 0.1004 0.9036 147.6561 −119.8201 190.1557 17.0423 −8.6056 19.0918 795.5538

0.09 210.00 0.93 1.0012 0.0867 0.9271 125.3670 −91.2498 155.0594 13.3534 1.5577 13.4439 648.7218

0.10 240.00 0.95 0.9974 0.0997 0.9514 103.4047 −63.1691 121.1729 9.0218 8.0415 12.0855 506.9507

0.09 270.00 1.00 0.9877 0.0855 0.9914 114.2978 −31.1392 118.4636 0.3959 10.1251 10.1329 495.616

0.10 300.00 1.05 0.9774 0.0977 1.0298 124.6529 −0.3318 124.6534 −8.2655 8.9512 12.1837 521.512

0.09 330.00 1.08 0.9713 0.0841 1.0450 155.6689 3.7713 155.7145 −12.5727 3.6733 13.0983 651.4626

0.10 360.00 1.10 0.9645 0.0964 1.0609 185.9395 7.7919 186.1027 −17.4020 −4.3975 17.9491 778.5975
 Case for 0.15 pu compensating voltage (second largest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.15 0.00 1.15 0.9533 0.1430 1.0963 194.1522 36.6049 197.5728 −26.1303 −10.7403 28.2515 826.5848

0.13 19.11 1.13 0.9570 0.1266 1.0774 215.4017 11.7217 215.7204 −22.7820 −15.0583 27.3088 902.5089

0.13 40.89 1.10 0.9598 0.1270 1.0591 236.8728 −13.6741 237.2672 −20.0013 −22.5294 30.1268 992.6542

0.15 60.00 1.08 0.9619 0.1443 1.0416 258.5094 −39.5231 261.5132 −17.8977 −33.2174 37.7323 1094.092

0.13 79.11 1.03 0.9721 0.1286 1.0044 251.1119 −70.7780 260.8959 −9.3340 −32.2267 33.5512 1091.51

0.13 100.89 0.98 0.9818 0.1299 0.9657 243.1563 −103.2514 264.1701 −0.9135 −34.2982 34.3104 1105.208

0.15 120.00 0.93 0.9909 0.1486 0.9255 234.6331 −136.9178 271.6601 7.3108 −39.7090 40.3764 1136.544

0.13 139.11 0.90 0.9988 0.1321 0.9031 202.8785 −142.8702 248.1362 13.9654 −29.6624 32.7855 1038.127

0.13 160.89 0.88 1.0059 0.1331 0.8813 170.2111 −148.8040 226.0850 19.9579 −22.5131 30.0859 945.8714

0.15 180.00 0.85 1.0123 0.1518 0.8604 136.7063 −154.6995 206.4475 25.3156 −18.4869 31.3472 863.7139

0.13 199.11 0.88 1.0098 0.1336 0.8847 114.1773 −125.3236 169.5360 21.8002 −6.1377 22.6477 709.2873

0.13 220.89 0.90 1.0064 0.1331 0.9100 91.9740 −96.3968 133.2350 17.5738 2.4122 17.7386 557.4149

0.15 240.00 0.93 1.0021 0.1503 0.9361 70.1552 −67.9951 97.6990 12.7707 7.2518 14.6860 408.7429

0.13 259.11 0.98 0.9927 0.1313 0.9765 81.8239 −35.6467 89.2516 4.1771 10.9516 11.7212 373.4016

0.13 280.89 1.03 0.9828 0.1300 1.0154 92.9631 −4.5073 93.0723 −4.4423 11.2549 12.0999 389.3865

0.15 300.00 1.08 0.9722 0.1458 1.0527 103.5710 25.4023 106.6406 −13.0528 8.4539 15.5514 446.1521

(Continued)
Table 6-7 (Continued)

Case for 0.15 pu compensating voltage (second largest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.13 319.11 1.10 0.9666 0.1279 1.0666 134.4718 29.2360 137.6133 −16.9250 4.8154 17.5967 575.7323

0.13 340.89 1.13 0.9603 0.1270 1.0811 164.6877 32.9728 167.9561 −21.2729 −1.6443 21.3364 702.6775

0.15 360.00 1.15 0.9533 0.1430 1.0963 194.1522 36.6049 197.5728 −26.1303 −10.7403 28.2515 826.5848

Case for 0.20 pu compensating voltage (largest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.20 0.00 1.20 0.9417 0.1883 1.1300 201.8392 64.1662 211.7932 −34.8236 −19.4541 39.8892 886.0788

0.18 13.90 1.18 0.9456 0.1705 1.1119 222.8070 40.1260 226.3914 −31.5216 −22.2686 38.5941 947.1531

0.17 30.00 1.15 0.9488 0.1643 1.0942 243.9989 15.5515 244.4940 −28.7301 −28.0882 40.1792 1022.889

0.18 46.10 1.13 0.9512 0.1715 1.0772 265.3611 −9.5029 265.5312 −26.5539 −36.9876 45.5323 1110.902

0.20 60.00 1.11 0.9528 0.1906 1.0609 286.8369 −34.9785 288.9618 −25.0974 −49.0096 55.0619 1208.929

0.18 73.90 1.06 0.9631 0.1736 1.0249 280.2524 −65.7616 287.8645 −16.5793 −47.1514 49.9812 1204.338

0.17 90.00 1.01 0.9730 0.1685 0.9874 273.1143 −97.7646 290.0850 −8.2023 −48.1920 48.8851 1213.628

0.18 106.10 0.97 0.9822 0.1771 0.9485 265.4100 −130.9660 295.9638 −0.0206 −52.4061 52.4061 1238.223

0.20 120.00 0.92 0.9908 0.1982 0.9081 257.1292 −165.3348 305.6976 7.9102 −60.0587 60.5774 1278.946

0.18 133.90 0.88 0.9992 0.1801 0.8839 225.5353 −171.7440 283.4822 15.2854 −48.7250 51.0663 1186.004
Table 6-7 (Continued)

Case for 0.20 pu compensating voltage (largest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.17 150.00 0.85 1.0069 0.1744 0.8603 192.9676 −178.1208 262.6091 21.9709 −40.1849 45.7990 1098.677

0.18 166.10 0.83 1.0138 0.1828 0.8375 159.4984 −184.4436 243.8425 27.9858 −34.6804 44.5639 1020.163

0.20 180.00 0.80 1.0198 0.2040 0.8158 125.2081 −190.6902 228.1224 33.3621 −32.4283 46.5256 954.3951

0.18 193.90 0.83 1.0177 0.1835 0.8408 102.4474 −160.5369 190.4405 30.0783 −17.7817 34.9413 796.7454

0.17 210.00 0.85 1.0148 0.1758 0.8670 80.0115 −130.7877 153.3208 26.0126 −7.0378 26.9478 641.4478

0.18 226.10 0.88 1.0108 0.1822 0.8942 57.9611 −101.5238 116.9041 21.3031 −0.1267 21.3034 489.0913

0.20 240.00 0.92 1.0060 0.2012 0.9220 36.3524 −72.8206 81.3900 16.0863 3.0650 16.3757 340.5112

0.18 253.90 0.97 0.9970 0.1797 0.9627 48.7734 −40.1867 63.1966 7.5224 8.5104 11.3584 264.3954

0.17 270.00 1.01 0.9873 0.1710 1.0020 60.6769 −8.7449 61.3038 −1.0545 10.4299 10.4831 256.4767

0.18 286.10 1.06 0.9770 0.1761 1.0397 72.0575 21.4803 75.1910 −9.6127 9.1100 13.2438 314.5763

0.20 300.00 1.11 0.9663 0.1933 1.0760 82.9132 50.4736 97.0680 −18.1219 4.8448 18.7583 406.103

0.18 313.90 1.13 0.9612 0.1733 1.0885 113.6491 54.0705 125.8560 −21.6215 2.8460 21.8080 526.5433

0.17 330.00 1.15 0.9554 0.1655 1.1018 143.7593 57.5559 154.8529 −25.5472 −1.9841 25.6241 647.8576

0.18 346.10 1.18 0.9489 0.1711 1.1157 173.1765 60.9231 183.5803 −29.9380 −9.4797 31.4031 768.0446

0.20 360.00 1.20 0.9417 0.1883 1.1300 201.8392 64.1662 211.7932 −34.8236 −19.4541 39.8892 886.0788
450 6 Sen Transformer

at the receiving end, exchanged active power (Pse), reactive power (Qse), and apparent power (Sse) by
the Compensating-Voltage Unit (Series Unit), and the prevailing line current (I) are also shown
during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 in Table 6-7 for the ka1-kb1-
kc1 active turns-ratios from Table 6-1, kb2-kc2-ka2 active turns-ratios from Table 6-2, and kc3-ka3-
kb3 active turns-ratios from Table 6-3. The table is expanded for each hexagon, related to 5, 10,
15, and 20% compensating voltages.
Figure 6-37 shows the magnitude of the sending-end voltage (Vs), given in Table 6-7, during the
entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
The simulated magnitude (Vs s) of the compensating voltage, given in Table 6-7, during the entire
range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 is shown in Figure 6-38.
The simulated magnitude (Vs ) of the modified sending-end voltage, given in Table 6-7, during the
entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 is shown in Figure 6-39.
Figure 6-40 shows the active power (Pr), reactive power (Qr), and apparent power (Sr) flows at the
receiving end, given in Table 6-7, during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
Figure 6-41 shows the active power (Pr) versus reactive power (Qr) flow at the receiving end, given
in Table 6-7, during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
Figure 6-42 shows the exchanged active power (Pse), reactive power (Qse), and apparent power
(Sse) by the Compensating-Voltage Unit (Series Unit), given in Table 6-7, during the entire range
of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
Figure 6-43 shows the exchanged active power (Pse) versus reactive power (Qse) by the Compen-
sating-Voltage Unit (Series Unit), given in Table 6-7, during the entire range of the relative phase
angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
Figure 6-44 shows the prevailing line current (I), given in Table 6-7, during the entire range of the
relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

1.02

1.01
Sending-end Voltage, Vs (pu)

1.00

0.99 Vs′s = 0.20

0.98 Vs′s = 0.15

0.97 Vs′s = 0.10

Vs′s = 0.05
0.96
Vs′s = 0
0.95

0.94
0 60 120 180 240 300 360

Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-37 Magnitude of the simulated sending-end voltage (Vs) in pu during the entire range of the relative
phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
 6.2 Desired Solution 451

0.25
Compensating Voltage, Vs′s (pu)

0.20

0.15 Vs′s = 0.20

Vs′s = 0.15
0.10 Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05
0.05 Vs′s = 0

0.00
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-38 Magnitude of the simulated compensating voltage (Vs s) in pu during the entire range of the
relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

1.15
Modified Sending-end Voltage, Vs' (pu)

1.10

1.05
Vs′s = 0.20
1.00
Vs′s = 0.15
0.95
Vs′s = 0.10
0.90 Vs′s = 0.05

0.85 Vs′s = 0

0.80
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-39 Magnitude of the simulated modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) in pu during the entire range of
the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

The summary of the study results for a 20% compensating voltage is given below.

• The variation of line voltage at the POC is between 0.9417 and 1.0198 pu, whereas the natural
voltage is 0.9854 pu.

• Active power flow at the receiving end changes from the natural flow of 168 MW (1.0494 pu) by
119 and −132 MW.
452 6 Sen Transformer

(a) Receiving-end Active Power, Pr (MW) 300

250

200
Vs′s = 0.20

150 Vs′s = 0.15

Vs′s = 0.10
100
Vs′s = 0.05

50 Vs′s = 0

0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

(b) 100
Receiving-end Reactive Power, Qr (Mvar)

50

0
Vs′s = 0.20

− 50 Vs′s = 0.15
Vs′s = 0.10
− 100
Vs′s = 0.05
Vs′s = 0
− 150

− 200
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

(c) 350
Receiving-end Apparent Power, Sr (MVA)

300

250
Vs′s = 0.20
200 Vs′s = 0.15
Vs′s = 0.10
150
Vs′s = 0.05
Vs′s = 0
100

50
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-40 (a) Active power (Pr) in MW, (b) reactive power (Qr) in Mvar, and (c) apparent power (Sr) in MVA at
the receiving end during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
 6.2 Desired Solution 453

100
Receiving-end Reactive Power, Qr (Mvar)

50

0
Vs′s = 0.20
− 50 Vs′s = 0.15
Vs′s = 0.10
− 100
Vs′s = 0.05
Vs′s = 0
− 150

− 200
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Receiving-end Active Power, Pr (MW)

Figure 6-41 Active power (Pr) in MW versus reactive power (Qr) in Mvar at the receiving end during the entire
range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

• Reactive power flow at the receiving end changes from the natural flow of −54 Mvar (−0.3348 pu)
by 44 and −137 Mvar.

• Rating of the ST: 61 MVA.

Note that a 61 MVA-rated ST regulates 306 MVA in the line as shown in Figures 6-42c and 6-40c,
respectively.
A comparison of the simulation results between Figures 6-28 through 6-35 and Figures 6-37
through 6-44 reveals that the actual numeric values for any particular parameter, for example, line
current (I) may be different in the two networks; however, its characteristic due to the operation of
the ST is similar. The same is true for all other comparative parameters, such as Pr − Qr character-
istic, Pse − Qse characteristic, and so on.

6.2.6 Testing of ST
There are two types of tests that need to be performed to certify an ST for its integration in a power
system network. These tests are (1) factory tests and (2) power flow tests. The factory tests include
standard transformer tests, such as resistance, no-load (core loss), short-circuit (copper loss),
impedance, dielectric, surge, heat run, and so on. For the power flow test, it is desirable to test
the ST while it is integrated in an actual power system network. If an energized network is una-
vailable, the ST may be tested while integrated in a custom-made network as shown in
Figure 6-45, which ensures that the ST carries its rated power according to its design specification
as confirmed by the simulation results.
The additional symbols shown in the figure are
Is is the current at the sending end of the line,
Iex is the exciter current through the primary winding of the Sen Transformer, and
Isrc is the source current.
454 6 Sen Transformer

(a) Exchanged Active Power, Pse (MW) 40

30

20

10 Vs′s = 0.20
0 Vs′s = 0.15

− 10 Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05
− 20
Vs′s = 0
− 30

− 40
0 60 120 180 240 300 360

Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

(b) 20

10
Exchanged Reactive Power, Qse (Mvar)

− 10
Vs′s = 0.20
− 20
Vs′s = 0.15
− 30
Vs′s = 0.10
− 40 Vs′s = 0.05
− 50 Vs′s = 0

− 60

− 70
0 60 120 180 240 300 360

Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

(c) 70
Exchanged Apparent Power, Sse (MVA)

60

50

40 Vs′s = 0.20
Vs′s = 0.15
30 Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05
20
Vs′s = 0
10

0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360

Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-42 (a) Exchanged active power (Pse) in MW, (b) reactive power (Qse) in Mvar, and (c) apparent power
(Sse) in MVA by the Series Unit during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
 6.2 Desired Solution 455

20

10
Exchanged Reactive Power, Qse (Mvar)

− 10
Vs′s = 0.20
− 20
Vs′s = 0.15
− 30
Vs′s = 0.10
− 40 Vs′s = 0.05
− 50 Vs′s = 0

− 60

− 70
− 40 − 30 − 20 − 10 0 10 20 30 40
Exchanged Active Power, Pse (MW)

Figure 6-43 Exchanged active power (Pse) in MW versus reactive power (Qse) in Mvar by the Series Unit during
the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

1300
1200
1100
1000
Line Current, I (A)

900 Vs′s = 0.20

800
Vs′s = 0.15
700
600 Vs′s = 0.10

500 Vs′s = 0.05

400 Vs′s = 0
300
200
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-44 Line current (I) in Arms during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
456 6 Sen Transformer

BUS02
BUS01
Pr , Qr
Isrc Shunt Series
Is I
Unit Vs′s Unit

Rsrc Xsrc R X
Vsrc Vs V1 Iex Vs′ Vr
V2

Plink
Qlink
Sen Transformer

Figure 6-45 Factory test circuit of an ST.

The relationships between the source current (Isrc), sending-end current (Is), exciter current
(Iex), and line current (I) are as follows:
Is = I + Iex 6-33a
Is = I + Isrc 6-33b
Therefore,
Isrc = Iex 6-34
Note that the source is only required to supply the exciter current. The electrical system data is
given in Table 6-8. The corresponding EMTP datafile 606IDLST.DAT is shown in Code 6-7. The
difference between this file and 601IDLST.DAT is that they have different branch and source files.
The short between BUS01 and BUS02 is replaced with the ST. The uncompensated or natural active
and reactive power flows (Prn and Qrn) at the receiving end (Vr bus) of the line are simulated to be 0
MW (0 pu) and 0 Mvar (0 pu), respectively. To study the effects of other operating points of an ST,
the active turns-ratios are set according to Table 6-1 through Table 6-3, which show the active turns-
ratios of the three secondary, series-compensating windings in the A, B, and C phases for the entire
range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

Table 6-8 Electrical system data.

Parameters Values

Source voltage (Vsrc) phase-to-neutral 1 pu (112,676.528 Vpeak)∠0

Source resistance (Rsrc) 0.0084 pu (1.0053 Ω)

Source reactance (Xsrc) 0.0625 pu (19.73 mH)

Line resistance (R) 0.0253 pu (3.0159 Ω)

Line reactance (X) 0.1875 pu (59.19 mH)

 6.2 Desired Solution 457

Code 6-7 EMTP datafile for an ST integrated in a one-generator/one-line power system

network (606IDLST.DAT).
BEGIN NEW DATA CASE
C File Name: 606IDLST.DAT
C IDEAL SEN TRANSFORMER WITHOUT ANY LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ----dt<---tmax<---Xopt<---Copt<--Toler< >< >
16.666-6150.00-3
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C -Iprnt<--Iplot<-Idoubl<-KssOut<-MaxOut< >< ><---Icat<-Nenerg
20 10 1
TACS HYBRID
99TWOPI = 2.0 * PI
C BASE VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND POWER
99Vbase = 112676.528
99Ibase = 946.662704
99Zbase = Vbase / Ibase
99Pbase = 1.5 * Vbase * Ibase
$INCLUDE 302MEAS1.SWT
91VSA
99isA = VSA
99iA = iApu * Ibase
99iexA = isA - iA
$INCLUDE 303PTCT.SCL
$INCLUDE 304IPLL.PLL
$INCLUDE 305LINER.CMP
C EXCHANGED POWER IN PU BY THE SERIES UNIT WITH THE LINE
99P2sepu = (v12Apu * iApu + v12Bpu * iBpu + v12Cpu * iCpu) *Vbase*Ibase / Pbase
99Q2sepu = (v12Apu * iCpu - v12Cpu * iApu) * SQRT(3) * Vbase * Ibase / Pbase
C EXCHANGED MW AND MVAR BY THE SERIES UNIT WITH THE LINE
99P2seMW = P2sepu * Pbase / 1e6
99Q2seMV = Q2sepu * Pbase / 1e6
C EXCHANGED MVA WITH THE LINE PER EQUATION (2-182)
99S2seMV = SQRT(P2seMW * P2seMW + Q2seMV * Q2seMV)
C RMS LINE CURRENT
99Irms = ipu * Ibase / SQRT(2)
C TACS OUTPUT
33v1pu v12pu v2pu PrMW QrMVARSrMVA P2seMWQ2seMVS2seMVIrms isA iA iexA
BLANK RECORD ENDING TACS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<----R<----L<----C V
VSRCA VSA 1.0053 19.73
VSRCB VSB VSRCA VSA
VSRCC VSC VSRCA VSA

(Continued )
458 6 Sen Transformer

Code 6-7 (Continued)

VSPA VRA 3.0159 59.19
VSPB VRB VSPA VRA
VSPC VRC VSPA VRA
VRA VSA 0.0001
VRB VSB 0.0001
VRC VSC 0.0001
$INCLUDE ST4000P0.TRN
BLANK RECORD ENDING BRANCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<---Tclose<----Topen<-------Ie<----Flash<--Request<-----Target<--O
$INCLUDE 307MEAS2.SWT
VSA BUS01A MEASURING
VSB BUS01B MEASURING
VSC BUS01C MEASURING
BLANK RECORD ENDING SWITCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <--Bus<I<-----Ampl<-----Freq<----Phase<-------A1<------T1><---Tstart<----Tstop
14VSRCA 112676.528 60.00 0.00 -1.0
14VSRCB 112676.528 60.00 -120.00 -1.0
14VSRCC 112676.528 60.00 120.00 -1.0
BLANK RECORD ENDING SOURCES
BLANK RECORD ENDING NODE VOLTAGE OUTPUT
BLANK RECORD ENDING PLOT

isA iA
1200 698.36 1184.6
987.19
iexA
197.44
0
50 100 150
time
(ms)
− 1200

Figure 6-46 The instantaneous A-phase, sending-end current (isA), line current (iA), and exciting current (iexA).

Figure 6-46 shows the results from running Code 6-7 for a series-compensating voltage (Vs s) of
0.2 pu at the relative phase angle, β = 0 . The rms line current (Irms) is simulated to be 698.36 Arms,
shown in Table 6-9, which is equivalent to 987 Apeak. Therefore, the primary exciting current
(Iex-rms) is 0.2 × Irms = 0.2 × 698.36 = 139.67 Arms, which is equivalent to 197 Apeak and is the same
as the source current (Isrc) per Equation (6-34). Since the line current, which is also the secondary
compensating winding current, is in phase with the primary exciting current, the sending-end cur-
rent is the sum of the line current and the exciting current, i.e., Is − rms = Irms + Iex − rms = 698.36 +
139.67 = 838 Arms, which is equivalent to 1185 Apeak.
Table 6-9 Compensating voltage, modified sending-end voltage, power flows at the receiving end, exchanged powers by the Series Unit and the line current for electrical system
data, shown in Table 6-8, and the active turns-ratios of the secondary, compensating windings in the A, B, and C phases per respective Tables 6-1, 6-2, and 6-3.

Case for natural power flows (center point of the hexagon characteristic)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Q se (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.00 0.00 1.00 1.0000 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

0.00 360.00 1.00 1.0000 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Case for 0.05 pu compensating voltage (smallest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.05 0.00 1.05 0.9992 0.0500 1.0491 5.6545 41.8362 42.2166 −0.2827 −2.0918 2.1108 176.7689

0.05 60.00 1.03 0.9992 0.0500 1.0251 39.0585 16.0212 42.2167 −0.2827 −2.0918 2.1108 176.7689

0.05 120.00 0.98 0.9992 0.0500 0.9751 33.4041 −25.8151 42.2167 −0.2827 −2.0918 2.1108 176.7689

0.05 180.00 0.95 0.9992 0.0500 0.9492 −5.6545 −41.8363 42.2167 −0.2827 −2.0918 2.1108 176.7689

0.05 240.00 0.98 0.9992 0.0500 0.9751 −39.0585 −16.0212 42.2167 −0.2827 −2.0918 2.1108 176.7689

0.05 300.00 1.03 0.9992 0.0500 1.0251 −33.4040 25.8150 42.2166 −0.2827 −2.0918 2.1108 176.7689

0.05 360.00 1.05 0.9992 0.0500 1.0491 5.6545 41.8362 42.2166 −0.2827 −2.0918 2.1108 176.7689

(Continued)
Table 6-9 (Continued)

Case for 0.10 pu compensating voltage (second smallest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.10 0.00 1.10 0.9967 0.0997 1.0963 11.2528 83.2568 84.0139 −1.1253 −8.3256 8.4013 352.6605

0.09 30.00 1.08 0.9975 0.0864 1.0732 44.5645 57.6661 72.8792 −0.8454 −6.2546 6.3115 305.6668

0.10 60.00 1.05 0.9967 0.0997 1.0501 77.7289 31.8833 84.0139 −1.1253 −8.3256 8.4013 352.6605

0.09 90.00 1.00 0.9975 0.0864 1.0012 72.2224 −9.7618 72.8792 −0.8454 −6.2546 6.3115 305.6668

0.10 120.00 0.95 0.9967 0.0997 0.9508 66.4762 −51.3737 84.0140 −1.1253 −8.3256 8.4013 352.6605

0.09 150.00 0.93 0.9975 0.0864 0.9237 27.6580 −67.4270 72.8792 −0.8454 −6.2546 6.3115 305.6668

0.10 180.00 0.90 0.9967 0.0997 0.8970 −11.2528 −83.2569 84.0139 −1.1253 −8.3256 8.4013 352.6605

0.09 210.00 0.93 0.9975 0.0864 0.9237 −44.5652 −57.6656 72.8792 −0.8454 −6.2546 6.3115 305.6668

0.10 240.00 0.95 0.9967 0.0997 0.9508 −77.7290 −31.8833 84.0139 −1.1253 −8.3256 8.4013 352.6605

0.09 270.00 1.00 0.9975 0.0864 1.0012 −72.2225 9.7610 72.8791 −0.8454 −6.2546 6.3115 305.6668

0.10 300.00 1.05 0.9967 0.0997 1.0501 −66.4762 51.3736 84.0138 −1.1253 −8.3256 8.4013 352.6605

0.09 330.00 1.08 0.9975 0.0864 1.0732 −27.6572 67.4273 72.8791 −0.8454 −6.2546 6.3115 305.6668

0.10 360.00 1.10 0.9967 0.0997 1.0963 11.2528 83.2568 84.0139 −1.1253 −8.3256 8.4013 352.6605
 Case for 0.15 pu compensating voltage (second largest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Q se (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.15 0.00 1.15 0.9926 0.1489 1.1414 16.7399 123.8548 124.9810 −2.5110 −18.5781 18.7470 526.8048

0.13 19.11 1.13 0.9942 0.1315 1.1193 49.8681 98.7067 110.5886 −1.9595 −14.4976 14.6294 465.3685

0.13 40.89 1.10 0.9942 0.1315 1.0970 82.9415 73.1472 110.5884 −1.9595 −14.4975 14.6294 465.3678

0.15 60.00 1.08 0.9926 0.1489 1.0748 115.6314 47.4304 124.9811 −2.5110 −18.5781 18.7470 526.8048

0.13 79.11 1.03 0.9942 0.1315 1.0272 110.4164 6.1655 110.5885 −1.9595 −14.4976 14.6294 465.3678

0.13 100.89 0.98 0.9942 0.1315 0.9779 104.8179 −35.2567 110.5887 −1.9595 −14.4976 14.6294 465.3685

0.15 120.00 0.93 0.9926 0.1489 0.9271 98.8917 −76.4247 124.9812 −2.5110 −18.5781 18.7470 526.8048

0.13 139.11 0.90 0.9942 0.1315 0.8989 60.5484 −92.5404 110.5887 −1.9595 −14.4976 14.6294 465.3685

0.13 160.89 0.88 0.9942 0.1315 0.8710 21.8765 −108.4031 110.5885 −1.9595 −14.4975 14.6294 465.3678

0.15 180.00 0.85 0.9926 0.1489 0.8437 −16.7398 −123.8549 124.9811 −2.5110 −18.5781 18.7470 526.8048

0.13 199.11 0.88 0.9942 0.1315 0.8710 −49.8688 −98.7062 110.5884 −1.9595 −14.4975 14.6294 465.3678

0.13 220.89 0.90 0.9942 0.1315 0.8989 −82.9422 −73.1467 110.5886 −1.9595 −14.4976 14.6294 465.3685

0.15 240.00 0.93 0.9926 0.1489 0.9271 −115.6315 −47.4303 124.9810 −2.5110 −18.5781 18.7470 526.8048

0.13 259.11 0.98 0.9942 0.1315 0.9779 −110.4165 −6.1663 110.5885 −1.9595 −14.4976 14.6294 465.3685

0.13 280.89 1.03 0.9942 0.1315 1.0272 −104.8180 35.2558 110.5883 −1.9595 −14.4975 14.6294 465.3678

0.15 300.00 1.08 0.9926 0.1489 1.0748 −98.8915 76.4245 124.9809 −2.5110 −18.5781 18.7470 526.8048

(Continued)
Table 6-9 (Continued)

Case for 0.15 pu compensating voltage (second largest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Q se (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.13 319.11 1.10 0.9942 0.1315 1.0970 −60.5476 92.5406 110.5884 −1.9595 −14.4975 14.6294 465.3678

0.13 340.89 1.13 0.9942 0.1315 1.1193 −21.8757 108.4033 110.5886 −1.9595 −14.4976 14.6294 465.3685

0.15 360.00 1.15 0.9926 0.1489 1.1414 16.7399 123.8548 124.9810 −2.5110 −18.5781 18.7470 526.8048

Case for 0.20 pu compensating voltage (largest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.20 0.00 1.20 0.9868 0.1974 1.1842 22.0636 163.2443 164.7286 −4.4128 −32.6487 32.9456 698.3642

0.18 13.90 1.18 0.9893 0.1783 1.1632 54.9193 138.7460 149.2200 −3.6032 −26.6585 26.9009 631.0545

0.17 30.00 1.15 0.9901 0.1715 1.1418 87.8110 113.6260 143.6024 −3.3315 −24.6484 24.8725 606.7971

0.18 46.10 1.13 0.9893 0.1783 1.1203 120.4133 88.1315 149.2198 −3.6032 −26.6584 26.9008 631.0536

0.20 60.00 1.11 0.9868 0.1974 1.0989 152.4056 62.5146 164.7288 −4.4128 −32.6487 32.9456 698.3642

0.18 73.90 1.06 0.9893 0.1783 1.0528 147.6171 21.8108 149.2198 −3.6032 −26.6584 26.9008 631.0536

0.17 90.00 1.01 0.9901 0.1715 1.0048 142.3084 −19.2343 143.6025 −3.3315 −24.6484 24.8726 606.7971

0.18 106.10 0.97 0.9893 0.1783 0.9553 136.5306 −60.2160 149.2201 −3.6032 −26.6585 26.9009 631.0545

0.20 120.00 0.92 0.9868 0.1974 0.9045 130.3421 −100.7300 164.7289 −4.4128 −32.6487 32.9456 698.3642

0.18 133.90 0.88 0.9893 0.1783 0.8751 92.6980 −116.9345 149.2200 −3.6032 −26.6585 26.9009 631.0545
Table 6-9 (Continued)

Case for 0.20 pu compensating voltage (largest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.17 150.00 0.85 0.9901 0.1715 0.8459 54.4975 −132.8596 143.6024 −3.3315 −24.6484 24.8725 606.7971

0.18 166.10 0.83 0.9893 0.1783 0.8173 16.1174 −148.3468 149.2198 −3.6032 −26.6584 26.9008 631.0536

0.20 180.00 0.80 0.9868 0.1974 0.7895 −22.0636 −148.3468 164.7286 −4.4128 −32.6487 32.9456 698.3642

0.18 193.90 0.83 0.9893 0.1783 0.8173 −54.9199 −138.7455 149.2197 −3.6032 −26.6584 26.9008 631.0536

0.17 210.00 0.85 0.9901 0.1715 0.8459 −87.8116 −113.6255 143.6023 −3.3315 −24.6484 24.8725 606.7971

0.18 226.10 0.88 0.9893 0.1783 0.8751 −120.4140 −88.1310 149.2198 −3.6032 −26.6585 26.9009 631.0545

0.20 240.00 0.92 0.9868 0.1974 0.9045 −152.4057 −62.5146 164.7286 −4.4128 −32.6487 32.9456 698.3642

0.18 253.90 0.97 0.9893 0.1783 0.9553 −147.6172 −21.8115 149.2198 −3.6032 −26.6585 26.9009 631.0545

0.17 270.00 1.01 0.9901 0.1715 1.0048 −142.3085 19.2335 143.6022 −3.3315 −24.6484 24.8725 606.7971

0.18 286.10 1.06 0.9893 0.1783 1.0528 −136.5307 60.2151 149.2196 −3.6032 −26.6584 26.9008 631.0536

0.20 300.00 1.11 0.9868 0.1974 1.0989 −130.3419 100.7298 164.7284 −4.4128 −32.6487 32.9455 698.3642

0.18 313.90 1.13 0.9893 0.1783 1.1203 −92.6971 116.9347 149.2195 −3.6032 −26.6584 26.9008 631.0536

0.17 330.00 1.15 0.9901 0.1715 1.1418 −54.4967 132.8599 143.6023 −3.3315 −24.6484 24.8725 606.7971

0.18 346.10 1.18 0.9893 0.1783 1.1632 −16.1166 148.3470 149.2199 −3.6032 −26.6585 26.9009 631.0545

0.20 360.00 1.20 0.9868 0.1974 1.1842 22.0636 163.2443 164.7286 −4.4128 −32.6487 32.9456 698.3642
464 6 Sen Transformer

Table 6-9 shows the variations of the theoretical magnitude (Vs s) of the compensating volt-
age (Vs s) and the theoretical magnitude (Vs ) of the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) as a
function of the relative phase angle (β), considering the sending-end voltage (Vs) is 1 pu.
The table also shows corresponding values of the simulated magnitude (Vs s) of the compen-
sating voltage (Vs s), the simulated magnitude (Vs) of the sending-end voltage (Vs), and the
simulated magnitude (Vs ) of the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ). The resulting active
power (Pr), reactive power (Qr), and apparent power (Sr) flows at the receiving end, exchanged
active power (Pse), reactive power (Qse), and apparent power (Sse) by the Compensating-
Voltage Unit (Series Unit), and the prevailing line current (I) are also shown during the entire
range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 in Table 6-9 for the ka1-kb1-kc1 active turns-
ratios from Table 6-1, kb2-kc2-ka2 active turns-ratios from Table 6-2, and kc3-ka3-kb3 active
turns-ratios from Table 6-3. The table is expanded for each hexagon, related to 5, 10, 15,
and 20% compensating voltages.
Figure 6-47 shows the magnitude of the sending-end voltage (Vs), given in Table 6-9, during the
entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
The simulated magnitude (Vs s) of the compensating voltage, given in Table 6-9, during the entire
range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 , is shown in Figure 6-48.
The simulated magnitude (Vs ) of the modified sending-end voltage, given in Table 6-9, during the
entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 , is shown in Figure 6-49.
Figure 6-50 shows the active power (Pr), reactive power (Qr), and apparent power (Sr) flows at the
receiving end, given in Table 6-9, during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
Figure 6-51 shows the active power (Pr) versus reactive power (Qr) flow at the receiving end, given
in Table 6-9, during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 . Note that the center
of the hexagon, located at (0, 0), confirms that the initial power flow in the test network is zero due

1.000
Sending-end Voltage, Vs (pu)

0.995

Vs′s = 0.20
0.990 Vs′s = 0.15
Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05
0.985
Vs′s = 0

0.980
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-47 Magnitude of the simulated sending-end voltage (Vs) in pu during the entire range of the relative
phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
 6.2 Desired Solution 465

0.25
Compensating Voltage, Vs′s (pu)

0.20

0.15 Vs′s = 0.20

Vs′s = 0.15
0.10 Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05
0.05 Vs′s = 0

0.00
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-48 Magnitude of the simulated compensating voltage (Vs s) in pu during the entire range of the
relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

1.20
Modified Sending-end Voltage, Vs′ (pu)

1.15
1.10
1.05
Vs′s = 0.20
1.00
Vs′s = 0.15
0.95
Vs′s = 0.10
0.90
Vs′s = 0.05
0.85
Vs′s = 0
0.80
0.75
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-49 Magnitude of the simulated modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) in pu during the entire range of
the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
466 6 Sen Transformer

(a) 200

150
Receiving-end Active Power, Pr (MW)

100

50 Vs′s = 0.20
Vs′s = 0.15
0
Vs′s = 0.10
− 50 Vs′s = 0.05

− 100 Vs′s = 0

− 150

− 200
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

(b) 200
Receiving-end Reactive Power, Qr (Mvar)

150

100

50 Vs′s = 0.20
0 Vs′s = 0.15

− 50 Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05
− 100
Vs′s = 0
− 150

− 200
0 60 120 180 240 300 360

Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

(c) 200
Receiving-end Apparent Power, Sr (MVA)

150

Vs′s = 0.20
100 Vs′s = 0.15
Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05
50
Vs′s = 0

0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360

Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-50 (a) Active power (Pr) in MW, (b) reactive power (Qr) in Mvar, and (c) apparent power (Sr) in MVA
flows at the receiving end during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
 6.2 Desired Solution 467

200
Receiving-end Reactive Power, Qr (Mvar)

150

100

50 Vs′s = 0.20
0 Vs′s = 0.15

− 50 Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05
− 100
Vs′s = 0
− 150

− 200
−200 −150 −100 −50 0 50 100 150 200
Receiving-end Active Power, Pr (MW)

Figure 6-51 Active power (Pr) in MW versus reactive power (Qr) in Mvar flows at the receiving end during the
entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

to having the same voltages at both ends of the test network s line reactor. The power flow in the test
network occurs, since the ST modifies the voltage at the modified sending-end of the test network’s
line reactor while the receiving end is shorted with the sending end of the test network as shown in
Figure 6-45.
Figure 6-52 shows the exchanged active power (Pse), reactive power (Qse), and apparent power
(Sse) by the Compensating-Voltage Unit (Series Unit), given in Table 6-9, during the entire range
of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
Figure 6-53 shows the exchanged active power (Pse) versus reactive power (Qse) by the Compen-
sating-Voltage Unit (Series Unit), given in Table 6-9, during the entire range of the relative phase
angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
Figure 6-54 shows the prevailing line current (I), given in Table 6-9, during the entire range of the
relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
The summary of the study results for a 20% compensating voltage is given below.

•• The line voltage at the POC is fixed at one pu.

Active power flow at the receiving end changes from the natural flow of 0 MW by 152 and
−152 MW.

• Reactive power flow at the receiving end changes from the natural flow of 0 Mvar by 163 and
−148 Mvar.

• Rating of the ST: 33 MVA.

Note that a 33 MVA-rated ST regulates 165 MVA in the line as shown in Figures 6-52c and 6-50c,
respectively.
Many a times, the source impedance (Rsrc and Xsrc) between the infinite bus on the source side
and the POC where the ST is tested is not known. A realistic source impedance of 6.25%, shown in
468 6 Sen Transformer

(a) Exchanged Active Power, Pse (MW) 0

−1

−2 Vs′s = 0.20
Vs′s = 0.15
−3 Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05
−4 Vs′s = 0

−5
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

(b) 10
Exchanged Reactive Power, Qse (Mvar)

− 10 Vs′s = 0.20
Vs′s = 0.15
− 20 Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05

− 30 Vs′s = 0

− 40
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

(c) 40
Exchanged Apparent Power, Sse (MVA)

30

Vs′s = 0.20
20 Vs′s = 0.15
Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05
10
Vs′s = 0

0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-52 (a) Exchanged active power (Pse) in MW, (b) reactive power (Qse) in Mvar, and (c) apparent power
(Sse) in MVA by the Series Unit during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
 6.2 Desired Solution 469

20

10
Exchanged Reactive Power, Qse (Mvar)

− 10
Vs′s = 0.20
− 20
Vs′s = 0.15
− 30
Vs′s = 0.10
− 40 Vs′s = 0.05
− 50 Vs′s = 0

− 60

− 70
− 40 − 30 − 20 − 10 0 10 20 30 40
Exchanged Active Power, Pse (MW)

Figure 6-53 Exchanged active power (Pse) in MW versus reactive power (Qse) in Mvar by the Series Unit during
the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

800

700

600
Line Current, I (Arms)

500 Vs′s = 0.20

400 Vs′s = 0.15

300 Vs′s = 0.10

Vs′s = 0.05
200
Vs′s = 0
100

0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-54 Line current ( I ) in Arms during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
470 6 Sen Transformer

Figure 6-45, considering the base impedance (Zbase) is 119.025 Ω, shows in Figure 6-47 that the
variation of voltage at the POC is ~1%. Neglecting the source impedance and, therefore, assuming
the voltage at the POC to be one pu, the power flow test of the ST is rerun. The electrical system data
is given in Table 6-10. Figure 6-45 can be modified to model the test circuit as shown in Figure 6-55.
Note that the source is only required to supply the exciter current as defined by
Isrc = Iex 6-34
The corresponding EMTP datafile 607IDLST.DAT is shown in Code 6-8. The difference between
this file and 606IDLST.DAT is that they have a different branch file. The short between BUS01 and
BUS02 is replaced with the ST. The uncompensated or natural active and reactive power flows (Prn
and Qrn) at the receiving end of the line are simulated to be 0 MW (0 pu) and 0 Mvar (0 pu),
respectively.
Note that the voltage at the right terminal of the line impedance is fixed at the line voltage (Vr),
which is same as the line voltage (Vs), i.e. 138 kV in this example. At minimum turns-ratio (i.e. 0%),
the voltages at both sides of the line impedance is the same and, therefore, the line current and
power is zero. However, at maximum turns-ratio (i.e. 20%), the voltage at the left terminal of
the line impedance can be as much as 20% of 138 kV/ √ 3 = 15.934 kV more than the voltage

Table 6-10 Electrical system data.

Parameters Values

Source voltage (Vsrc) phase-to-neutral 1 pu (112,676.528 Vpeak)∠0

Line resistance (R) 0.0253 pu (3.0159 Ω)

Line reactance (X) 0.1875 pu (59.19 mH)

BUS02
BUS01

Pr , Qr

Isrc Is Shunt Series I

Unit Vs′s Unit
R X
Vsrc Vs V1 Iex Vs′ Vr
V2

Plink
Qlink
Sen Transformer

Figure 6-55 Modified factory test circuit of an ST.

 6.2 Desired Solution 471

at the right terminal, because of the series-compensating voltage of the ST that would create a cur-
rent flow of 707.68 A through an impedance of 3.0159 Ω and 59.19 mH.
To study the effects of other operating points of an ST, the active turns-ratios are set according to
Table 6-1 through Table 6-3, which show the active turns-ratios of the three secondary, series-
compensating windings in the A, B, and C phases for the entire range of the relative phase angle
of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
Figure 6-56 shows the results from running Code 6-8 for a series-compensating voltage (Vs s)
of 0.2 pu at the relative phase angle, β = 180 . The rms line current (Irms) is simulated to be

Code 6-8 EMTP datafile for an ST integrated in a one-generator/one-line power system

network (607IDLST.DAT).
BEGIN NEW DATA CASE
C File Name: 607IDLST.DAT
C IDEAL SEN TRANSFORMER WITHOUT ANY LEAKAGE IMPEDANCE
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C ----dt<---tmax<---Xopt<---Copt<--Toler< >< >
16.666-6150.00-3
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C -Iprnt<--Iplot<-Idoubl<-KssOut<-MaxOut< >< ><---Icat<-Nenerg
20 10 1
TACS HYBRID
99TWOPI = 2.0 * PI
C BASE VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND POWER
99Vbase = 112676.528
99Ibase = 946.662704
99Zbase = Vbase / Ibase
99Pbase = 1.5 * Vbase * Ibase
$INCLUDE 302MEAS1.SWT
91VSA
99isA = VSA
99iA = iApu * Ibase
99IexA = isA - iA
$INCLUDE 303PTCT.SCL
$INCLUDE 304IPLL.PLL
$INCLUDE 305LINER.CMP
C EXCHANGED POWER IN PU BY THE SERIES UNIT WITH THE LINE
99P2sepu = (v12Apu * iApu + v12Bpu * iBpu + v12Cpu * iCpu) *Vbase*Ibase / Pbase
99Q2sepu = (v12Apu * iCpu - v12Cpu * iApu) * SQRT(3) * Vbase * Ibase / Pbase
C EXCHANGED MW AND MVAR BY THE SERIES UNIT WITH THE LINE
99P2seMW = P2sepu * Pbase / 1e6

(Continued )
472 6 Sen Transformer

Code 6-8 (Continued)

99Q2seMV = Q2sepu * Pbase / 1e6
C EXCHANGED MVA WITH THE LINE PER EQUATION (2-182)
99S2seMV = SQRT(P2seMW * P2seMW + Q2seMV * Q2seMV)
C RMS LINE CURRENT
99Irms = ipu * Ibase / SQRT(2)
C TACS OUTPUT
33v1pu v12pu v2pu PrMW QrMVARSrMVA P2seMWQ2seMVS2seMVIrms isA iA iexA
BLANK RECORD ENDING TACS
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<-Bus3<-Bus4<----R<----L<----C V
VSRCA VSA 0.0001
VSRCB VSB VSRCA VSA
VSRCC VSC VSRCA VSA
VSPA VRA 3.0159 59.19
VSPB VRB VSPA VRA
VSPC VRC VSPA VRA
VRA VSA 0.0001
VRB VSB 0.0001
VRC VSC 0.0001
$INCLUDE ST4180P0.TRN
BLANK RECORD ENDING BRANCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <-Bus1<-Bus2<---Tclose<----Topen<-------Ie<----Flash<--Request<-----Target<--O
$INCLUDE 307MEAS2.SWT
VSA BUS01A MEASURING
VSB BUS01B MEASURING
VSC BUS01C MEASURING
BLANK RECORD ENDING SWITCHES
C 000000011111111112222222222333333333344444444445555555555666666666677777777778
C 345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890
C <--Bus<I<-----Ampl<-----Freq<----Phase<-------A1<------T1><---Tstart<----Tstop
14VSRCA 112676.528 60.00 0.00 -1.0
14VSRCB 112676.528 60.00 -120.00 -1.0
14VSRCC 112676.528 60.00 120.00 -1.0
BLANK RECORD ENDING SOURCES
BLANK RECORD ENDING NODE VOLTAGE OUTPUT
BLANK RECORD ENDING PLOT
 6.2 Desired Solution 473

isA iA 707.68
1200
1000.8
iexA 800.64
200.16
0
50 100 150
time
(ms)
− 1200
Figure 6-56 The instantaneous A-phase, sending-end current (isA), line current (iA), and exciting current (iexA).

707.68 Arms, shown in Table 6-11, which is equivalent to 1000 Apeak. Therefore, the primary exciting
current (Iex-rms) is 0.2 × Irms = 0.2 × 707.68 = 141.54 Arms, which is equivalent to 200 Apeak and is
the same as the source current (Isrc) per Equation (6-34). Since the line current, which is also
the secondary compensating winding current, is in opposite phase with the primary exciting
current, the sending-end current is the difference of the line current and the exciting current,
i.e. Is − rms = Irms − Iex − rms = 707.68 − 141.54 = 566 Arms, which is equivalent to 800 Apeak. If the
relative phase angle (β) is changed from 180ο to 0ο, the line current, which is also the secondary
compensating winding current, will be in phase with the primary exciting current; the sending-
end current will be the sum of the line current and the exciting current, which is 1200 Apeak. There-
fore, the range of the sending-end current varies between 800 Apeak and 1200 Apeak, in the example,
and is based on the phasor sum of the two currents (line current, i and exciting current, iex), which
stems from the relative phase angle (β).
Table 6-11 shows the variations of the theoretical magnitude (Vs s) of the compensating voltage
(Vs s) and the theoretical magnitude (Vs ) of the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) as a function of
the relative phase angle (β), considering the sending-end voltage, Vs = 1 pu. The table also shows
the corresponding values of the simulated magnitude (Vs s) of the compensating voltage (Vs s), the
simulated magnitude (Vs) of the sending-end voltage (Vs), and the simulated magnitude (Vs ) of the
modified sending-end voltage (Vs ). The resulting active power (Pr), reactive power (Qr), and appar-
ent power (Sr) flows at the receiving end, exchanged active power (Pse), reactive power (Qse), and
apparent power (Sse) by the Compensating-Voltage Unit (Series Unit), and the prevailing line
current (I) are also shown during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360
in Table 6-11 for the ka1-kb1-kc1 active turns-ratios from Table 6-1, kb2-kc2-ka2 active turns-ratios
from Table 6-2, and kc3-ka3-kb3 active turns-ratios from Table 6-3. The table is expanded for each
hexagon, related to 5, 10, 15, and 20% compensating voltages.
A comparison of the results in Tables 6-9 and 6-11 reveals that their difference is less than 1%,
which may be acceptable. This difference is due to the fact that the simulation results in Table 6-9
included a source impedance (Rsrc and Xsrc) between the infinite bus on the source side and the POC
where the ST is tested. However, the calculated results in Table 6-11 ignore the source impedance
and the resulting ~1% voltage variation, shown in Figure 6-47, and assume that the voltage at the
POC is to be 1 pu.
Figure 6-57 shows the magnitude of the sending-end voltage (Vs), given in Table 6-11, during the
entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
The simulated magnitude (Vs s) of the compensating voltage, given in Table 6-11, during the
entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 , is shown in Figure 6-58.
Table 6-11 Compensating voltage, modified sending-end voltage, power flows at the receiving end, exchanged powers by the Series Unit and the line current for electrical system
data, shown in Table 6-10, and the active turns-ratios of the secondary, series compensating windings in the A, B, and C phases per respective Tables 6-1, 6-2, and 6-3.

Case for natural power flows (center point of the hexagon characteristic)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.00 0.00 1.00 1.0000 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

0.00 360.00 1.00 1.0000 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

The table is expanded for each hexagon, related to 5, 10, 15, and 20% compensating voltages.
Case for 0.05 pu compensating voltage (smallest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Q r (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.05 0.00 1.05 1.0000 0.0500 1.0500 5.6643 41.9060 42.2870 −0.2832 −2.0953 2.1143 176.9161

0.05 60.00 1.03 1.0000 0.0500 1.0259 39.1238 16.0476 42.2870 −0.2832 −2.0953 2.1143 176.9161

0.05 120.00 0.98 1.0000 0.0500 0.9760 33.4595 −25.8583 42.2870 −0.2832 −2.0953 2.1143 176.9161

0.05 180.00 0.95 1.0000 0.0500 0.9500 −5.6642 −41.9060 42.2870 −0.2832 −2.0953 2.1143 176.9161

0.05 240.00 0.98 1.0000 0.0500 0.9760 −39.1237 −16.0476 42.2870 −0.2832 −2.0953 2.1143 176.9161

0.05 300.00 1.03 1.0000 0.0500 1.0259 −33.4595 25.8584 42.2870 −0.2832 −2.0953 2.1143 176.9161

0.05 360.00 1.05 1.0000 0.0500 1.0500 5.6643 41.9060 42.2870 −0.2832 −2.0953 2.1143 176.9161
 Case for 0.10 pu compensating voltage (second smallest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Q se (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.10 0.00 1.10 1.0000 0.1000 1.1000 11.3287 83.8127 84.5749 −1.1328 −8.3812 8.4574 353.8358

0.09 30.00 1.08 1.0000 0.0866 1.0759 44.7882 57.9544 73.2440 −0.8496 −6.2859 6.3431 306.4308

0.10 60.00 1.05 1.0000 0.1000 1.0536 78.2483 32.0955 84.5749 −1.1328 −8.3812 8.4574 353.8358

0.09 90.00 1.00 1.0000 0.0866 1.0037 72.5839 −9.8113 73.2440 −0.8496 −6.2859 6.3431 306.4308

0.10 120.00 0.95 1.0000 0.1000 0.9539 66.9197 −51.7172 84.5749 −1.1328 −8.3812 8.4574 353.8358

0.09 150.00 0.93 1.0000 0.0866 0.9260 27.7960 −67.7648 73.2440 −0.8496 −6.2859 6.3431 306.4308

0.10 180.00 0.90 1.0000 0.1000 0.9000 −11.3285 −83.8128 84.5749 −1.1328 −8.3812 8.4574 353.8359

0.09 210.00 0.93 1.0000 0.0866 0.9260 −44.7887 −57.9539 73.2440 −0.8496 −6.2859 6.3431 306.4308

0.10 240.00 0.95 1.0000 0.1000 0.9539 −78.2482 −32.0956 84.5749 −1.1328 −8.3812 8.4574 353.8358

0.09 270.00 1.00 1.0000 0.0866 1.0037 −72.5840 9.8104 73.2440 −0.8496 −6.2859 6.3431 306.4308

0.10 300.00 1.05 1.0000 0.1000 1.0536 −66.9196 51.7173 84.5749 −1.1328 −8.3812 8.4574 353.8358

0.09 330.00 1.08 1.0000 0.0866 1.0759 −27.7951 67.7652 73.2440 −0.8496 −6.2859 6.3431 306.4308

0.10 360.00 1.10 1.0000 0.1000 1.1000 11.3287 83.8127 84.5749 −1.1328 −8.3812 8.4574 353.8358

(Continued)
Table 6-11 (Continued)

Case for 0.15 pu compensating voltage (second largest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.15 0.00 1.15 1.0000 0.1500 1.1500 16.9932 125.7195 126.8628 −2.5489 −18.8578 19.0293 530.7554

0.13 19.11 1.13 1.0000 0.1323 1.1258 50.4526 99.8611 111.8826 −1.9825 −14.6672 14.8006 468.0827

0.13 40.89 1.10 1.0000 0.1323 1.1034 83.9127 74.0022 111.8824 −1.9825 −14.6672 14.8005 468.0821

0.15 60.00 1.08 1.0000 0.1500 1.0828 117.3729 48.1434 126.8628 −2.5489 −18.8578 19.0293 530.7554

0.13 79.11 1.03 1.0000 0.1323 1.0332 111.7085 6.2366 111.8825 −1.9825 −14.6672 14.8005 468.0821

0.13 100.89 0.98 1.0000 0.1323 0.9836 106.0442 −35.6701 111.8826 −1.9825 −14.6672 14.8006 468.0828

0.15 120.00 0.93 1.0000 0.1500 0.9341 100.3800 −77.5760 126.8629 −2.5489 −18.8578 19.0293 530.7555

0.13 139.11 0.90 1.0000 0.1323 0.9042 61.2563 −93.6237 111.8826 −1.9825 −14.6672 14.8006 468.0828

0.13 160.89 0.88 1.0000 0.1323 0.8761 22.1318 −109.6716 111.8824 −1.9825 −14.6672 14.8005 468.0822

0.15 180.00 0.85 1.0000 0.1500 0.8500 −16.9927 −125.7196 126.8628 −2.5489 −18.8578 19.0293 530.7556

0.13 199.11 0.88 1.0000 0.1323 0.8761 −50.4530 −99.8607 111.8824 −1.9825 −14.6672 14.8005 468.0822

0.13 220.89 0.90 1.0000 0.1323 0.9042 −83.9132 −74.0019 111.8825 −1.9825 −14.6672 14.8006 468.0828

0.15 240.00 0.93 1.0000 0.1500 0.9341 −117.3727 −48.1435 126.8627 −2.5489 −18.8578 19.0293 530.7555

0.13 259.11 0.98 1.0000 0.1323 0.9836 −111.7085 −6.2375 111.8825 −1.9825 −14.6672 14.8006 468.0828

0.13 280.89 1.03 1.0000 0.1323 1.0332 −106.0441 35.6693 111.8823 −1.9825 −14.6672 14.8006 468.0821

0.15 300.00 1.08 1.0000 0.1500 1.0828 −100.3797 77.5762 126.8627 −2.5489 −18.8578 19.0293 530.7554
Table 6-11 (Continued)

0.13 319.11 1.10 1.0000 0.1323 1.1034 −61.2552 93.6241 111.8823 −1.9825 −14.6672 14.8005 468.0821

0.13 340.89 1.13 1.0000 0.1323 1.1258 −22.1306 109.6719 111.8825 −1.9825 −14.6672 14.8006 468.0827

0.15 360.00 1.15 1.0000 0.1500 1.1500 16.9932 125.7195 126.8628 −2.5489 −18.8578 19.0293 530.7554

Case for 0.20 pu compensating voltage (largest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Q se (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.20 0.00 1.20 1.0000 0.2000 1.2000 22.6578 167.6262 169.1506 −4.5315 −33.5251 33.8299 707.675

0.18 13.90 1.18 1.0000 0.1803 1.1758 56.1171 141.7679 152.4705 −3.6818 −27.2392 27.4869 637.8904

0.17 30.00 1.15 1.0000 0.1732 1.1533 89.5772 115.9090 146.4888 −3.3986 −25.1438 25.3725 612.8646

0.18 46.10 1.13 1.0000 0.1803 1.1325 123.0374 90.0501 152.4703 −3.6818 −27.2391 27.4868 637.8894

0.20 60.00 1.11 1.0000 0.2000 1.1136 156.4975 64.1912 169.1508 −4.5314 −33.5251 33.8299 707.6751

0.18 73.90 1.06 1.0000 0.1803 1.0642 150.8331 22.2845 152.4704 −3.6818 −27.2391 27.4868 637.8895

0.17 90.00 1.01 1.0000 0.1732 1.0149 145.1687 −19.6222 146.4889 −3.3986 −25.1438 25.3724 612.8647

0.18 106.10 0.97 1.0000 0.1803 0.9657 139.5044 −61.5290 152.4706 −3.6818 −27.2392 27.4869 637.8905

0.20 120.00 0.92 1.0000 0.2000 0.9165 133.8403 −103.4349 169.1508 −4.5314 −33.5251 33.8299 707.6752

0.18 133.90 0.88 1.0000 0.1803 0.8846 94.7165 −119.4825 152.4706 −3.6818 −27.2392 27.4869 637.8906

0.17 150.00 0.85 1.0000 0.1732 0.8544 55.5920 −135.5304 146.4888 −3.3986 −25.1438 25.3725 612.8648

0.18 166.10 0.83 1.0000 0.1803 0.8261 16.4676 −151.5784 152.4703 −3.6818 −27.2391 27.4868 637.8896

(Continued)
Table 6-11 (Continued)

Case for 0.20 pu compensating voltage (largest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated Simulated
Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Vs (pu) Vs s (pu) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Q se (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.20 180.00 0.80 1.0000 0.2000 0.8000 −22.6569 −167.6264 169.1507 −4.5314 −33.5251 33.8300 707.6753

0.18 193.90 0.83 1.0000 0.1803 0.8261 −56.1172 −141.7676 152.4703 −3.6818 −27.2391 27.4868 637.8896

0.17 210.00 0.85 1.0000 0.1732 0.8544 −89.5774 −115.9087 146.4887 −3.3986 −25.1438 25.3725 612.8648

0.18 226.10 0.88 1.0000 0.1803 0.8846 −123.0376 −90.0499 152.4704 −3.6818 −27.2392 27.4869 637.8906

0.20 240.00 0.92 1.0000 0.2000 0.9165 −156.4971 −64.1915 169.1505 −4.5314 −33.5251 33.8300 707.6752

0.18 253.90 0.97 1.0000 0.1803 0.9657 −150.8330 −22.2855 152.4704 −3.6818 −27.2392 27.4869 637.8905

0.17 270.00 1.01 1.0000 0.1732 1.0149 −145.1686 19.6214 146.4886 −3.3986 −25.1438 25.3725 612.8647

0.18 286.10 1.06 1.0000 0.1803 1.0642 −139.5042 61.5282 152.4701 −3.6818 −27.2391 27.4868 637.8895

0.20 300.00 1.11 1.0000 0.2000 1.1136 −133.8397 103.4351 169.1505 −4.5314 −33.5251 33.8300 707.6751

0.18 313.90 1.13 1.0000 0.1803 1.1325 −94.7152 119.4830 152.4702 -3.6818 −27.2391 27.4868 637.8894

0.17 330.00 1.15 1.0000 0.1732 1.1533 −55.5906 135.5309 146.4887 −3.3315 −24.6484 24.8725 606.7971

0.18 346.10 1.18 1.0000 0.1803 1.1758 -16.4661 151.5787 152.4705 −3.6818 −27.2392 27.4869 637.8904

0.20 360.00 1.20 1.0000 0.2000 1.2000 22.6578 167.6262 169.1506 −4.5315 −33.5251 33.8299 707.675
 6.2 Desired Solution 479

1.000
Sending-end Voltage, Vs (pu)

0.995

Vs′s = 0.20
0.990 Vs′s = 0.15
Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05
0.985
Vs′s = 0

0.980
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-57 Magnitude of the simulated sending-end voltage (Vs) during the entire range of the relative
phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

0.25
Compensating Voltage, Vs′s ( pu)

0.20

0.15 Vs′s = 0.20

Vs′s = 0.15
0.10 Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05
0.05 Vs′s = 0

0.00
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-58 Magnitude of the simulated compensating voltage (Vs s) during the entire range of the relative
phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
480 6 Sen Transformer

1.20
Modified Sending-end Voltage, Vs′ (pu)

1.15
1.10
1.05
Vs′s = 0.20
1.00
Vs′s = 0.15
0.95
Vs′s = 0.10
0.90
Vs′s = 0.05
0.85
Vs′s = 0
0.80
0.75
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-59 Magnitude of the simulated modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) during the entire range of the
relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

The simulated magnitude (Vs ) of the modified sending-end voltage, given in Table 6-11, during
the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 , is shown in Figure 6-59.
Figure 6-60 shows the active power (Pr), reactive power (Qr), and apparent power (Sr) flows at the
receiving end, given in Table 6-11, during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
Figure 6-61 shows the active power (Pr) versus the reactive power (Qr) flow at the receiving end,
given in Table 6-11, during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 . Note that
the center of the hexagon, located at (0, 0), confirms that the initial power flow in the test network is
zero due to having the same voltages at both ends of the test network’s line reactor. The power flow
in the test network occurs, since the ST modifies the voltage at the modified sending-end of the test
network’s line reactor when the receiving end is shorted with the sending end of the test network as
shown in Figure 6-55.
Figure 6-62 shows the exchanged active power (Pse), reactive power (Qse), and apparent power
(Sse) by the Compensating-Voltage Unit (Series Unit), given in Table 6-11, during the entire range
of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
Figure 6-63 shows the exchanged active power (Pse) versus reactive power (Qse) by the Compen-
sating-Voltage Unit (Series Unit), given in Table 6-11, during the entire range of the relative phase
angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
Figure 6-64 shows the prevailing line current (I), given in Table 6-11, during the entire range of
the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
The summary of the study results for a 20% compensating voltage is given below.

•• The line voltage at the POC is fixed at one pu.

Active power flow at the receiving end changes from the natural flow of 0 MW by 157 and
−157 MW.
 6.2 Desired Solution 481

(a) 200
Receiving-end Active Power, Pr (MW)
150

100

50 Vs′s = 0.20
0 Vs′s = 0.15

− 50 Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05
− 100
Vs′s = 0
− 150

− 200
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

(b) 200
Receiving-end Reactive Power, Qr (Mvar)

150

100

50 Vs′s = 0.20
0 Vs′s = 0.15

− 50 Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05
− 100
Vs′s = 0
− 150

− 200
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

(c) 200
Receiving-end Apparent Power, Sr (MVA)

150

Vs′s = 0.20
100 Vs′s = 0.15
Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05
50
Vs′s = 0

0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-60 (a) Active power (Pr), (b) reactive power (Qr), and (c) apparent power (Sr) flows at the receiving end
during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
482 6 Sen Transformer

200
Receiving-end Reactive Power, Qr (Mvar)

150

100

50 Vs′s = 0.20
0 Vs′s = 0.15

− 50 Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05
− 100
Vs′s = 0
− 150

− 200
−200 −150 −100 −50 0 50 100 150 200
Receiving-end Active Power, Pr (MW)

Figure 6-61 Active power (Pr) versus reactive power (Qr) flows at the receiving end during the entire range of
the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

• Reactive power flow at the receiving end changes from the natural flow of 0 Mvar by 168 and
−168 Mvar.

• Rating of the ST: 34 MVA.

Note that a 34 MVA-rated ST regulates 169 MVA in the line as shown in Figures 6-62c and 6-60c,
respectively.
Since the source impedance and the leakage impedance are neglected in the previous example, an
alternate approach is explored for an expedited determination of the power flow characteristics
with the ST, integrated in a power system network. For the electrical system data, given in
Table 6-10 and considering the sending-end voltage (Vs) is 1 pu, perform the following calculations
as a function of the relative phase angle (β) during the entire range of the relative phase angle of
0 ≤ β ≤ 360 by using

Equation (6-17a) for the theoretical magnitude (Vs ) and the phase-shift angle (ψ) of the modified
sending-end voltage (Vs ),
Equation (2-51a) for the modified power angle (δ ),
Equation (B-43) for the active power (Pr),
Equation (B-44) for the reactive power (Qr),
Equation (2-76) for the apparent power (Sr),
Equation (2-77) for the line current (I),
Equation (6-8) for the theoretical magnitude (Vs s) and the relative phase angle (β) of the compen-
sating voltage (Vs s),
Equation (B-101) for the exchanged active power (Pse) by the Compensating-Voltage Unit
(Series Unit),
Equation (B-102) for the exchanged reactive power (Qse) by the Compensating-Voltage Unit (Series
Unit), and
 6.2 Desired Solution 483

(a) 0
Exchanged Active Power, Pse (MW)

−1

−2 Vs′s = 0.20
Vs′s = 0.15
−3 Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05

−4 Vs′s = 0

−5
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

(b) 10
Exchanged Reactive Power, Qse (Mvar)

− 10 Vs′s = 0.20
Vs′s = 0.15
− 20 Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05

− 30 Vs′s = 0

− 40
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

(c) 40
Exchanged Apparent Power, Sse (MVA)

30

Vs′s = 0.20
20 Vs′s = 0.15
Vs′s = 0.10
Vs′s = 0.05
10
Vs′s = 0

0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-62 (a) Exchanged active power (Pse), (b) reactive power (Qse), and (c) apparent power (Sse) by the
Series Unit during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
484 6 Sen Transformer

20

10
Exchanged Reactive Power, Qse (Mvar)

− 10
Vs′s = 0.20
− 20
Vs′s = 0.15
− 30
Vs′s = 0.10
− 40 Vs′s = 0.05
− 50 Vs′s = 0

− 60

− 70
− 40 − 30 − 20 − 10 0 10 20 30 40
Exchanged Active Power, Pse (MW)

Figure 6-63 Exchanged active power (Pse) versus reactive power (Qse) by the Series Unit during the entire
range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

800

700

600
Line Current, I (Arms)

500 Vs′s = 0.20

400 Vs′s = 0.15

300 Vs′s = 0.10

Vs′s = 0.05
200
Vs′s = 0
100

0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Relative Phase Angle, β (°)

Figure 6-64 Line current ( I ) in Arms during the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
 6.2 Desired Solution 485

Equation (2-182) for the exchanged apparent power (Sse) by the Compensating-Voltage Unit
(Series Unit), respectively. The results are shown in Table 6-12.

A comparison of the results in Tables 6-11 and 6-12 reveals that their difference is virtually none.
A slight discrepancy in the results is due to accounting, in the EMTP model, the fractional milliohm
impedance in ST as its leakage impedance and in the test network. The table is expanded for each
hexagon, related to 5, 10, 15, and 20% compensating voltages.

6.2.7 Limited-Angle Operation of ST

The ST requires the use of a three-phase transformer with three primary windings and nine sec-
ondary windings (or three single-phase transformers, each with one primary winding and three
secondary windings). The compensating voltage (Vs s) is of variable magnitude and at a variable
phase angle. However, in many instances, the capability of connecting a compensating voltage
in series with a line within its entire range of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 is not needed. The active power flow
can be increased to the maximum possible level within the first 120 of the possible range of the
relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 . The active power flow can be decreased to the minimum pos-
sible level within the next 120ο of the possible 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 . In this case, the circuit configuration for
the full 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 range of operation can be simplified to the “limited angle” configuration.
At β = 0 , 120 , and 240 , only one of the three secondary windings in each phase is active. This
active winding in each phase carries the full line current at the rated winding voltage that is a frac-
tion of the line voltage. Therefore, during the 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 range of operation, each of the nine
secondary windings takes its turn to provide solely the full compensating voltage and carry the line
current. Therefore, each of the nine secondary windings must be designed to carry the rated line
current at rated winding voltage. This requires the magnetic rating in Volt-second of the 12 wind-
ings (three primary and nine secondary) of the ST to be 12 6 = 2pu, considering a transformer with
six windings (three primary and three secondary) to be of one pu rating.
The ST with 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 range of operation capability uses only three primary windings and at
the most six secondary windings at any given operating point. The remaining three secondary wind-
ings stay inactive. Therefore, it is possible to achieve a 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 operating range just by using six
secondary windings instead of nine secondary windings with hardware reconfiguration in every
120 range of operation. In this way, the number of windings required in the ST is reduced at
the expense of additional disconnect switches. Considering the three primary windings, the total
number of windings required is 3 + 6 = 9, instead of 3 + 9 = 12. Therefore, the practical magnetic
rating in Volt-second of the ST is only 9 6 = 1 5 pu for the 120 range of operation, instead of two pu
for 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 range of operation. Note that by using six secondary windings, one of the six operating
regions (0 to 120 , 120 to 240 , 240 to 360 , 300 to 60 , 60 to 180 , and 180 to 300 ) can be selected.
Figures 6-65 through 6-70 show, through transformer action, the generation of a compensating
voltage (Vs s), which is of variable magnitude and operated within a limited angle. Figure 6-65a
shows that for the limited angle operation between 0ο and 120ο, the line voltage is applied to a
shunt-connected, three-phase transformer’s primary windings in the Exciter Unit. A total of six sec-
ondary windings (a1 and a2 on the core of the A phase; b2 and b3 on the core of the B phase; and c3
and c1 on the core of the C phase) constitute the limited angle Compensating-Voltage Unit. By
choosing the number of turns from each of the two windings, the compensating voltage in any
phase is derived from the phasor sum of the voltages induced in a two-phase winding set (a1
and c1 for connection in the A phase; a2 and b2 for connection in the B phase; and b3 and c3 for
connection in the C phase). The relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s)
Table 6-12 Compensating voltage, modified sending-end voltage, power flows at the receiving end, exchanged powers by the Series Unit and the line current for
electrical system data, shown in Table 6-10, and the active turns-ratios of the secondary, series-compensating windings in the A, B, and C phases per respective
Tables 6-1, 6-2, and 6-3 using mathematical equations.

Case for natural power flows (center point of the hexagon characteristic)

Theoretical β Theoretical Calculated Calculated Calculated Simulated Simulated Simulated Calculated

Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Q se (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.00 0.00 1.00 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

0.00 360.00 1.00 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Case for 0.05 pu compensating voltage (smallest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Calculated Calculated Calculated Simulated Simulated Simulated Calculated

Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.05 0.00 1.05 5.6624 41.9015 42.2823 −0.2831 −2.0951 2.1141 176.8960

0.05 60.00 1.03 39.1189 16.0470 42.2823 −0.2831 −2.0951 2.1141 176.8960

0.05 120.00 0.98 33.4566 −25.8545 42.2823 −0.2831 −2.0951 2.1141 176.8960

0.05 180.00 0.95 −5.6624 −41.9015 42.2823 −0.2831 −2.0951 2.1141 176.8960

0.05 240.00 0.98 −39.1189 −16.0470 42.2823 −0.2831 −2.0951 2.1141 176.8960

0.05 300.00 1.03 −33.4566 25.8545 42.2823 −0.2831 −2.0951 2.1141 176.8960

0.05 360.00 1.05 5.6624 41.9015 42.2823 −0.2831 −2.0951 2.1141 176.8960
 Case for 0.10 pu compensating voltage (second smallest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Calculated Calculated Calculated Simulated Simulated Simulated Calculated

Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.10 0.00 1.10 11.3247 83.8030 84.5647 −1.1325 −8.3803 8.4565 353.7921

0.09 30.00 1.08 44.7813 57.9485 73.2352 −0.8494 −6.2852 6.3424 306.3929

0.10 60.00 1.05 78.2379 32.0940 84.5647 −1.1325 −8.3803 8.4565 353.7921

0.09 90.00 1.00 72.5755 −9.8075 73.2352 −0.8494 −6.2852 6.3424 306.3929

0.10 120.00 0.95 66.9131 −51.7090 84.5647 −1.1325 −8.3803 8.4565 353.7921

0.09 150.00 0.93 27.7942 −67.7560 73.2352 −0.8494 −6.2852 6.3424 306.3929

0.10 180.00 0.90 −11.3247 −83.8030 84.5647 −1.1325 −8.3803 8.4565 353.7921

0.09 210.00 0.93 −44.7813 −57.9485 73.2352 −0.8494 −6.2852 6.3424 306.3929

0.10 240.00 0.95 −78.2379 −32.0940 84.5647 −1.1325 −8.3803 8.4565 353.7921

0.09 270.00 1.00 −72.5755 9.8075 73.2352 −0.8494 −6.2852 6.3424 306.3929

0.10 300.00 1.05 −66.9131 51.7090 84.5647 −1.1325 −8.3803 8.4565 353.7921

0.09 330.00 1.08 −27.7942 67.7560 73.2352 −0.8494 −6.2852 6.3424 306.3929

0.10 360.00 1.10 11.3247 83.8030 84.5647 −1.1325 −8.3803 8.4565 353.7921

(Continued)
Table 6-12 (Continued)

Case for 0.15 pu compensating voltage (second largest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Calculated Calculated Calculated Simulated Simulated Simulated Calculated

Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.15 0.00 1.15 16.9871 125.7044 126.8470 −2.5481 −18.8557 19.0271 530.6881

0.13 19.11 1.13 50.4437 99.8500 111.8686 −1.9818 −14.6655 14.7988 468.0229

0.13 40.89 1.10 83.9002 73.9955 111.8686 −1.9818 −14.6655 14.7988 468.0229

0.15 60.00 1.08 117.3568 48.1410 126.8470 −2.5481 −18.8557 19.0271 530.6881

0.13 79.11 1.03 111.6944 6.2395 111.8686 −1.9818 −14.6655 14.7988 468.0229

0.13 100.89 0.98 106.0321 −35.6620 111.8686 −1.9818 −14.6655 14.7988 468.0229

0.15 120.00 0.93 100.3697 −77.5635 126.8470 −2.5481 −18.8557 19.0271 530.6881

0.13 139.11 0.90 61.2508 −93.6105 111.8686 −1.9818 −14.6655 14.7988 468.0229

0.13 160.89 0.88 22.1318 −109.6575 111.8686 −1.9818 −14.6655 14.7988 468.0229

0.15 180.00 0.85 −16.9871 −125.7044 126.8470 −2.5481 −18.8557 19.0271 530.6881

0.13 199.11 0.88 −50.4437 −99.8500 111.8686 −1.9818 −14.6655 14.7988 468.0229

0.13 220.89 0.90 −83.9002 −73.9955 111.8686 −1.9818 −14.6655 14.7988 468.0229

0.15 240.00 0.93 −117.3568 −48.1410 126.8470 −2.5481 −18.8557 19.0271 530.6881

0.13 259.11 0.98 −111.6944 −6.2395 111.8686 −1.9818 −14.6655 14.7988 468.0229

0.13 280.89 1.03 −106.0321 35.6620 111.8686 −1.9818 −14.6655 14.7988 468.0229

0.15 300.00 1.08 −100.3697 77.5635 126.8470 −2.5481 −18.8557 19.0271 530.6881
Table 6-12 (Continued)

Case for 0.15 pu compensating voltage (second largest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Calculated Calculated Calculated Simulated Simulated Simulated Calculated

Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.13 319.11 1.10 −61.2508 93.6105 111.8686 −1.9818 −14.6655 14.7988 468.0229

0.13 340.89 1.13 −22.1318 109.6575 111.8686 −1.9818 −14.6655 14.7988 468.0229

0.15 360.00 1.15 16.9871 125.7044 126.8470 −2.5481 −18.8557 19.0271 530.6881

Case for 0.20 pu compensating voltage (largest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Calculated Calculated Calculated Simulated Simulated Simulated Calculated

Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.20 0.00 1.20 22.6495 167.6059 169.1294 −4.5299 −33.5212 33.8259 707.5841

0.18 13.90 1.18 56.1060 141.7514 152.4512 −3.6805 −27.2360 27.4835 637.8077

0.17 30.00 1.15 89.5626 115.8969 146.4703 −3.3974 −25.1409 25.3694 612.7858

0.18 46.10 1.13 123.0192 90.0425 152.4512 −3.6805 −27.2360 27.4835 637.8077

0.20 60.00 1.11 156.4757 64.1880 169.1294 −4.5299 −33.5212 33.8259 707.5841

0.18 73.90 1.06 150.8134 22.2865 152.4512 −3.6805 −27.2360 27.4835 637.8077

0.17 90.00 1.01 145.1510 −19.6150 146.4703 −3.3974 −25.1409 25.3694 612.7858

0.18 106.10 0.97 139.4886 −61.5165 152.4512 −3.6805 −27.2360 27.4835 637.8077

0.20 120.00 0.92 133.8263 −103.4180 169.1294 −4.5299 −33.5212 33.8259 707.5841

0.18 133.90 0.88 94.7073 −119.4650 152.4512 −3.6805 −27.2360 27.4835 637.8077

(Continued)
Table 6-12 (Continued)

Case for 0.20 pu compensating voltage (largest hexagon)

Theoretical β Theoretical Calculated Calculated Calculated Simulated Simulated Simulated Calculated

Vs s (pu) (deg) Vs (pu) Pr (MW) Qr (Mvar) Sr (MVA) Pse (MW) Qse (Mvar) Sse (MVA) I (A)

0.17 150.00 0.85 55.5884 −135.5119 146.4703 −3.3974 −25.1409 25.3694 612.7858

0.18 166.10 0.83 16.4695 −151.5589 152.4512 −3.6805 −27.2360 27.4835 637.8077

0.20 180.00 0.80 −22.6495 −167.6059 169.1294 −4.5299 −33.5212 33.8259 707.5841

0.18 193.90 0.83 −56.1060 −141.7514 152.4512 −3.6805 −27.2360 27.4835 637.8077

0.17 210.00 0.85 −89.5626 −115.8969 146.4703 −3.3974 −25.1409 25.3694 612.7858

0.18 226.10 0.88 −123.0192 −90.0425 152.4512 −3.6805 −27.2360 27.4835 637.8077

0.20 240.00 0.92 −156.4757 −64.1880 169.1294 −4.5299 −33.5212 33.8259 707.5841

0.18 253.90 0.97 −150.8134 −22.2865 152.4512 −3.6805 −27.2360 27.4835 637.8077

0.17 270.00 1.01 −145.1510 19.6150 146.4703 −3.3974 −25.1409 25.3694 612.7858

0.18 286.10 1.06 −139.4886 61.5165 152.4512 −3.6805 −27.2360 27.4835 637.8077

0.20 300.00 1.11 −133.8263 103.4180 169.1294 −4.5299 −33.5212 33.8259 707.5841

0.18 313.90 1.13 −94.7073 119.4650 152.4512 −3.6805 −27.2360 27.4835 637.8077

0.17 330.00 1.15 −55.5884 135.5119 146.4703 −3.3974 −25.1409 25.3694 612.7858

0.18 346.10 1.18 −16.4695 151.5589 152.4512 −3.6805 −27.2360 27.4835 637.8077

0.20 360.00 1.20 22.6495 167.6059 169.1294 −4.5299 −33.5212 33.8259 707.5841
 6.2 Desired Solution 491

with respect to the line voltage (Vs) can vary between 0 and 120 . Figure 6-65b shows the related
phasor diagram.
The series-compensating voltages in the A, B, and C phases are defined from Equations (6-8),
(6-27), and (6-31) as

3 k c1
V s sA ∠βA = V sA k 2a1 + k 2c1 − k c1 k a1 ∠ tan − 1 6-8a
2k a1 − k c1

(a)
V I
V
0
a V
2 I
3
V 4
3
2
1
0

V
c I
V

V
(b)
V
0 0.20
a 1 0.15
A 2 0.10
3
β 0.05
b V

0.1 5
0.0
0.1 0
0.20 5
4
3

V
2
0

V
V

V
0.20
V 0.15
V V 0.10
0.1 5

0 .0 10

0.05
0.0

β
0.1 0

0. 5
0.2 5

0.1
0

0.2

B
0

0.0 0
β

0.1 5
C

5
V V

0.1 0
0.2
V
4
3

V
2

b
0

c
2
1
0

Exciter Unit Compensating-Voltage Unit

(c) (d)
βA = 0°
Qr β = 0°
δ
0

− 0.5
βA = 120°
β = 120°
VsA (Prn , Qrn)
− 1.0
βB = 120°
V Pr
sB
V sC − 1.5
0 0.5 1.0 1.5

βC = 0° βB = 0°
βC = 120°

Figure 6-65 (a) ST operating with a compensating voltage in the range of 0 ≤ Vs s ≤ 0.2 pu and a relative phase
angle in the range of 0 ≤ β ≤ 120 ; (b) phasor diagram; (c) modified sending-end voltage points;
(d) corresponding receiving-end active and reactive power points for operation within the control range of
0 ≤ β ≤ 120 ; (e) most simplified configuration of the ST for operation in the range of 0 ≤ β ≤ 120 .
492 6 Sen Transformer

(e)
IC

VsC
Vs′C
IB

VsB
Vs′B
IA

VsA
A Vs′A

C B

Sen Transformer
Figure 6-65 (Continued)

3 k a2
V s sB ∠βB = V sB k 2b2 + k 2a2 − k a2 k b2 ∠ tan − 1 6-27a
2k b2 − k a2
3 k b3
V s sC ∠βC = V sC k 2c3 + k 2b3 − k b3 k c3 ∠ tan − 1 6-31a
2k c3 − k b3
where ka1 = kb2 = kc3 = x × LTC1 and kc1 = ka2 = kb3 = x × LTC3 are the active turns-ratios of the
secondary, series-compensating windings in the A, B, and C phases and the corresponding primary
windings; x is the voltage (for example 0.05 pu) across each tap in the LTC; LTC1 = 1 and LTC3 = 4
are the LTC tap settings for the three-phase operating point shown in Figure 6-65.
For N = 4 in each secondary winding, the total number of possible compensating points (cp) in
the 120 control range of operation, is given by
cp = N N + 2 6-35
and it is 24. The filled dots, in Figure 6-65c, show a total of 16 compensating points of the ST within
the allowable voltage range, which is 10% of the nominal voltage in the relative phase angle range of
0 ≤ β ≤ 120 . Figure 6-65d shows the corresponding P-Q diagram for the power flow at the receiv-
ing end.
Figure 6-65a can be further simplified to accommodate the local voltage regulation and independ-
ent control of the active and reactive power flows with minimum transformer rating as shown in
Figure 6-65e. The compensating windings that provide the in-phase voltages can be constructed to
have either more or fewer turns than the rest of the compensating windings. This is to comply with
the required local voltage limit. The number of isolated, compensating windings can be reduced by
the following action. The compensating winding that provides the in-phase voltage and the corre-
sponding exciting winding can be replaced with a partially tapped autotransformer winding as
shown in the Figure 6-65e. As a result, this configuration requires only six windings: three for
the Exciter Unit and partially for the Compensating-Voltage Unit and the remaining three for
the dedicated Compensating-Voltage Unit.
 6.2 Desired Solution 493

(a)
Vs′sA IA
VsA

Vs′A
IB
VsB

4
b1

2
1
0
Vs′B

4
IC

3
2
VsC c1

0
Vs′C

Vs′sB
0
(b)
1
A a2 2

0.0
0.0
4

0.1
4

5
0.1
3

0.1
2

0.1

0
0

0.2
0.2

5
0
0
V c1 Vs'sA βA V
b1
c2
VsA
Va3 Va2
0.20 0.20
0.15 V sC Vs′sB 0.15
Vs′sC 0.10 βC V 0.10
0.05 sB 0.05
0 βB
B Vs′sC
a3

5
0.0

0.0
C 2

0
0.1
5

0.1
V

5
0.1
3

0.1
0

0
V c2

0.2
b3

0.2
4

0
b3
4

2
1
0

Exciter Unit Compensating-Voltage Unit

(c) (d)
Qr
δ β = 0°

0
βA = 120° βA = 240°
β = 240°
VsA
− 0.5
βC = 240° βB = 120°
V β = 120°
V sC sB
− 1.0 (Prn , Qrn)

Pr
− 1.5
βC = 120° βB = 240° 0 0.5 1.0 1.5

Figure 6-66 (a) ST operating with a compensating voltage in the range of 0 ≤ Vs s ≤ 0.2 pu and a relative phase
angle in the range of 120 ≤ β ≤ 240 ; (b) phasor diagram. (c) Modified sending-end voltage points;
(d) corresponding receiving-end active and reactive power points for operation within the control range of
120 ≤ β ≤ 240 .

Similarly, in an application in which there is a need to vary the relative phase angle (β) of the
series-compensating voltage (Vs s) between 120 and 240 , a Compensating-Voltage Unit with only
six windings, as shown in Figure 6-66a, is needed. This is achieved by constructing the compensat-
ing voltage from a combination of two voltages, each of which is induced in a separate winding of a
two-phase set (b1 and c1 for connection in the A phase, a2 and c2 for connection in the B phase, and
a3 and b3 for connection in the C phase). Figure 6-66b shows the related phasor diagram.
The series-compensating voltages in the A, B, and C phases are defined from Equations (6-8),
(6-27), and (6-31) as

3 k b1 − k c1
V s sA ∠βA = V sA k 2b1 + k 2c1 − k b1 k c1 ∠ tan − 1 6-8b
k b1 + k c1
494 6 Sen Transformer

(a)
V I
V
0
a 1 V
3 I
V 4
b
V

3
I

2
1
V

0
V

V
(b) V
0.20
0.15
A 0.10
0.05 β

3
2
b V

1
0

0.0 0
0.1 5
4
V

0.1 0
5
3

0.2
1
c

0
V
V V
0.20
0.15 V
V 0.10 V

0. 1 5
β

0.0
0.05

0.0 0
0. 1 0

0 .1 5
0. 2 5
0

0.1 0
5
0

0.2
B 1

0. 1 5
a

0. 0
0.1 0
C 2

0.2 5
3 β V

0
V V
4
3

V
1
0

Exciter Unit Compensating-Voltage Unit

(c) (d)
βA = 0°
Qr β = 0°
δ

β = 240°

− 0.5
βA = 240°

VsA
− 1.0 (Prn , Qrn)
βC = 240°
V Pr
V sC sB
− 1.5
0 0.5 1.0 1.5

βC = 0° βB = 0°
βB = 240°

Figure 6-67 (a) ST operating with a compensating voltage in the range of 0 ≤ Vs s ≤ 0.2 pu and a relative phase
angle in the range of 240 ≤ β ≤ 360 ; (b) phasor diagram; (c) modified sending-end voltage points;
(d) corresponding receiving-end active and reactive power points for operation within the control range of
240 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
 6.2 Desired Solution 495

(a)
Vs′sA IA
VsA
0
a1 Vs′A
2 IB
3
VsB 4

3
2
1
0
IC Vs′B
VsC c1

Vs′C

Vs′sB
A 0
(b)
1
a2 2 V c1
3
Va1 Vs′sA
b2
b2

4
3
2
0
VsA
V
s′s
V C β V sC
Vs′sC b3 C V
sB V
b2
B
C V c3 βB
4
b3
3
2

sB
Va2
0

Vs′
b3
3

c3
2
1
0

Exciter Unit Compensating-Voltage Unit

Figure 6-68 (a) ST operating with a compensating voltage in the range of 0 ≤ Vs s ≤ 0.2 pu and a relative phase
angle in the range of 180 ≤ β ≤ 300 ; (b) phasor diagram.

(a)
IA
Vs′sA
VsA

IB Vs′A
VsB
4

b1
2
1
0

IC Vs′B
4
3

c1
2

VsC
0

Vs′C

Vs′sB
0 (b) Vs′sA
a2 1 V βA
A b1
2 V c1
0

0.2
4

0.2

4
5

0.1
3

0.1

0
0

0.1
2

0.1

5
5

0.0
0.0

0
0

c2
VsA

V V sC
0

0.2

Vs′sC
0.2
5

0.1

b3
0.1

V c2
0
0

V
0.1
0.1

5
5

0.0
0.0

sB
5

0 Vs′sC
B 0.05 0.05 βB
C a3 2 βC 0.10 0.10
3 0.15 0.15
4 Vs′sB
b3 0.20 0.20

Va3 Va2
4
2
1
0

Exciter Unit Compensating-Voltage Unit

Figure 6-69 (a) ST operating with a compensating voltage in the range of 0 ≤ Vs s ≤ 0.2 pu and a relative phase
angle in the range of 300 ≤ β ≤ 60 ; (b) phasor diagram.
496 6 Sen Transformer

(a)
Vs′sA IA
VsA
0
a1 1 Vs′A
IB
3
VsB 4
b1
Vs′B
IC

3
2
VsC

1
0
Vs′C

Vs′sB
(b)
V

0
0.2
5
A b1

0.1
0
0.1
5
0.0
b2 Va1

3
Vs′sA

2
1
βA

0
0.05
0.10

4
3
0.15
c2

1
0.20

0
VsA
V sC Vs′sB

0
0.2
5
βB V c2

0.1
Vs′sC

0
V

0.1
5
0.0
sB

0.2
V c3

0.2
0.1
0

0.1
0

0.1

0
βC

5
B

0.1
0.0

5
0

0.0
1 V

0
a3 0.05

5
C 2
3
0.10 b2
0.15
4

V
3

0.20
s′sC
1

Va3
0

c3

Exciter Unit Compensating-Voltage Unit

Figure 6-70 (a) ST operating with a compensating voltage in the range of 0 ≤ Vs s ≤ 0.2 pu and a relative phase
angle in the range of 60 ≤ β ≤ 180 ; (b) phasor diagram.

3 k c2 − k a2
V s sB ∠βB = V sB k 2c2 + k 2a2 − k c2 k a2 ∠ tan − 1 6-27b
k c2 + k a2
3 k a3 − k b3
V s sC ∠βC = V sC k 2a3 + k 2b3 − k a3 k b3 ∠ tan − 1 6-31b
k a3 + k b3
where kb1 = kc2 = ka3 = x × LTC2 and kc1 = ka2 = kb3 = x × LTC3 are the active turns-ratios of the
secondary, series-compensating windings in the A, B, and C phases and the corresponding primary
windings; x is the voltage (for example 0.05 pu) across each tap in the LTC; LTC2 = 1 and LTC3 = 3
are the LTC tap settings for the three-phase operating point shown in Figure 6-66.
For N = 4 in each secondary winding, the total number of possible compensating points (cp) in
the 120 control range of operation is 24 from Equation (6-35). The filled dots, in Figure 6-66c, show
a total of 14 compensating points of the ST within the allowable voltage range, which is 10% of the
nominal voltage in the relative phase angle range of 120 ≤ β ≤ 240 . Figure 6-66d shows the cor-
responding P-Q diagram for the power flow at the receiving end.
Lastly, in an application in which there is a need to vary the relative phase angle (β) of the series-
compensating voltage (Vs s) in the range of 240 ≤ β ≤ 360 , a Compensating-Voltage Unit with only
six windings, as shown in Figure 6-67a, is needed. This is achieved by constructing the compensat-
ing voltage from a combination of two voltages, each of which is induced in a separate winding of a
two-phase set (a1 and b1 for connection in the A phase, b2 and c2 for connection in the B phase, and
a3 and c3 for connection in the C phase). Figure 6-67b shows the related phasor diagram.
The series-compensating voltages in the A, B, and C phases are defined from Equations (6-8),
(6-27), and (6-31) as

3 − k b1
V s sA ∠βA = V sA k 2a1 + k 2b1 − k a1 k b1 ∠ tan − 1 6-8c
2k a1 − k b1
 6.2 Desired Solution 497

3 − k c2
V s sB ∠βB = V sB k 2b2 + k 2c2 − k b2 k c2 ∠ tan − 1 6-27c
2k b2 − k c2
3 − k a3
V s sC ∠βC = V sC k 2c3 + k 2a3 − k c3 k a3 ∠ tan − 1 6-31c
2k c3 − k a3
where ka1 = kb2 = kc3 = x × LTC1 and kb1 = kc2 = ka3 = x × LTC2 are the active turns-ratios
of the secondary, series-connected windings in the A, B, and C phases and the corresponding
primary windings; x is the voltage (for example 0.05 pu) across each tap in the LTC; LTC1 =
2 and LTC2 = 4 are the LTC tap settings for the three-phase operating point shown in
Figure 6-67.
For N = 4, in each secondary, series-compensating winding, the total number of possible
compensating points (cp) in the 120 control range of operation is 24 from Equation (6-35).
The filled dots, in Figure 6-67c, show a total of 16 compensating points of the ST within the allow-
able voltage range, which is 10% of the nominal voltage in the relative phase angle range of
240 ≤ β ≤ 360 . Figure 6-67d shows the corresponding P-Q diagram for the power flow at the
receiving end.
Extending the concept just presented, if the polarities of the windings in the Compensating-
Voltage Unit in Figure 6-65a are reversed, the relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating
voltage (Vs s) can vary between 180 and 300 . The schematic for this configuration is shown in
Figure 6-68a. In the same way, if the polarities of the windings in the Compensating-Voltage Units,
presented in Figures 6-66a and 6-67a, are reversed, then the relative phase angle (β) of the compen-
sating voltage (Vs s) can vary between 300 and 60 and 60 and 180 , respectively. The schematics
for these configurations are shown in Figures 6-69a and 6-70a. The related phasor diagrams are
shown in Figures 6-68b, 6-69b, and 6-70b, respectively.
The series-compensating voltages in the A, B, and C phases are defined by the Equations (6-8),
(6-27), and (6-31), respectively, where LTC1 = 1 and LTC3 = 4 are the LTC tap settings for the three-
phase operating point shown in Figure 6-68b; LTC2 = 1 and LTC3 = 3 are the LTC tap settings for
the three-phase operating point shown in Figure 6-69b; LTC1 = 2 and LTC2 = 4 are the LTC tap
settings for the three-phase operating point shown in Figure 6-70b. Note that the calculated relative
phase angles (βA, βB, and βC) using the above-mentioned equations need to be adjusted by a phase
angle of π radians, since the polarity of the three secondary, series-compensating windings are
reversed in Figures 6-68a, 6-69a, and 6-70a.
In all these cases, the compensating voltage can be at any phase angle with the prevailing line
current, which emulates a four-quadrant, series-compensating impedance (Zse = Rse − jXse) that
consists of a resistance (Rse = + R or − R) and a reactance (Xse = XC or − XL) in series with the line.
The effect is such that the active and reactive power flows in a line can be regulated independently
as desired. In addition, the function of a voltage regulator can also be implemented, provided that
the final variable magnitude and variable phase angle of the compensating voltage are within the
controllable operating range.
So far, the ST configuration is discussed with three primary exciting windings and nine second-
ary, series-compensating windings for its full 360 operation. The corresponding primary windings
are designed for full line voltage and fractional line current. The secondary windings are designed
for fractional line voltage and full line current. Therefore, the LTCs carry the full line current and a
higher fault current. In an alternate configuration, the LTCs may be moved to the primary side so
that the taps carry a fractional amount of line current.
498 6 Sen Transformer

6.2.8 ST Using LTCs with Lower Current Rating

Figure 6-71 shows the generation of a line-frequency, compensating voltage (Vs s), through trans-
former action, that is of variable magnitude and operated at variable phase angle. When this com-
pensating voltage is connected in series with the line, the modified sending-end voltage becomes
Vs . The result is that the active and reactive power flows in a line are regulated independently as
desired.
Figure 6-71a shows that the three single-phase voltages (VsA, VsB, and VsC) of a three-phase line
voltage (Vs) are applied across three-winding sets. The voltage (VsA) is applied across the three
windings A1, A2, and A3. The voltage (VsB) is applied across the three windings B1, B2, and B3.
The voltage (VsC) is applied across the three windings C1, C2, and C3. Each of the windings (A1, B1,
and C1) is tapped at the same number of turns through LTC1; each of the windings (A2, B2, and C2)
is tapped at the same number of turns through LTC2; and each of the windings (A3, B3, and C3) is
tapped at the same number of turns through LTC3. However, the number of turns in the A1-B1-C1
set, A2-B2-C2 set, and A3-B3-C3 set can be different from each other. The composite voltage from
the three windings (A1, C2, and B3) on the primary side (Exciter Unit) is reflected in a single winding
on the secondary side (Compensating-Voltage Unit) of the A phase. The composite voltage from the
three windings (B1, A2, and C3) on the primary side (Exciter Unit) is reflected in a single winding
on the secondary side (Compensating-Voltage Unit) of the B phase. The composite voltage from the
three windings (C1, B2, and A3) on the primary side (Exciter Unit) is reflected in a single winding
on the secondary side (Compensating-Voltage Unit) of the C phase. By choosing the number of turns
from each of the three windings (A1, C2, and B3), for example, the compensating voltage (Vs sA) can be of
variable magnitude and at variable phase angle (βA) as shown in Figure 6-71b. Similarly, by choosing
the number of turns from each of the three windings (B1, A2, and C3), the compensating voltage (Vs sB)
can be of variable magnitude and at variable phase angle (βB) as shown in Figure 6-71b. Finally, by
choosing the number of turns from each of the three windings (C1, B2, and A3), the compensating volt-
age (Vs sC) can be of variable magnitude and at variable phase angle (βC) as shown in Figure 6-71b.
Figure 6-71c shows the phasor diagram when the exciter voltage is applied across three windings
(A1, A2, and A3 in the A phase; B1, B2, and B3 in the B phase; and C1, C2, and C3 in the C phase), each
with the same number of turns. Each of the nine primary windings is tapped at the same number of
turns. The compensating voltage, which is the phasor sum of three equal voltages with 120 phase
difference from one another, is zero. If equal voltages that are induced from three windings (A1, C2,
and B3 on the core of the A phase) are combined, the composite voltage is always zero. This property
makes it possible to vary the compensating voltage from zero to its rated value in a configuration
when the LTCs are on the Exciter Unit and the Compensating-Voltage Unit is in its simplest form
with only one series insertion winding in each phase. The LTCs operate at a low current and ride
through a higher fault current.
Figure 6-71d shows the phasor diagram when the exciter voltage is applied only across one wind-
ing in each phase. For example, VsA is applied only across the winding (A1), VsB is applied only
across the winding (B1), and VsC is applied only across the winding (C1). In this case, the series-
compensating voltage in each phase is in phase with the corresponding phase voltage of the line
and its magnitude is dependent on the number of turns in the compensating winding and the
exciter winding.
Figure 6-71e shows that the three-phase voltages (VsA, VsB, and VsC) are applied across the wind-
ings (A2, B2, and C2), respectively. In this case, the series-compensating voltage in each phase leads
the corresponding phase voltage of the line by 120 .
 6.2 Desired Solution 499

(a)
Vs′sA IA

0
VsA A Vs′A
Vs′sB
50 IB

B
VsB Vs′B

50
Vs′sC IC

0
50
VsC Vs′C

0
VsA
0 C
A1 Compensating-Voltage Unit
0
10

100
A2
0

10
0

A3
0

(b)
VA1
VsB
0
B3 V
s ′s
0

A
10

100 βA
B1
0

10
0

B2
0

V
V C2 VsA B3

VsC V
V sC sB B
V s′s
0
C2 βB
100

βC
100
C3
0

Vs′sC
10
0

C1
0

Exciter Unit
Figure 6-71 (a) ST configuration using LTCs with lower current rating; (b) phasor diagram for compensating
voltage with variable magnitude and phase angle. Phasor diagrams for (c) zero compensating voltage, (d) in-
phase compensating voltage with variable magnitude, (e) 120 leading compensating voltage with variable
magnitude, and (f ) 120 lagging compensating voltage with variable magnitude.
500 6 Sen Transformer

(d)

VA1

(c)
VA1
Vs′sA

V
V C2 B3

VsA VsA

V V
V sC sB V sC sB

C V
V s′s s′s
B

(e) (f)

A
V
s′s
V s′s A

V
V C2 B3
VsA VsA

V V
V sC sB V sC sB
Vs′sB Vs′sC

V B
s′s
C V s′s

Figure 6-71 (Continued)

Figure 6-71f shows that the three-phase voltages (VsA, VsB, and VsC) are applied across the wind-
ings (A3, B3, and C3), respectively, and the compensating voltage in each phase now lags the cor-
responding phase voltage of the line by 120 .
In summary, the compensating voltage can be at any phase angle with the prevailing line current,
which emulates a four-quadrant, series-compensating impedance (Zse = Rse − jXse) that consists of
a resistance (Rse = + R or − R) and a reactance (Xse = XC or − XL) in series with the line. The effect is
such that the active and reactive power flows in a line can be regulated independently as desired. In
addition, the function of a voltage regulator can also be realized.
 6.2 Desired Solution 501

The ST, in its basic design, is a single-core transformer, consisting of 12 windings – three primary
and nine secondary as shown in Figure 6-11. The primary windings are Y-connected. A dedicated
three-winding set creates a compensating voltage that is connected in series in each of the three
phases. Each of the windings in the three-winding set is excited from a different phase voltage.
Therefore, by selecting the number of turns in each of these three windings, a composite voltage,
called a compensating voltage that is variable in magnitude (Vs s) and variable in relative phase
angle (β) is created, which in turn, makes the modified line voltage of desired magnitude (Vs )
and desired phase-shift angle (ψ).
In many applications, the series-compensating voltage is only a few percent of the line voltage.
The series winding as well as the LTCs in a single-core design carry high line current and even
higher fault current. Sometimes, the LTCs may be required to operate at a low current, so that they
can ride through a high fault current. In such cases, three secondary voltages of the Compensating-
Voltage Unit, each from a three-winding set, need to be high-voltage and low-current rated. Since
the LTCs are exposed to the high-voltage transmission line, the single-core design may be suitable
for applications up to a voltage level, beyond which a two-core design must be considered.

6.2.9 ST with a Two-Core Design

Applications that are above some voltage class, for example 230-kV, require a two-core design
where the taps are not exposed to a high-voltage transmission line as shown in Figure 6-72. The

IA

VsA Vs′A
IB

VsB Vs′sA Vs′B

IC
n2

VsC n1 Vs′C
Vs′sA′
Vs′sA′

0
a1 2
A 3
4
Vs′sB
3
2

b1
1
0

n2
4

c1
3
2
1

n1
Vs′sB′
Vs′sB′

0
a2 1
B 2
3
C
4

Vs′sC
3
2

b2
1

n2
4
3

c2
2

n1
0

Vs′sC′
Exciter Unit
Vs′sC′

1
a3 2
3 Series Unit
4

4
3
2

b3
0

c3
2
1
0

Compensating-Voltage Unit

Figure 6-72 ST configuration using taps with lower voltage and current ratings in a two-core design.
502 6 Sen Transformer

Exciter Unit excites the primary windings (A, B, and C). The secondary voltages in the Compensat-
ing-Voltage Unit create the following intermediate voltages (Vs sA , Vs sB , and Vs sC ) as
V s sA ∠βA = Vs sA = Va1 + Vb1 + Vc1
or

V s sA ∠βA = k a1 V sA + kb1 V sB + k c1 V sC = k a1 V sA + kb1 e − j2π 3 V sA + k c1 e j2π 3

V sA , 6-36
V s sB ∠βB = Vs sB = Vb2 + Vc2 + Va2

or

V s sB ∠βB = k b2 V sB + k c2 V sC + k a2 V sA = k b2 e − j2π 3 V sA + k c2 e j2π 3

V sA + k a2 V sA , 6-37
and

V s sC ∠βC = Vs sC = Vc3 + Va3 + Vb3

or

V s sC ∠βC = k c3 V sC + k a3 V sA + k b3 V sB = k c3 e j2π 3 V sA + k a3 V sA + k b3 e − j2π 3 V sA 6-38

The intermediate voltages in the A, B, and C phases can be written in terms of active turns-ratios
using the Equations (6-8), (6-27), and (6-31) as

3 k c1 − k b1
V s sA ∠βA = V sA k 2a1 + k 2b1 + k 2c1 − k a1 k b1 − k b1 k c1 − k c1 k a1 ∠ tan − 1 6-39
2k a1 − k b1 − k c1
3 k a2 − k c2
V s sB ∠βB = V sB k 2b2 + k 2c2 + k 2a2 − k b2 k c2 − k c2 k a2 − k a2 k b2 ∠ tan − 1 6-40
2k b2 − k c2 − k a2
3 k b3 − k a3
V s sC ∠βC = V sC k 2c3 + k 2a3 + k 2b3 − k c3 k a3 − k a3 k b3 − k b3 k c3 ∠ tan − 1 6-41
2k c3 − k a3 − k b3

where ka1 = kb2 = kc3 = x × LTC1, kb1 = kc2 = ka3 = x × LTC2, and kc1 = ka2 = kb3 = x × LTC3 are the
active turns-ratios of the secondary, series-compensating windings in the A, B, and C phases and
the corresponding primary windings; x is the voltage (for example 0.05 pu) across each tap in the
LTC; LTC1 = 1, LTC2 = 0, and LTC3 = 4 are the LTC tap settings for the three-phase operating point
shown in Figure 6-72.
The intermediate series-compensating voltages may be used to excite three additional single-
phase step-down transformers (or one three-phase step-down transformer with three isolated sec-
ondary windings), called a Series Unit, whose secondary voltages are connected in series with the
line. The series-compensating voltages in the A, B, and C phases are defined by the following
equations:
V s sA V s sB V s sC n2
= = = 6-42
V s sA V s sB V s sC n1
Therefore, the Compensating-Voltage Unit creates the intermediate voltage and the Series Unit
connects the compensating voltage in series with the line.
It would be advantageous to use such a scheme, which allows the generation of the required
compensating voltage of variable magnitude and variable phase angle by using a three-phase
transformer and LTCs and connection of the compensating voltage through three separate
 6.2 Desired Solution 503

IA

VsA Vs′A
IB

VsB Vs′B
IC

VsC Vs′C
Vs′sA
n2
n1
Vs′sA′

3
2
b1

1
0
Vs′sB

4
3
c1

2
1
4
n2
3
2 n1
0 Vs′sB′
0
2

0
3

B
4

2
3
4

0
a2 1
2
Vs′sC
3
n2
4
3
C 2
1

n1
c2 Vs′sC′

Exciter Unit a3 1
2
3 Series Unit
4
b3
3
2
1
0

Compensating-Voltage Unit

Figure 6-73 ST configuration with six secondary windings in a two-core design.

single-phase transformers (or one three-phase transformer with three isolated secondary wind-
ings), thus isolating the taps from any electrical connection with the high-voltage transmission line.
When a two-core design is used, the configuration of the Compensating-Voltage Unit can be fur-
ther simplified, which requires only six secondary windings, as shown in Figure 6-73, to provide the
same hexagonal operating area as shown in Figure 6-12. In this case, the primary windings in the
Exciter Unit also induce the in-phase secondary voltages as is done in an autotransformer.
This configuration can be even further simplified, which requires only three secondary
windings and two three-phase tap changers (one less than the usual three three-phase tap chan-
gers). In this simplest configuration of ST, out of the two parts of the compensating voltage, the
first part is induced in the Exciter Unit as an in-phase or an out-of-phase voltage in all three
phases.
There are three options in the arrangement of the secondary windings in the Compensating-
Voltage Unit to induce the second part of the compensating voltage and achieve the entire range
of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 . Each compensating voltage is designated as (+) if it
is an in-phase component or (−) if it is an out-of-phase component. The compensating voltages
in Option 1 for all the phases are given in Table 6-13. The required compensating points for the
A phase are shown in Figure 6-74 for the entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
The required winding configuration is shown in Figures 6-75. Note that the LTC tap settings are
504 6 Sen Transformer

Table 6-13 Components of Option 1 compensating voltages in the A, B, and C phases for the entire range
of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

Ranges of relative
phase angle (β) of
the compensating Components of A-phase Components of B-phase Components of C-phase
voltages compensating voltage compensating voltage compensating voltage

0–120 +A phase and +C phase +B phase and +A phase +C phase and +B phase
120–180 +C phase and −A phase +A phase and −B phase +B phase and −C phase
180–300 −A phase and −C phase −B phase and −A phase −C phase and −B phase
300–360 −C phase and +A phase −A phase and +B phase −B phase and +C phase

(a) (b) (c) (d)

βA = 0° βA = 0° βA = 0° βA = 0°

βA = 300° βA = 300°

βA = 120° βA = 120°

VsA VsA VsA VsA

Figure 6-74 The voltage compensating points for the A phase in Option 1 configuration using (a) +A and +C
secondary windings, (b) −A and +C secondary windings, (c) −A and −C secondary windings, and (d) +A and −C
secondary windings.

set up according to Figure 6-74a. The line voltage and power flow operating areas are shown in
Figure 6-76.
The operating area, which is a rhombus consists of a total number of possible compensating
points (cp) that is defined by
cp = 4N N + 1 6-43
and it is 80. Therefore, from Equations (6-5) and (6-43), the additional number of compensating
points are defined by
cpadditional = N N + 1 , 6-44
which is one-third more than the number of the compensating points in a hexagon.
 6.2 Desired Solution 505

IA

VsA
IB Vs′A

VsB Vs′B
IC
Vs′sA
VsC Vs′C
n2
n1
Vs′sA′
20

–4
–3
–1
0
1
2
3
4
A c
Vs′sB
4
3 n2
1
0
–1
n1
–2
–3 4
Vs′sB′
–4 3
–4

a
–3

2
–2
–1

1
–4

0
–3

0
1
–2
–1

–1
0

4
1
3

B –3
4

–4
C
20

Vs′sC
20

n2
n1
Vs′sC′

b
–4
–3
–1

Series Unit
0
1
2
3
4

Exciter Unit Compensating–Voltage Unit

Figure 6-75 ST configuration with three secondary windings in a two-core design: ±A and ±C secondary
voltages for compensation in the A phase, ±B and ±A secondary voltages for compensation in the B phase, and
±C and ±B secondary voltages for compensation in the C phase.

(a) (b)

βA = 0° Qrl
Qr β = 0°
δ

β = 240°

− 0.5
βA = 120° βA = 240°
β = 120°
VsA Vs′h Qrh
− 1.0
βC = 240° Vs′l βB = 120°
Vs′l (Prn , Qrn)
Vs′h V
sB Pr
1.4
− 1.5
V sC Vs′l 0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Vs′h

βC = 0° βB = 0°
βC = 120° βB = 240°

Figure 6-76 Operating points of an ST in Option 1: (a) modified sending-end voltage and (b) active and
reactive power flows at the receiving end.
506 6 Sen Transformer

Table 6-14 Components of Option 2 compensating voltages in the A, B, and C phases for the entire range
of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .

Ranges of relative
phase angle (β) of
the compensating Components of A-phase Components of B-phase Components of C-phase
voltages compensating voltage compensating voltage compensating voltage

0–60 +A phase and −B phase +B phase and −C phase +C phase and −A phase
60–180 −B phase and −A phase −C phase and −B phase −A phase and −C phase
180–240 −A phase and +B phase −B phase and +C phase −C phase and +A phase
240–360 +B phase and +A phase +C phase and +B phase +A phase and +C phase

In Option 1, the line voltage varies the most as evidenced in Figure 6-76a. The highest voltage
(Vs h) results in the lowest reactive power (Qrl) and lowest voltage (Vs l) results in the highest reac-
tive power (Qrh) at the receiving end while the active power at the receiving end stays at one pu as
evidenced in Figure 6-76b.
The compensating voltages in Option 2 for all the phases are given in Table 6-14. The required
compensating points for the A phase are shown in Figure 6-77 for the entire range of the relative
phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 . The required winding configuration is shown in Figures 6-78. Note
that the LTC tap settings are set up according to Figure 6-77d. The line voltage and power flow
operating areas are shown in Figure 6-79.
In Option 2, the line voltage varies the most as evidenced in Figure 6-79a. However, the highest
voltage (Vs h) results in the highest active power (Prh) and lowest reactive power (Qrl); lowest volt-
age (Vs l) results in the lowest active power (Prl) and highest reactive power (Qrh) at the receiving
end as evidenced in Figure 6-79b.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

βA = 0° βA = 0° βA = 0° βA = 0°

βA = 60° βA = 60°

βA = 240° βA = 240°

VsA VsA VsA VsA

Figure 6-77 The voltage compensating points for the A phase in Option 2 configuration using (a) +A and −B
secondary windings, (b) −A and −B secondary windings, (c) −A and +B secondary windings, and (d) +A and +B
secondary windings.
 6.2 Desired Solution 507

IA

VsA Vs′A
IB

VsB Vs′B
IC

VsC Vs′sA Vs′C

n2
n1
20 Vs′sA′

A
b Vs′sB

–4
–3
4

–1
3 n2

0
1
2
3
1
n1

4
0
–1
–2
–3 Vs′sB′
–4
–4

–4
–3
–3
–2

–1
–1
–4

0
–3

0
1
–2

1
–1

2
3
0

3
4
1

4
3

B
4

C c
Vs′sC
20

n2
20

n1
Vs′sC′
4
3
Exciter Unit a 2
1 Series Unit
0
–1
–3
–4

Compensating–Voltage Unit

Figure 6-78 ST configuration with three secondary windings in a two-core design: ±A and ±B secondary
voltages for compensation in the A phase, ±B and ±C secondary voltages for compensation in the B phase, and
±C and ±A secondary voltages for compensation in the C phase.

(a) (b)
βA= 0°
Qr β = 0°
δ

0 Qrl

β = 240°

− 0.5
βA =120° βA =240°
Qrh
β = 120°
Vs′h VsA
− 1.0 (Prn , Qrn)
βC =240° Vs′l Vs′l
βB =120°
Vs′h 0.4 1.4 1.6
V sC Pr
V − 1.5
sB
Vs′l 0 Prl 0.5 1.0 1.5 Prh
Vs′h

βC =0° βB = 0°
βC =120° βB =240°

Figure 6-79 Operating points of an ST in Option 2: (a) modified sending-end voltage and (b) active and
reactive power flows at the receiving end.
508 6 Sen Transformer

The compensating voltages in Option 3 for all the phases are given in Table 6-15. The required
compensating points for the A phase are shown in Figure 6-80 for the entire range of the relative
phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 . The required winding configuration is shown in Figures 6-81. Note
that the LTC tap settings are set up according to Figure 6-80c. The line voltage and power flow
operating areas are shown in Figure 6-82.
In Option 3, the phase-shift angle varies the most as evidenced in Figure 6-82a. The highest mod-
ified power angle (δ h) results in the highest active power (Prh = 1.6 pu) and the highest reactive
power (Qrh); lowest modified power angle (δ l) results in the lowest active power (Prl = 0.4 pu)
and the lowest reactive power (Qrl) at the receiving end as evidenced in Figure 6-82b.
Each of these alternate configurations must be studied further for its merits and demerits to select
the best power flow controller that meets the needs of the utilities worldwide at an affordable price.
For example, while Option 1 offers a 40% active power flow enhancement, each of Options 2 and 3
offers a 60% active power flow enhancement. However, in Option 3, for a 60% increase in active
2
power flow, the line voltage increases only ~6%, since V s = √ 12 + 0 2 × √3 = 1 058

(see Figure 6-82a) whereas, in Option 2, for a 60% increase in active power flow, the line voltage
2
increases ~31%, since V s = √ 1 32 + 0 1 × √3 = 1 311 (see Figure 6-79a), which is beyond

Table 6-15 The compensating voltages in Option 3 for all phases.

Ranges of relative
phase angle (β) of
the compensating Components of A-phase Components of B-phase Components of C-phase
voltages compensating voltage compensating voltage compensating voltage

−60 (300 )−60 −C phase and −B phase −A phase and −C phase −B phase and −A phase
60–120 −B phase and +C phase −C phase and +A phase −A phase and +B phase
120–240 +C phase and +B phase +A phase and +C phase +B phase and +A phase
240–300 +B phase and −C phase +C phase and −A phase +A phase and −B phase

(a) (b) (c) (d)

βA = 0° βA = 0° βA = 0° βA = 0°

βA = 60° βA = 300° βA = 60° βA = 300°

βA = 120° βA = 120° βA = 240° βA = 240°

VsA VsA VsA VsA

Figure 6-80 The voltage compensating points for the A phase in Option 3 configuration using (a) −B and −C
secondary windings, (b) −B and +C secondary windings, (c) +B and +C secondary windings, and (d) +B and −C
secondary windings.
 6.2 Desired Solution 509

IA

VsA Vs′A
IB

VsB Vs′B
IC

VsC Vs′sA Vs′C

n2
n1
Vs′sA′
20

A b Vs′sB

–4
–3
–1
n2

0
4

1
2
3

3
n1

4
1
0
–1 Vs′sB′
–2

–4
–3

–3
–4
–4

–1
–3

0
–2

1
–1

2
–4

3
0
–3

4
–2
–1

3
0

4
1
3

B c
4

C Vs′sC
n2
20
20

n1
Vs′sC′
4
3
a 2
1
Series Unit
0
–1
Exciter Unit –3
–4

Compensating–Voltage Unit

Figure 6-81 An ST configuration with three secondary windings in a two-core design: ±B and ±C secondary
voltages for compensation in the A phase, ±C and ±A secondary voltages for compensation in the B phase, and
±A and ±B secondary voltages for compensation in the C phase.

(a) (b)
βA = 0°
Qr β = 0°
δ
0 Qrl
β = 240°

− 0.5
βA = 240°
βA = 120° Qrh
δ'h V β = 120°
sA δ'l
− 1.0 (Prn , Qrn)
βC = 240° δ'l βB = 120°

V δ'h 0.4 1.4 1.6 P

V sC sB r
− 1.5
0 Prl 0.5 1.0 1.5 Prh
δ'h δ'l
βC = 0° βB = 0°
βC = 120° β = 240°
B

Figure 6-82 Operating points of an ST in Option 3: (a) modified sending-end voltage and (b) active and
reactive power flows at the receiving end.
510 6 Sen Transformer

the allowable limit in most utility applications. Therefore, Option 3 provides maximum active
power flow at maximum reactive power flow while the line voltage remains within a realistic limit
of <10% increase of the nominal voltage. Note that by choosing the number of LTC taps, which is
essentially the active turns-ratio of the secondary, series-compensating windings and the exciting
primary windings of the ST, the realistic limit of the line voltage can be set at a desired level.

6.3 Comparison Among the VRT, PAR, UPFC, and ST

The comparison between the VSC-based UPFC and the transformer/LTCs-based ST can be done on
several key points. The transformer/LTCs-based VRT and PAR are also included for reference.
The ST generates a compensating voltage (Vs s) of variable magnitude and variable phase angle
through transformer action between the shunt-connected primary, exciting windings and the
series-connected secondary, compensating windings. When connected in series with the line,
the compensating voltage modifies the magnitude and phase angle of the uncompensated send-
ing-end voltage (Vs) to be the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) and, therefore, control the active
and reactive power flows in the line independently.
The ST offers an area of controllability in the P-Q plane just like the UPFC. Note that the VRT and
PAR offer only linear characteristics in the P-Q plane and, therefore, do not regulate the active and
reactive power flows independently as desired.

6.3.1 Power Flow Enhancement

The simulation results for the network example considered in Chapter 3 shows that a 30 MVA-rated
Series Unit (Compensating-Voltage Unit in the ST) increases the power flow in the line by 57 MW in
the case of the ST and by 58 MW in the case of the UPFC. This increased capacity of the line may be
used to redirect power from an overloaded line to an underloaded line that may be very useful dur-
ing the peak demand period.
In the case of the ST, both active and reactive powers exchanged by the series-connected Com-
pensating-Voltage Unit flow through the shunt-connected Exciter Unit. However, in the case of the
UPFC, only the exchanged active power flows through the shared DC link between the series-
connected SSSC and the shunt-connected STATCOM. Each VSC is capable of generating or absorb-
ing reactive power at its AC terminal. The series-connected VSC in the UPFC must be designed for
the apparent power, which carries the exchanged active and reactive powers with the line. The rat-
ing of the shunt-connected VSC must be at least equal to the active power rating of the series-
connected VSC. Two VSCs in the UPFC are of equal ratings for simpler housekeeping and practical
reasons, such as storing spare parts. Therefore, the remaining rating of the STATCOM can be uti-
lized to regulate the bus voltage by exchanging the reactive power at the POC. In the UPFC con-
figuration, the STATCOM has to let the active power of the series-connected VSC go through it first,
thereby reducing its full reactive power-carrying and voltage-regulating capabilities.
Since the shunt- and the series-connected VSCs of the UPFC, considered in Chapter 3, are
designed to be of the same rating, a 30 MVA-rated Shunt Unit is able to provide 21 Mvar of reactive
power while delivering the maximum 21 MW of active power. If this capability of supplying shunt
reactive power is really needed, particularly when the short-circuit impedance at the POC is high, a
separate capacitor bank as a shunt reactive compensator may be used along with the ST. Ultimately,
the life-cycle cost of a PFC must be the deciding factor for its selection among all the available
options.
 6.3 Comparison Among the VRT, PAR, UPFC, and ST 511

6.3.2 Speed of Operation

Figure 6-83a shows the test results from the world’s first UPFC that consists of a shunt-connected
±160 MVA, 138 kV-rated VSC (STATCOM) and a series-connected ±160 MVA, 13.33 kV-rated
VSC (SSSC). The STATCOM is operated in “Voltage Control” mode to hold the bus voltage (Vs)

(a)
1.05
Bus Voltage (V1) pu
1

0.95
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
300
Modified Sending-End Active Power (Ps′) MW
200
Modified Sending-End Reactive Power (Qs′) Mvar
100

− 100

− 200

− 300
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
150

100 Shunt-Compensated Reactive Power (Qc-sh) Mvar

50

− 50

− 100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
time (s)

(b)
PrUPFC
QrUPFC
100 PrST
QrST
MW, Mvar

50
Active Power
0 Reversal
Reactive Power
Reversal
− 50
5 10 15 20 25 30
time (s)

Figure 6-83 (a) UPFC test results for automatic power flow control mode of operation with maintaining unity
power factor and 1 pu bus voltage while regulating the line power (Sen and Keri 2002); (b) ST simulation results
for open-loop power flow control mode of operation (Faruque and Dinavahi 2007).
512 6 Sen Transformer

at one pu. While maintaining unity power factor load on the line and the bus voltage at one pu level,
the active power flow in the line is varied. The active power flow at the modified sending end is regu-
lated at −145, −65, −240, and −145 MW levels while holding the reactive power flow at the same
point at zero (i.e. unity power factor). The STATCOM exchanges an appropriate amount of reactive
power with the line to hold the BUS01 voltage at one pu level. The response time of the UPFC is
adjusted to be in several seconds.
The simulated transient responses of Pr and Qr of the ST and UPFC are shown in Figure 6-83b.
The natural power flows between 0 and 5 s. A series-compensating voltage (Vs s) of magnitude 0.2
pu is applied at a relative phase angle (β) of 300 at 5 s and 240 at 14 s. While keeping the relative
phase angle at 240 , the magnitude of the compensating voltage is increased to 0.4 pu at 23 s. The
line power due to the application of the UPFC is changed in a linear fashion, whereas the line power
due to the application of the ST is changed in multiple steps. In both cases, the same level of inde-
pendent power flow control and the line power flow reversal are demonstrated.
The merit of the ST is that it allows independent control of active and reactive power flows in the
line, similar to the UPFC. The UPFC can offer a faster response (in ms at a given constant line
impedance), but this capability cannot be utilized, as shown in Figure 6-83a, in order to assure con-
tinued operation under various contingencies. In most utility applications in which the fast
response is not required, the ST presents an economically attractive solution for power flow
enhancement when compared with the UPFC, which has higher life-cycle costs (installation, oper-
ation, and maintenance) than the ST.

6.3.3 Losses
The power loss in a VSC is defined as the total power consumed by various components of a VSC
while carrying the rated current at rated voltage. A Harmonic-Neutralized VSC (HN-VSC) with
Gate-Turn Off (GTO) thyristors, switching at once per cycle, has about 1.5% power loss under rated
condition. That means for the UPFC that consists of two VSCs, the power loss is about 3% of the
VSC rating. The power loss in a single Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)-operated VSC is about 4%.
Therefore, for the UPFC that consists of two PWM-operated VSCs, the power loss is about 8%. This
makes the operating cost of the VSC-based UPFC to be the highest among the available power flow
solutions. With the advancement of semiconductor switches, such as GaN and SiC, the lower turn-
on and turn-off times offer lower switching losses; a lower voltage across the switch also offers a
lower conduction loss. Thus, the overall loss may be reduced.

6.3.4 Switch Rating

Each VSC that carries its nominal current at its nominal voltage is considered to have one-pu-rated
semiconductor devices. In practice, the allowable current through a GTO is rated at 0.5 pu of the
controllable current of the device. Note that there are a number of GTOs connected in series and
each one of these devices experiences a voltage overshoot at turn-off from the stored energy in the
snubber and stray inductances. Considering that the continuous operation is required even with a
number of failed-short GTOs in a switch, a conservative design dictates that each device be allowed
to operate normally at 0.25 pu of the rated voltage. This means that the installed power rating of the
semiconductor devices is eight times the nominal rating in each VSC. In addition, there are two
electronic switches: one for clamping the DC link voltage and another one for the electronic bypass.
The semiconductor and snubber losses in the VSC require deionized-water cooling and heat
exchangers to remove the heat that is generated from the switching of the semiconductor devices.
 6.3 Comparison Among the VRT, PAR, UPFC, and ST 513

The first three installed UPFCs in Kentucky, USA, New York, USA and South Korea were built
with the use of relatively slow semiconductor devices, such as GTO thyristors that are switched at
fundamental frequency. This arrangement requires the use of a HN-VSC. A VSC that is built with
relatively faster semiconductor devices, such as Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs), are
operated with PWM techniques with a higher switching frequency. Its magnetic circuit may be lim-
ited to just the coupling transformer. However, this arrangement requires the use of a filter at the
output of each VSC. In order to reduce the size of the filter, it is desirable to increase the switching
frequency, which is limited due to the rising switching losses. The filter may be eliminated in a VSC
configuration with multi-modular units where the semiconductor devices reside in the series-
connected full bridges or half bridges. A VSC, operated with the PWM techniques, may also need
a shield to limit electromagnetic interference (EMI), generated from the high di/dt of the faster
semiconductor switches.

6.3.5 Magnetic Circuit Design

Each coupling transformer in the UPFC carries its rated (one pu) power under steady-state condi-
tion. The intermediate magnetic circuit, associated with each GTO-based VSC, is rated at 0.5 pu.
A one-pu-rated series-coupling transformer permits the compensating voltage to start at its peak
value, so that a de-energized transformer can start operating from its zero flux condition and
not be saturated. However, this restriction can delay the response of the VSC up to a quarter cycle.
If the controller demands the compensating voltage to be applied at its zero value instead of its peak
value, the flux in the transformer may ideally build up to the two pu level. Therefore, the series-
coupling transformer needs to be designed to be at the two pu level in order to avoid saturation.
In this case, the intermediate magnetic circuit associated with the series-connected VSC needs
to be rated at one pu instead of 0.5 pu. Therefore, the theoretical rating of the magnetic circuit
of the HN-VSC-based UPFC is 4.5 pu (shunt-coupling transformer: one pu; shunt intermediate
transformer: 0.5 pu; series-coupling transformer: two pu; and series intermediate transformer:
one pu). In practice, the magnetic circuit for each VSC is typically designed to be rated at 15 to
25% more than the theoretical rating.
In most utility applications, it is adequate to apply the series-compensating voltage, calculated by
the controller, over the following 10 to 20 cycles. This relaxes the requirement of the rating of the
series-coupling transformer. A series-coupling transformer of 1.5 pu rating is considered to be ade-
quate in a utility application. Then the question arises: Why should one invest in a fast-acting VSC
when its output voltage cannot be delivered at the same speed of the electronic VSC because the
series-coupling transformer is not designed with full rating?
Each of the three primary windings in the Exciter Unit is designed for full line voltage and the
rated single-phase power of the ST. Each of the nine secondary windings in the Compensating-
Voltage Unit is designed to carry the full line current and the rated single-phase power of the
ST. This requires the magnetic rating in Volt-second of the 12 windings (three primary and nine
secondary) of the ST to be 12/6 = 2 pu, considering the three primary and three secondary windings,
a total of six windings, make a one pu transformer.

6.3.6 Optimization of Transformer Rating

The UPFC’s rated compensating voltage in series with a transmission line in its possible 0 ≤ β ≤ 360
range has very unlikely been used. If the rated compensating voltage (Vs s) is added to the sending-
end voltage (Vs) at 0 or 180 , the modified sending-end voltage Vs = Vs + Vs s goes out of the
allowable range, which may be within the ±10% of the nominal value. Moreover, in the 0 ≤ β ≤ 360
range of operation of the UPFC, the maximum power flow enhancement occurs within the first
514 6 Sen Transformer

120 and, therefore, the rest of the operating region is unnecessary in most applications. The ST, in
its simpler, customized configuration with a reduced amount of hardware provides the same lim-
ited angle (120 ) operation, which is adequate in most utility applications.
Whether it is utilized or not, the UPFC is always designed to operate in the 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 range,
since it does not offer the limited angle design option. In a UPFC with HN-VSCs, the required mag-
netic rating in Volt-second alone is at least 4.5 pu, whereas, in the ST, the magnetic rating in Volt-
second is only two pu for the same 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 range of operation. In a practical implementation,
only 0 ≤ β ≤ 120 range of operation is required for power flow enhancement. Consequently, this
requirement is satisfied by constructing the ST as shown in Figure 6-65a. This configuration
requires only three primary windings and six secondary windings for a limited angle operation. This
results in a 1.5-pu-rated transformer, instead of a regular two-pu-rated transformer for 0 ≤ β ≤ 360
range of operation. In comparison, the autotransformer and the PAR, each with one pu rating, can
jointly perform in the 0 ≤ β ≤ 90 range of operation, requiring a total of two pu rating. Therefore, it
can be concluded that the functions of the autotransformer and PAR are combined in a single unit
of ST that results in a reduced amount of hardware from what is required for separate autotrans-
former and PAR. The number of isolated compensating windings in the ST can be reduced by the
following action. The compensating winding that provides the in-phase voltage and the corre-
sponding exciting winding can be replaced with a partially tapped autotransformer winding as
shown in Figure 6-65e.
Figure 6-84 shows the practical control range of the VRT, PAR, UPFC, and ST. The filled dots,
in Figure 6-84a, show a total of 36 compensating points of the ST within the allowable voltage
range, which is ±10% of the nominal voltage in the relative phase angle range of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 .
Figure 6-84b shows that the maximum active power flow enhancement at the receiving end from
the natural flow of one pu, within the allowable voltage range, is 0.40 pu with the UPFC, 0.35 pu
with the ST, and 0.30 pu with the PAR (asym). Moreover, the ST can provide an active power flow
enhancement of 0.3 pu as does the PAR, but along a constant reactive power line (without altering
the natural flow of reactive power, Qrn), whereas the PAR increases the reactive power from the

(a) (b)
βA = 0°
UPFC Qr Constant Reactive β = 0°
Area Power Line δ
VR Line UPFC
PAR 0 Area
PAR
(asym) ST
(asym)
Line Points
Line
ST
Points VR Line
− 0.5
βA = 120° βA = 240° UPFC

VsA ST
− 1.0 (Prn , Qrn)
βC = 240° βB = 120° PAR (asym)

V 1.4 Pr
V sC sB
− 1.5
0 0.5 1.0 1.3 1.5

βC = 0° βB = 0°
βC = 120° βB = 240°

Figure 6-84 Practical voltage compensation range with the use of the VRT, PAR, UPFC, and ST within the
entire range of the relative phase angle of 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 : (a) modified sending-end voltage and (b) active and
reactive power flows at the receiving end.
 6.3 Comparison Among the VRT, PAR, UPFC, and ST 515

natural flow of 0.268 pu to the simultaneously regulated flow of 0.441 pu. The VRT also regulates
the active and reactive power flows simultaneously.

6.3.7 Harmonic Injection into the Power System Network

The ST always generates a sinusoidal compensating voltage of line frequency. Even though the
compensating voltage emulates an impedance, this virtual impedance is actually a finite voltage
and, therefore, cannot cause resonance with the line inductance or capacitance.
The UPFC always injects harmonic components (voltage and current) into the power system net-
work. The magnitudes of the harmonic components are reduced with a higher leakage reactance in
the coupling transformers, but the leakage reactance of the series-coupling transformer increases
the overall undesirable inductive compensation range that reduces power flow in the line and
reduces the overall desirable capacitive compensation range that increases power flow in the line.

6.3.8 Operation During Line Faults

Generally, to limit a phase-to-neutral fault current, additional inductive impedance in the path of
the fault is needed. If, for example, the additional emulated impedance is equal to the equivalent
line impedance, the steady-state fault current is reduced to half of the natural fault current. The
steady-state faulted voltage across the emulated impedance is half of the phase-to-neutral voltage.
In the worst case, the emulated impedance must withstand twice the volt-seconds that are needed
to support half of the steady-state phase-to-neutral voltage in order to avoid magnetic saturation.
The relatively insignificant (typically 0.05 to 0.15 pu) voltage rating of the series core of the ST would
saturate early in the fault cycle. The saturated windings do not provide significant current-limiting
effect in the ST, so the ST, designed for power flow regulation, rides through a fault with little effect.
During a fault in the transmission line, the saturated core of the series-coupling transformer does
not provide significant current-limiting effect in the UPFC. The current through the series-
connected VSC will exceed its rated limit. As a protective measure, the semiconductor switches
of a shunt-connected VSC are turned off to ensure zero current flow through it, but the semicon-
ductor switches of the series-connected VSC have to be all turned on to ensure zero compensating
voltage, so that the VSC side of the series-coupling transformer is shorted; as a result, the line is not
open-circuited. Therefore, to ride through the line faults, the series-connected VSC must be
designed to carry the fault current. For example, if the short circuit current is 10 times the nominal
line current, the series-connected VSC needs to be designed to carry the fault current. This is an
expensive proposition. The alternate solution is to have a nominally rated VSC as a series compen-
sator and an additional electronic bypass-switch that is specifically designed to carry the fault cur-
rent. Then the question arises as to whether the electronic bypass-switch should be located on the
high-voltage line side or on the low-voltage VSC side. If the electronic bypass-switch is located on
the high-voltage side, the VSC “sees” an additional inductance from the leakage reactance of the
series-coupling transformer in its forward path. Designers prefer to have the electronic bypass-
switch on the high-voltage line side because when shorted, all of the leakage reactances of the cou-
pling transformer and intermediate transformer appear across the output terminal of the VSC and a
short circuit at its output terminal is prevented. However, it is quite expensive to have electronic
switches mounted on an isolated platform and connected to the high-voltage transmission line. It is
certainly less expensive to have the electronic bypass-switch located on the low-voltage side (VSC
side) of the series-coupling transformer. In this case, when the electronic bypass-switch is operated,
the output voltage of the VSC is applied only to the very low leakage reactance of the intermediate
516 6 Sen Transformer

transformer. Then the question arises as to whether the VSC is adequately designed to carry this
resulting current until the fault current is transferred to the mechanical bypass switch, which takes
a few line cycles to operate. At that time, the series-connected VSC can be stopped gating without
opening the line. If the electronic bypass-switch is located on the low-voltage VSC side, the VSC
should be protected in some way in order to avoid a high current through it during a line fault con-
dition. The obvious solution is to put an additional reactor on the low-voltage VSC side. This addi-
tional reactor always stays connected in the forward path of the VSC and, as a result, increases the
overall undesirable inductive compensation range and reduces the overall desirable capacitive com-
pensation range.
Note that a HN-VSC that operates at a fundamental switching frequency, provides a positive
sequence fundamental voltage. In the case of a line fault, the negative sequence component of
the unbalanced line voltage causes the negative sequence current to flow freely into the VSC, which
is not desirable. A VSC that uses a PWM modulation technique provides a desirable voltage, not just
a positive sequence fundamental voltage, which is effective in operations during unbalance and
faults.
The basic differences between the traditional technology of transformer and LTCs versus the VSC
are given in Table 6-16.

6.4 Multiline Sen Transformer

A Multiline Sen Transformer (MST) connects a compensating voltage in series with each line in a
multiline transmission system and transfers active and reactive powers selectively from one or more
transmission lines, referred to as “leader” lines, to the others, referred to as “follower” lines. Each
compensating voltage in the “leader” lines is of any magnitude within its allowable limit and at any
phase angle with respect to the line voltage, as well as the prevailing line current, so that the active
and reactive power flows in that line can be controlled independently as desired. Each series-
compensating voltage in the “follower” lines is of specific magnitude and phase angle with respect
to the prevailing line current, so that the active and reactive powers from the “leader” lines are
transferred bidirectionally to the “follower” lines. This technique provides a desirable power flow
management for a multiline transmission system by decreasing the power flow in the overloaded
lines and increasing it in the underloaded lines with little impact on the other uncompensated lines.
In the MST configuration, shown in Figure 6-85, the line voltage (Vs) is applied to a shunt-
connected three-phase transformer’s Y-connected primary windings in the Exciter Unit. In the
Compensating-Voltage Unit 1, a total of nine secondary windings (a11, a12, and a13 on the core
of the A phase; b11, b12, and b13 on the core of the B phase; and c11, c12, and c13 on the core of
the C phase) derive a three-phase compensating voltage, each phase of which is a phasor sum
of the voltages induced in a three-winding set (a11, b11, and c11 for compensating voltage in the
A phase; a12, b12, and c12 for compensating voltage in the B phase; and a13, b13, and c13 for com-
pensating voltage in the C phase). In the Compensating-Voltage Unit 2, a total of nine secondary
windings (a21, a22, and a23 on the core of the A phase; b21, b22, and b23 on the core of the B phase; and
c21, c22, and c23 on the core of the C phase) derive a three-phase compensating voltage, each phase of
which is a phasor sum of the voltages induced in a three-winding set (a21, b21, and c21 for compen-
sating voltage in the A phase; a22, b22, and c22 for compensating voltage in the B phase; and a23, b23,
and c23 for compensating voltage in the C phase). By choosing the number of turns from each of the
three windings, and, therefore, the magnitudes of the components of the three 120 phase-shifted
 6.4 Multiline Sen Transformer 517

Table 6-16 Comparison among the voltage-regulating transformer (VRT), phase angle regulator (PAR),
unified power flow controller (UPFC), and Sen transformer (ST).

Inter-
dependent
active and Shunt-series interconnected voltage
reactive injection with independent local
power flow voltage, active and reactive power
control flow control

UPFC with UPFC with

VRT PAR HN-VSCs PWM-VSCs ST

In-phase voltage injection Yes No Yes Yes Yes

Quadrature voltage injection No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Independent control of active and reactive power flows No No Yes Yes Yes
in the line
Number of components/complexity Low Low High High Low
Reliability and high availability Yes Yes No No Yes
Harmonic voltage injection into the power system No No Yes Yes No
Loss of useful capacitive rating due to high series No No Yes Yes No
leakage reactance in the coupling transformer
Fast fault current bypass-switch needed No No Yes Yes No
Adequate dynamic response for utility power flow Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
regulation
Compensating voltage steps depend on number of taps Yes Yes No No Yes
installed
Capability of independent local reactive power No No Yes Yes No
generation and absorption
VSC output filter needed No No No Yesa No
b
VSC EMI shields may be needed No No Yes Yesb No
Estimated losses at rated power <1% <1% 3% 6–8% <1%
Required power rating of magnetic components (pu) 1 1 4.5 3 1.5
Estimated equipment cost normalized for a unit rated 1 1 7.5 6 1.5
50 MVA or more
Estimated losses/operating cost normalized for a unit 1 1 5 10 1
rated 50 MVA or more
a
Series-connected half- or full-bridge converters may or may not need any passive filter at its output.
b
Semiconductor switches with fast turn-on and turn-off capabilities may need an EMI shield.

induced voltages, the composite compensating voltage magnitude and the relative phase angle with
respect to the line voltage can be selected.
It should be noted that in the Compensating-Voltage Unit 1, each of the windings (a11, b12, and
c13) is tapped at the same number of turns; each of the windings (b11, c12, and a13) is tapped at the
same number of turns; and each of the windings (c11, a12, and b13) is tapped at the same number of
turns. However, the number of turns in the a11-b12-c13 set, b11-c12-a13 set, and c11-a12-b13 set can be
different from each other. Also, in the Compensating-Voltage Unit 2, each of the windings (a21, b22,
518 6 Sen Transformer

V I V I
V

a I V a V
I
V
b b
I V V
I
V c c

V V

V V

A a a

b b

c c

V V

B a a
C
b b

c c

Exciter Unit Compensating-Voltage Unit 1 Compensating-Voltage Unit 2

Figure 6-85 Multiline Sen Transformer (MST).

and c23) is tapped at the same number of turns; each of the windings (b21, c22, and a23) is tapped at
the same number of turns; and each of the windings (c21, a22, and b23) is tapped at the same number
of turns. However, the number of turns in the a21-b22-c23 set, b21-c22-a23 set, and c21-a22-b23 set can
be different from each other.
The compensating voltage (V1s s) in the Compensating-Voltage Unit 1 can be at any phase angle
with the prevailing line current (I1), which emulates a four-quadrant, compensating impedance in
series with the line 1. The compensating voltage (V2s s) in the Compensating-Voltage Unit 2 can be
at any phase angle with the prevailing line current (I2), which emulates a four-quadrant, compen-
sating impedance in series with the line 2. An emulated impedance can be a combination of a pos-
itive resistance (+R) or a negative resistance (−R) and a capacitive reactance (XC) or an inductive
reactance (XL).
The series-compensating voltage (V1s s) modifies the sending-end voltage (Vs) to V1s in order to
independently control the active and reactive power flows in the “leader” line (line 1). The series-
compensating voltage (V2s s) modifies the sending-end voltage (Vs) to V2s in order to provide the
same function for “follower” line (line 2). The compensating voltage in each line is also at any phase
angle with the prevailing line current. The active or direct component of the compensating voltage
provides the series resistance emulation, whereas the reactive or quadrature component provides
the series reactance emulation.
The operations of the Compensating-Voltage Units are such that the compensating voltage in the
“leader” line is at any phase angle with the line voltage, as well as the prevailing line current and
that in the “follower” line is of specific magnitude and phase angle, so that the active and reactive
powers from the “leader” line are transferred bidirectionally to the “follower” line. The basics of
this control scheme are discussed next. As discussed earlier, the 120 range of operation of the
PFC is often sufficient. The MST, in its simpler customized configuration with a reduced amount
of hardware, provides this limited angle (120 ) operation.
In the “leader” line (line 1), the controllable range of the active and reactive power flows can
easily be determined by applying the series-connected, fully rated, compensating voltage that
 6.4 Multiline Sen Transformer 519

operates within its entire 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 range. As a consequence, the compensating voltage emu-
lates an impedance in series with the line and, in turn, exchanges active and reactive powers with
the line. For some compensating voltage (V1s s) in the “leader” line (line 1), the exchanged active
and reactive powers are P1se = − V1s s I1 and Q1se = − V1s s × I1 , respectively. To transfer this
exchanged active and reactive powers to the “follower” line, the following relationships must be
obeyed, i.e.
P1se + P2se = 0 2-302
Q1se + Q2se = 0 6-45
Therefore, the exchanged active and reactive powers in the “follower” line are
P2se = − P1se 6-46a
Q2se = − Q1se ; 6-46b
but the exchanged active and reactive powers in the “follower” line are

P2se = I 22 R∗2se 6-47a

Q2se = I 22 X ∗2se 6-47b

where R∗2se and X ∗2se are the emulated resistance and reactance commands, respectively.
From Equations (6-46) and (6-47), the emulated resistance and reactance commands (R∗2se and
∗
X 2se ) for the “follower” line (line 2) are given by

P1se
R∗2se = − 6-48a
I 22
Q1se
X ∗2se = − 6-48b
I 22

The required compensating voltage (V2s s) command can be given to the controller in terms of the
emulated resistance and reactance commands (R∗2se and X ∗2se). Substituting i with i2, Rse with R∗2se ,
and Xse with X ∗2se in Figure 6-13, the same control block diagram can be executed to operate the taps
for the Compensating-Voltage Unit 2.
The above concept can be extended to an n-line MST provided the following relationships for the
power balance are maintained:

P1se + P2se + … + Pnse = 0 6-49a

Q1se + Q2se + … + Qnse = 0 6-49b
Any difference in power transfer between the transmission lines (“leaders” and “followers”) will
flow through the exciter winding. The exciter winding is rated to carry the differential power
between the “leaders” and the “followers” lines. Note that in the implementation of a BTB-SSSC
(also referred to as IPFC) for power flow management in a multiline transmission system, a balance
of zero net active power at the DC link must be observed.

6.4.1 Basic Differences Between the MST and BTB-SSSC

A VSC-based BTB-SSSC is capable of transferring active and reactive powers selectively from one
particular line to another. So can the transformer and the LTC-based MST. Note that in reality, a
520 6 Sen Transformer

BTB-SSSC only transfers the active power from one line to another and, in addition, generates or
absorbs the reactive power in each line independently as desired.
Although a properly designed VSC is capable of applying a compensating voltage to the trans-
mission line in sub-cycle time, it is not advisable to do so. System instability may occur during some
contingencies. The BTB-SSSC always needs an overrated series-coupling transformer to avoid mag-
netic saturation. The response time of the MST is adequate in most utility applications, but it can be
improved, when needed, by replacing the mechanical LTCs with faster switches. The MST with
mechanical LTCs will ride through a line fault. To protect the VSC in a BTB-SSSC from the line
fault current, a fast bypass-switch is required.
A BTB-SSSC is capable of connecting its rated compensating voltage in series with a transmis-
sion line for a possible 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 range of operation. However, in order to maintain the line
voltage within an allowable range, the rated compensating voltage is used only over a narrow
range of the possible 0 ≤ β ≤ 360 phase angle. The MST offers the required operating range with
less hardware.
Unlike a VSC, which always injects harmonic components in addition to line frequency voltage
into the power system network, the MST only injects a voltage of line frequency. A VSC may need
additional filter circuits to reduce the injected harmonic components into the power system
network.
The installation cost of the BTB-SSSC is in the order of five times that of the MST. Moreover,
depending on the topology of the VSC, the BTB-SSSC with two VSCs has an efficiency in the range
of 92–97%, whereas the MST with mechanical LTCs is more than 99% efficient. Therefore, the oper-
ating cost of the BTB-SSSC is an order of magnitude higher than that of the MST.
The PFC in a transmission system application is expected to operate reliably 99.9% of the time,
except for scheduled maintenance. The reliability of the VSC-based BTB-SSSC concept has not yet
been proven, but the components of the MST are transformers and LTCs, which are time-tested and
proven to be reliable.

6.5 Flexible Operation of the ST

The basic scheme of the ST can be modified for special applications, such as limited angle operation
with a reduced amount of hardware and interconnection of transmission lines of different voltages
or phase angles while providing independent control of active and reactive power flows in those
lines. Figure 6-86 shows one such scheme in which two transmission lines, one at 345 kV and
the other at 138 kV, can be interfaced with the ST when the Compensating-Voltage Unit is con-
nected at the 138 kV line side. The primary windings of the ST are energized with the voltage from
the 345 kV line. The magnitude and phase angle of the stepped-down 138 kV voltages are controlled
with the use of the Compensating-Voltage Unit.
The above scheme can be extended, as shown in Figure 6-87, to interconnect the transmission
lines of different voltage levels while providing independent control of active and reactive power
flows in a higher voltage line. The primary windings of the ST are energized from the lower voltage
side. The magnitude and phase angle of the stepped up voltages are modified with the use of the
Compensating-Voltage Unit.
 6.5 Flexible Operation of the ST 521

Vs′sA IA
VsrcA 345 kV

VsA a1 Vs′A
IB
VsrcB 345 kV
b1
Vs′B
138 kV c1 IC
VsrcC

50 Vs′C

Vs′sB

VsB a2
A
20
b2
138 kV c2

0
0
0

B Vs′sC
20

20

VsC a3
50

C
b3
50

c3

Exciter Unit Compensating-Voltage Unit

Figure 6-86 ST’s Compensating-Voltage Unit is connected to the stepped-down voltage of a

transmission line.

Vs′sA IA
VsrcA

VsA a1 Vs′A
IB
VsrcB
b1
Vs′B
c1 IC
VsrcC

Vs′C
A′
Vs′sB

VsB a2
A
b2

c2

B Vs′sC

B′ VsC a3

C
b3

C′ c3

Exciter Unit Compensating-Voltage Unit

Figure 6-87 ST’s Compensating-Voltage Unit is connected to the stepped-up voltage of a transmission line.
522 6 Sen Transformer

6.6 ST with a Shunt-Compensating Voltage

The ST with a Shunt-Series configuration consists of a shunt-connected Exciter Unit (Shunt Unit)
and a series-connected Compensating-Voltage Unit (Series Unit) as shown in Figure 6-88a. In an
alternate approach, called a Shunt-Shunt configuration, the compensating voltage can be shunt-
connected to the line, as shown in Figure 6-88b, providing an electrical isolation between the pri-
mary voltage (Vs) of the Exciter Unit (Shunt Unit 1) and the secondary voltage (Vs ) of the Com-
pensating-Voltage Unit (Shunt Unit 2). Note that there is no such electrical isolation between the
Shunt Unit and the Series Unit in the Shunt-Series configuration. Another important distinction
between the Shunt-Series and Shunt-Shunt configurations is that the series-connected Compensat-
ing Voltage Unit carries only a fraction of the transmitted power, whereas the shunt-connected
Compensating Voltage Unit carries the full transmitted power. The practical application of a
shunt-connected Compensating-Voltage Unit might be in a case when two nearby power grids with
different voltages or phase angles need to be interconnected.
The circuit configuration, shown in Figure 6-89a, can be used to form a shunt-compensating volt-
age (Vs ) that is at any phase angle with respect to the line voltage (Vs). By choosing the number of
turns from each of the three secondary windings in any phase and, therefore, the magnitudes of the
components of the three 120 phase-shifted induced voltages, the compensating voltage (Vs ) in any
phase is derived from the phasor sum of the voltages induced in a three-phase windings set, for
example A1, B1, and C1 for compensation in the A phase. The corresponding phasor diagram is
shown in Figure 6-89b.
The modified sending-end voltage (Vs A), which is the shunt-compensating voltage with magni-
tude (Vs A) and phase-shift angle (ψ A), is generated for the A phase by implementing the following
equation:
Vs A = VA1 + VB1 + VC1
or

V s A ∠ψ A = K A1 V sA + K B1 V sB + K C1 V sC = K A1 V sA + K B1 e − j2π 3 V sA + K C1 e j2π 3
V sA 6-1
where

VA1, VB1, and VC1 are active voltages in the shunt-compensating windings A1, B1, and C1 for the
A phase,

(a) (b)
Ps′, Qs′ Pr , Qr Ps′ , Qs′ Pr , Qr
Ps , Qs Vs′s
VX Ps , Qs VX
I I

Psh Series X P1sh P2sh X

Qsh Unit Q1sh Q2sh
Plink Pse Plink
Vs Qse Vs′ Vr Vs Vs′ Vr
Qlink Qlink
Shunt Shunt Shunt
Unit Unit 1 Unit 2

Figure 6-88 Two methods of modifying a transmission line voltage: (a) with a Shunt-Series configuration and
(b) with a Shunt-Shunt configuration.
 6.6 ST with a Shunt-Compensating Voltage 523

(a) (b)
I 1.20
1.15
Vs′A 0 1.10
1.05
VsA 1 Vs′A 1.00

Plink A1 Vs′A
A
VsB Qlink
1 VA1

1.2
0 1.2
0

1
0

VsC

1.2
B C1

1
C
1

0
B1
1

Shunt Shunt
V C1
Unit 1 Unit 2

Exciter Unit Compensating-Voltage Unit

ψA = 0°
(c)

Upper
Vs′A
Voltage
Limit Lower
Voltage
Limit

ψA = 90° ψA = –90°

ψA = 120° ψA = 240°

Figure 6-89 (a) Shunt-Shunt configuration of ST for the A phase; (b) phasor diagram; (c) operating points of ST
for the A phase within the upper and lower limits.

KA1 = 1.05, KB1 = 0, and KC1 = 0.20 are the active turns-ratios of the secondary, shunt-compensating
windings in the A phase and the corresponding primary windings,
Vs A is the magnitude of the shunt-compensating voltage in the A phase, which is also the voltage at
the modified sending end of the line,
ψ A is the phase-shift angle for the A-phase voltage, and
VsA is the magnitude of the A-phase voltage at the sending end of the line.

Note that the A-phase shunt-compensating winding is 105% active; the B-phase shunt-
compensating winding is inactive, since it is bypassed; the C-phase shunt-compensating winding
is 20% active at the particular operating point, shown in Figure 6-89a. Figure 6-89b shows the
524 6 Sen Transformer

corresponding phasor diagram. Note that the filled dots in the phasor diagram represent the end of
the A and C compensating phasors, respectively.
The compensating voltage for the A phase and the phase-shift angle in the range of 0 ≤ ψ A ≤ 360
is derived from Equation (6-1) as

V s A cos ψ A + jV s A sin ψ A = K A1 V sA + K B1 V sA − 1 2 − j 3 2 + K C1 V sA − 1 2 + j 3 2

or
V s A cos ψ A + jV s A sin ψ A = K A1 − K B1 2 − K C1 2 V sA + j 3 2 K C1 − K B1 V sA .

Equating the real and imaginary parts of both sides of the above equation, it can be written that
V s cos ψ A = K A1 − K B1 2 − K C1 2 V sA 6-19a
and

V s A sin ψ A = 3 2 K C1 − K B1 V sA 6-19b

Equations (6-19a) and (6-19b) can be converted into a polar form as

sin ψ A
V s A ∠ψ A = V 2s A cos 2 ψ A + sin 2 ψ A ∠tan− 1 using the identity cos 2 ψ A + sin 2 ψ A = 1
cosψ A

or
V s A sin ψ A
V s A ∠ψ A = V s A cos ψ A 2
+ V s A sin ψ A 2 ∠ tan − 1
V s A cos ψ A
or

3 K C1 − K B1
V s A ∠ψ A = V sA K 2A1 + K 2B1 + K 2C1 − K A1 K B1 − K B1 K C1 − K C1 K A1 ∠ tan − 1
2K A1 − K B1 − K C1
6-20
Figure 6-89c shows all the possible operating points of an ST in its Shunt-Shunt configuration.
However, most of the operating points are outside any practical operating range, since the line volt-
age needs to be maintained within an allowable range. The phase-shift angle is also limited to oper-
ate in a narrow band in the entire range of 0 ≤ ψ A ≤ 360 . A voltage variation range of ±10% and a
phase-shift angle in the range of −90 ≤ ψ A ≤ 90 is shown in Figure 6-89c. The filled dots represent
operating points, determined by the selection of the taps in the LTCs.
The Shunt-Shunt configuration of ST for the A phase can be extended for the B and C phases as
shown in Figure 6-90. The windings (A2, B2, and C2) are used for compensation in the B phase and
windings (A3, B3, and C3) are used for compensation in the C phase. It should be noted that each of
the windings (A1, B2, and C3) is tapped at the same number of turns through LTC1; each of the
windings (B1, C2, and A3) is tapped at the same number of turns through LTC2; and each of the
windings (C1, A2, and B3) is tapped at the same number of turns through LTC3. However, the num-
ber of turns in the A1-B2-C3 set, B1-C2-A3 set, and C1-A2-B3 set can be different from each other.
The modified sending-end voltage (Vs B), which is the shunt-compensating voltage with magni-
tude (Vs B) and phase-shift angle (ψ B), is generated for the B phase by implementing the following
equation:
Vs B = VB2 + VC2 + VA2
 6.6 ST with a Shunt-Compensating Voltage 525

I1A
Vs′A
0
V sA V1s′A
I1B
A1
V sB V1s′B
I1C
1

1.2
1.1

1.2
V sC C1 V1s′C

1
0
B1

Vs′B
0

A2

1.2
1.2

1
A

1.1
C2

1
B2
Vs′C

0
A3

B 1
1.1

C 1.2
1
1.2

C3
1
0

B3
0

Exciter Unit Compensating-Voltage Unit

Figure 6-90 Shunt-Shunt configuration of ST for the A phase, B phase, and C phase.

or

V s B ∠ψ B = K B2 V sB + K C2 V sC + K A2 V sA = K B2 e − j2π 3 V sA + K C2 e j2π 3
V sA + K A2 V sA 6-50
The modified sending-end voltage (Vs C), which is the shunt-compensating voltage with magni-
tude (Vs C) and phase-shift angle (ψ C), is generated for the C phase by implementing the following
equation:
Vs C = VC3 + VA3 + VB3
or

V s C ∠ψ C = K C3 V sC + K A3 V sA + K B3 V sB = K C3 e j2π 3 V sA + K A3 V sA + K B3 e − j2π 3 V sA
6-51
Using Equation (6-20) and replacing KA1, KB1, and KC1 with KB2, KC2, and KA2, respectively, it can
be written that

3 K A2 − K C2
V s B ∠ψ B = V sB K 2B2 + K 2C2 + K 2A2 − K B2 K C2 − K C2 K A2 − K A2 K B2 ∠ tan − 1
2K B2 − K C2 − K A2
6-52
526 6 Sen Transformer

Using Equation (6-20) and replacing KA1, KB1, and KC1 with KC3, KA3, and KB3, respectively, it can
be written that

3 K B3 − K A3
V s C ∠ψ C = V sC K 2C3 + K 2A3 + K 2B3 − K C3 K A3 − K A3 K B3 − K B3 K C3 ∠ tan − 1
2K C3 − K A3 − K B3
6-53

The compensating voltage Vs = Vdq = Vd + Vq), being at any phase angle with respect to the
prevailing line current (I), emulates a four-quadrant, shunt-compensating impedance (Zsh = Rsh −
jXsh). The active or direct component (Vd = Vd) of the compensating voltage provides the shunt
resistance emulation (Rsh = + R or − R), which can be expressed as

Vd = − Rsh I 6-54

The reactive or quadrature component (Vq = jVq) of the compensating voltage provides the shunt
reactance emulation (Xsh = XC or − XL), which can be expressed as

Vq = jX sh I 6-55

The effect of the impedance emulation is such that the line voltage can be modified to a specific
magnitude and phase angle.

6.7 Limited Angle Operation of the ST with Shunt-Compensating

Voltages

The ST requires the use of a three-phase transformer with three primary windings and nine sec-
ondary windings. The shunt-compensating voltage (Vs ) is of variable magnitude and variable
phase angle. However, in most instances, the capability of connecting a voltage in shunt with a line
within its entire range of 0 ≤ ψ ≤ 360 is not needed. The theoretical maximum range is
−90 ≤ ψ ≤90 . In this case, the circuit configuration for the full 0 ≤ ψ ≤ 360 range of operation
can be simplified to the “limited angle” configuration. Figures 6-91 through 6-93 show, through
transformer action, the generation of a line frequency, shunt-compensating voltage (Vs ), which
is of variable magnitude and operated within a limited angle.
Figure 6-91a shows that for the limited angle operation in the range 0 ≤ ψ ≤ 90 , the phase angle
of the shunt-compensating voltage (Vs ) with respect to the line voltage (Vs) can vary between 0
and 90 . The voltage at any point in the electrical system is applied to a shunt-connected three-
phase transformer’s primary windings. A total of six secondary windings (A1 and A2 on the core
of the A phase, B2 and B3 on the core of the B phase, and C3 and C1 on the core of the C phase)
constitute the limited angle Compensating-Voltage Unit. By choosing the number of turns from
each of the two windings, the compensating voltage in any phase is derived from the phasor
sum of the voltages induced in a two-phase winding set (A1 and C1 for connection in the A phase,
A2 and B2 for connection in the B phase, and B3 and C3 for connection in the C phase). Figure 6-91b
shows the operating points of the ST with a Shunt-Shunt configuration in the A, B, and C phases in
the range of 0 ≤ ψ ≤90ο.
 6.7 Limited Angle Operation of the ST with Shunt-Compensating Voltages 527

(a ) I1A
Vs′A
0
VsA I1B V1s′A
A1
VsB I1C V1s′B
1

1.2
1.1

1
VsC C1 V1s′C

0
Vs′B
0

A2

1
1.2
A

1.1
1
Vs′C B2

0
B
1 .1

C
1

C3
1.2
1
0

B3 0

Exciter Unit Compensating-Voltage Unit

ψA= 0° ψB = 120°
(b)

VA1 ψB = 90°
Upper Voltage
Limit
Vs′A Lower Voltage
Limit

VA2

ψA = 90°

V C1 VB2
V
B2

Vs′C Vs′B
ψB= 0°
ψA = 120°

ψC = 120°
ψC = 0°

VC3

ψC = 90°

Figure 6-91 (a) ST with shunt-connected Compensating-Voltage Unit operating in the range of 0 ≤ ψ ≤ 90 .
(b) Operating points of the ST with a Shunt-Shunt configuration in the A, B, and C phases in the range
of 0 ≤ ψ ≤ 90 .
528 6 Sen Transformer

(a) 1A
Vs′A
0
VsA I1B V1s′A
A1
VsB I1C V1s′B
1
1.1

1. 2
VsC V1s′C

1
B1

Vs′B

1.2
1
A C2

1.1
1
Vs′C B2

0
A3

B 1
1 .1

C 1.2
1

C3
0

Exciter Unit Compensating-Voltage Unit

(b)
ψC = 240° ψA = 0°

ψC = −90° VA1 Upper

Voltage
Vs′A Limit Lower
Voltage
Limit

VA3

ψA= −9 0°

VC3 V
B1

V C2

Vs′C
Vs′B
ψA = 240°
ψC = 0°

ψB = 0°
ψB = 240°

VB2

ψB = −90°

Figure 6-92 (a) ST with shunt-connected Compensating-Voltage Unit operating in the range of −90 ≤ ψ ≤0 .
(b) Operating points of the ST with a Shunt-Shunt configuration in the A, B, and C phases in the range
of −90 ≤ ψ ≤0 .
 6.7 Limited Angle Operation of the ST with Shunt-Compensating Voltages 529

The shunt-compensating voltages in the A, B, and C phases are defined from Equations (6-20),
(6-52), and (6-53) as

3 K C1
V s A ∠ψ A = V sA K 2A1 + K 2C1 − K C1 K A1 ∠ tan − 1 6-20a
2K A1 − K C1
3 K A2
V s B ∠ψ B = V sB K 2B2 + K 2A2 − K A2 K B2 ∠ tan − 1 6-52a
2K B2 − K A2
3 K B3
V s C ∠ψ C = V sC K 2C3 + K 2B3 − K B3 K C3 ∠ tan − 1 6-53a
2K C3 − K B3
where KA1 = KB2 = KC3 = x × LTC1 and KC1 = KA2 = KB3 = x × LTC3 are the active turns-ratios of the
secondary, shunt-compensating windings in the A, B, and C phases and the corresponding primary
windings; x is the voltage (for example 0.05 pu) across each tap in the LTC; LTC1 = 21 and LTC3 = 4
are the LTC tap settings for the three-phase operating point shown in Figure 6-91a.
Similarly, in an application in which there is a need to vary the phase-shift angle of the shunt-
compensating voltage (Vs ) in the range of −90 ≤ ψ ≤ 0 , a Compensating-Voltage Unit with only
six windings is needed as shown in Figure 6-92a. This is achieved by constructing the compensating
voltage from a combination of two voltages, each of which is induced in a separate winding of a two-
phase set (A1 and B1 for connection in the A phase, B2 and C2 for connection in the B phase, and A3
and C3 for connection in the C phase). Figure 6-92b shows the operating points of the ST with a
Shunt-Shunt configuration in the A, B, and C phases in the range of − 90 ≤ ψ ≤0ο.
The shunt-compensating voltages in the A, B, and C phases are defined from Equations (6-20),
(6-52), and (6-53) as

3 − K B1
V s A ∠ψ A = V sA K 2A1 + K 2B1 − K A1 K B1 ∠ tan − 1 6-20b
2K A1 − K B1
3 − K C2
V s B ∠ψ B = V sB K 2B2 + K 2C2 − K B2 K C2 ∠ tan − 1 6-52b
2K B2 − K C2
3 − K A3
V s C ∠ψ C = V sC K 2C3 + K 2A3 − K C3 K A3 ∠ tan − 1 6-53b
2K C3 − K A3

where KA1 = KB2 = KC3 = x × LTC1 and KB1 = KC2 = KA3 = x × LTC2 are the active turns-ratios of the
secondary, shunt-compensating windings in the A, B, and C phases and the corresponding primary
windings; x is the voltage (for example 0.05 pu) across each tap in the LTC; LTC1 = 21 and LTC2 = 4
are the LTC tap settings for the three-phase operating point shown in Figure 6-92a.
Perhaps, the most practical range of operation may be obtained by modifying the Shunt-Shunt
configuration that operates in the range of 120 ≤ ψ ≤240 with the polarities of the windings in the
shunt-connected Compensating-Voltage Unit reversed as shown in Figure 6-93a; the phase-shift
angle (ψ) of the shunt-compensating voltage (Vs ) now varies in the range of −60 ≤ ψ ≤ 60 .
The Compensating-Voltage Unit consists of only six windings as shown in Figure 6-93a. The
shunt-compensating voltage in each phase is a combination of two voltages, each of which is
induced in a separate winding of a two-phase set (B1 and C1 for connection in the A phase, C2
and A2 for connection in the B phase, and A3 and B3 for connection in the C phase). Figure
6-93b shows the operating points of the ST with a Shunt-Shunt configuration in the A, B, and C
phases in the range of −60 ≤ ψ ≤60 .
530 6 Sen Transformer

(a) I1A
Vs′A

VsA I1B V1s′A

VsB I1C V1s′B

1.2
1
1.2
VsC C1 V1s′C

1
0
B1
Vs′B
0

A2

1.2
1.2

1
C2

Vs′C

A3

B 1
C 1.2
1. 2
1

B3
0

Exciter Unit Compensating-Voltage Unit

(b)
ψA= 0°

VB1 Upper
Voltage
Limit
Lower
Voltage
Limit
ψA= 60° ψA= –60°

ψC = –60° ψB = 60°
Vs′A Vs′B

V C1
V
B3

VC2
VA2

ψC = 0° ψB = 0°

Vs′C
VA3

ψC = 60° ψB = –60°

Figure 6-93 (a) ST with shunt-connected Compensating-Voltage Unit operating in the range of
−60 ≤ ψ ≤60 . (b) Operating points of the ST with a Shunt-Shunt configuration in A, B, and C phases in the
range of −60 ≤ ψ ≤ 60 .
 6.8 MST with Shunt-Compensating Voltages 531

The shunt-compensating voltages in the A, B, and C phases are defined from Equations (6-20),
(6-52), and (6-53) as

3 K B1 − K C1
V s A ∠ψ A = V sA K 2B1 + K 2C1 − K B1 K C1 ∠ 180 + tan − 1 6-20c
K B1 + K C1
3 K C2 − K A2
V s B ∠ψ B = V sB K 2C2 + K 2A2 − K C2 K A2 ∠ 180 + tan − 1 6-52c
K C2 + K A2
3 K A3 − K B3
V s C ∠ψ C = V sC K 2A3 + K 2B3 − K A3 K B3 ∠ 180 + tan − 1 6-53c
K A3 + K B3
where KB1 = KC2 = KA3 = x × LTC2 and KC1 = KA2 = KB3 = x × LTC3 are the active turns-ratios of the
secondary, shunt-compensating windings in the A, B, and C phases and the corresponding primary
windings; x is the voltage (for example 0.05 pu) across each tap in the LTC; LTC2 = 21 and LTC3 = 4
are the LTC tap settings for the three-phase operating point shown in Figure 6-93a.

6.8 MST with Shunt-Compensating Voltages

An MST connects a compensating voltage in shunt with each line in a multiline transmission sys-
tem. In some special cases for point-to-point transfer of power between two isolated networks with
different voltages and/or phase angles, the use of the Shunt-Shunt power conversion may be the
preferred choice. In the MST configuration, shown in Figure 6-94, the line voltage (Vs) is applied
to a shunt-connected three-phase transformer’s Y-connected primary windings in the Exciter Unit.
In the Compensating-Voltage Unit 1, a total of nine secondary windings (A11, A12, and A13 on the
core of the A phase; B11, B12, and B13 on the core of the B phase; and C11, C12, and C13 on the core of
the C phase) derive a three-phase compensating voltage (V1s A, V1s B, and V1s C), each phase of
which is the phasor sum of the voltages induced in a three-winding set (A11, B11, and C11 for com-
pensating voltage in the A phase; A12, B12, and C12 for compensating voltage in the B phase; and A13,
B13, and C13 for compensating voltage in the C phase). By choosing the number of turns from each
of the three windings, and, therefore, the magnitudes of the components of the three 120 phase-
shifted induced voltages, the composite compensating voltage’s magnitude (V1s ) and the phase-
shift angle (ψ 1) with respect to the sending-end voltage (Vs) of the line can be selected.
In the Compensating-Voltage Unit 2, a total of nine secondary windings (A21, A22, and A23 on the
core of the A phase; B21, B22, and B23 on the core of the B phase; and C21, C22, and C23 on the core of
the C phase) derive a three-phase compensating voltage (V2s A, V2s B, and V2s C), each phase of
which is the phasor sum of the voltages induced in a three-winding set (A21, B21, and C21 for com-
pensating voltage in the A phase; A22, B22, and C22 for compensating voltage in the B phase; and A23,
B23, and C23 for compensating voltage in the C phase). By choosing the number of turns from each
of the three windings, and, therefore, the magnitudes of the components of the three 120 phase-
shifted induced voltages, the composite compensating voltage’s magnitude (V2s ) and the phase-
shift angle (ψ 2) with respect to the sending-end voltage (Vs) of the line can be selected.
It should be noted that in the Compensating-Voltage Unit 1, each of the windings (A11, B12, and
C13) is tapped at the same number of turns; each of the windings (B11, C12, and A13) is tapped at the
same number of turns; each of the windings (C11, A12, and B13) is tapped at the same number of
turns. However, the number of turns in the A11-B12-C13 set, B11-C12-A13 set, and C11-A12-B13 set can
be different from the other.
532 6 Sen Transformer

I I
V V V

A I V A I V
V
B B
I V I V
V C C

V V

V V

A A A

B B

C C

V V

B A A
C
B B

C C

Exciter Unit Compensating-Voltage Unit 1 Compensating-Voltage Unit 2

Figure 6-94 MST with shunt-connected Compensating-Voltage Units.

Similarly, in the Compensating-Voltage Unit 2, each of the windings (A21, B22, and C23) is tapped
at the same number of turns; each of the windings (B21, C22, and A23) is tapped at the same number
of turns; each of the windings (C21, A22, and B23) is tapped at the same number of turns. However,
the number of turns in the A21-B22-C23 set, B21-C22-A23 set, and C21-A22-B23 set can be different from
the other.
The compensating voltage (V1s ) in the Compensating-Voltage Unit 1 can be at any phase angle
with the prevailing line current (I1), which emulates a four-quadrant, compensating impedance in
shunt with the line 1. The compensating voltage (V2s ) in the Compensating-Voltage Unit 2 can be
at any phase angle with the prevailing line current (I2), which emulates a four-quadrant, compen-
sating impedance in shunt with the line 2. An emulated impedance (Z = Rsh − jXsh) in each line can
be a combination of a resistance (Rsh = + R or − R) and a reactance (Xsh = XC or − XL).
The operations of the Compensating-Voltage Units are such that the compensating voltage in the
“leader” line is at any phase angle with the line voltage, as well as the prevailing line current and
that in the “follower” line is of specific magnitude and phase angle, so that the active and reactive
powers from the “leader” line are transferred bidirectionally to the “follower” line. As discussed
earlier, the 120 range of operation of the PFC is often sufficient. The MST, in its simpler customized
configuration with a reduced amount of hardware, provides a limited angle (120 ) operation that
may be sufficient in the case of a point-to-point power transfer between two isolated networks with
possibly, different voltage and phase angle.

6.9 Generalized Sen Transformer

The Generalized Sen Transformer (GST), shown in Figure 6-95, can be used as an extension of the
MST that generates both the shunt- and series-compensating voltages in a single unit. The series-
compensating voltages serve as the PFCs that control the active and reactive power flows in each
line independently and transfer the active and reactive powers from one or more “leader” lines to
 6.10 Summary 533

Line 1

Line m

Line m + 1

Line m + n

Shunt Shunt Series Series

Compensator Compensator Compensator Compensator
1 m 1 n

Magnetic Link

Optical Links
Control Exciter
Unit

Figure 6-95 Generalized Sen Transformer (GST).

one or more “follower” lines. The shunt-compensating voltages connect the isolated networks with
different voltages and phase angles. Each of the compensating voltages is induced from an exciter
voltage through transformer action. Therefore, any mismatch of active and reactive powers
between various compensating voltages flows to the line that supplies the Exciter Unit of the GST.
Thus, the GST can

1) transfer the active and reactive powers between a number of transmission lines,
2) control the active and reactive power flows in each line selectively, and
3) interconnect transmission lines with different voltages and phase angles.

The dynamic performance of this technology is limited by the operational speed of the LTCs. The
mechanical LTCs are likely to be adequate for most utility applications. The dynamic performance
can be improved, when needed, by replacing the mechanical LTCs with faster switches.

6.10 Summary

The Sen Transformer (ST) is a power-regulating transformer that modifies the magnitude and
phase angle of the transmission line voltage, which results in the same independent control of
active and reactive power flows as the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC), albeit at a reduced
dynamic rate. The ST uses the newest reliable, cost-effective, and proven transformer and LTC-
based technology. Since the millisecond-range speed of operation is not essential in most utility
534 6 Sen Transformer

power flow applications, the low cost and the high efficiency of the ST becomes attractive when
compared with that of the Voltage-Sourced Converter (VSC)-based UPFC solution for the same
amount of power flow enhancement. The series-compensating voltage in both the ST and the UPFC
exchanges active and reactive powers with the line. In the case of the ST, these exchanged active and
reactive powers flow back and forth through the magnetic link to the Shunt Unit to the line. How-
ever, in the case of the UPFC, only the exchanged active power by the Series Unit flows back and
forth through the DC or AC link to the Shunt Unit to the line. Each of the series- and shunt-
connected VSCs in the UPFC is capable of generating or absorbing reactive power independently.
If this capability of supplying shunt reactive power is really needed, particularly when the short-
circuit impedance at the POC is high, a separate capacitor bank as a shunt reactive compensator
may be used along with the ST.
 535

Appendix A

Miscellaneous

A.1 Three-Phase Balanced Voltage, Current, and Power

Consider a three-phase balanced voltage,

vA = V p cos θ + φv A-1a
vB = V p cos θ + φv − 120 A-1b
vC = V p cos θ + φv + 120 A-1c

that supplies a three-phase balanced current,

iA = I p cos θ + φi A-2a
iB = I p cos θ + φi − 120 A-2b
iC = I p cos θ + φi + 120 A-2c

through a three-phase balanced impedance (Z) as shown in Figure A-1, where the amplitudes of
voltage and current in each phase are Vp and Ip, respectively, and Z = Z = V p I p . The system
angle (θ), angular frequency (ω), and time (t) are related as
θ = ωt A-3
The phase angles of voltage and current from the reference are φv and φi, respectively. The timing
diagrams for one cycle of balanced three-phase voltages and currents and the related phasor dia-
grams at the end of the cycle are shown in Figures A-2 and A-3, respectively. Note that the vertical
projections of the rotating phasors are their instantaneous values.
The instantaneous power in the A, B, and C phases are given by
pA = vA iA A-4a
pB = vB iB A-4b
pC = vC iC A-4c
From Equations (A-1a), (A-2a), and (A-4a), the A-phase instantaneous power is obtained, using
trigonometric identity cos θ + a cos θ + b = 12 cos 2θ + a + b + cos a − b , as
V pIp
pA = V p I p cos θ + φv cos θ + φi = cos 2θ + φv + φi + cos φv − φi A-5a
2

Power Flow Control Solutions for a Modern Grid using SMART Power Flow Controllers, First Edition.
Kalyan K. Sen and Mey Ling Sen.
© 2022 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/sen/powerflowcontrol
536 Appendix A

iA

vA Z

iA + iB + iC = 0

vC vB Z iB Z
iC

Figure A-1 Three-phase voltage source supplying currents to a balanced three-phase load.

vB vC vA
VP
VA

φv
ω

θ = ωt
0
180° 360°
VB
VC

–VP

Figure A-2 Balanced three-phase voltages in a timing diagram and the corresponding phasor diagram at the
end of the cycle.

iB iC iA
IP

IA
φi

θ = ωt ω IB
0
180° 360°

IC

–IP

Figure A-3 Balanced three-phase currents in a timing diagram and the corresponding phasor diagram at the
end of the cycle.
 Appendix A 537

Similarly, the B-phase instantaneous power is obtained from Equations (A-1b), (A-2b), and
(A-4b) as

pB = V p I p cos θ + φv − 120 cos θ + φi − 120

V pI p A-5b
= cos 2θ + φv + φi + 120 + cos φv − φi
2
Finally, the C-phase instantaneous power is obtained from Equations (A-1c), (A-2c), and
(A-4c) as

pC = V p I p cos θ + φv + 120 cos θ + φi + 120

V pIp A-5c
= cos 2θ + φv + φi − 120 + cos φv − φi
2
In each of the three preceding expressions, there exists a double-frequency (2θ = 2ωt) cosine term
V I
whose average value over its one period is zero. There also exists a fixed term, p2 p cos φv − φi .
Therefore, the three-phase average power (P) is the sum of three single-phase powers or three times
the single-phase power, which is given by
3 3
P= V p I p cos φv − φi = V p I p cos φ A-6
2 2
where the power factor angle is defined as
φ = φv − φi A-7
The three-phase average power (P), also referred to as active power (P), has a maximum possible
value of term 32 V p I p , and this maximum value is referred to as apparent power (S). The ratio
P S = cos φ is referred to as the power factor. The amount of power that can be taken out of
the apparent power without altering the active power is the reactive power, and it is given by
3 3
Q= S2 − P 2 = V pIp 1 − cos 2 φ = V p I p sin φ A-8
2 2
Also,
3 V p Ip
P= V p I p cos φ = 3 cos φ = 3V LNrms I rms cos φ
2 2 2 A-9
= 3 3V LNrms I rms cos φ = 3V LLrms I rms cos φ

where VLNrms and VLLrms are the line-to-neutral and line-to-line rms voltages, respectively, and Irms
is the line rms current.
Using Equations (A-6), (A-7), and (A-8), the expressions for the three-phase active power and
reactive power can be written in the form of real (Re) and imaginary (Im) components as
3 3 3 3
P= V p I p cos φv − φi = V p I p Re e j φv − φi = Re V p e jφv
I p e − jφi = Re V I∗
2 2 2 2
A-10
and
3 3 j φv − φi 3 3
Q= V p I p sin φv − φi = V p I p Im e = Im V p e jφv
I p e − jφi = Im V I∗
2 2 2 2
A-11
538 Appendix A

Using Equations (A-10) and (A-11), the expression for apparent power in its complex form can be
written as
3 3 3
S = P + jQ = Re V I∗ + j Im V I∗ = V I∗ A-12
2 2 2
Therefore, the expression for instantaneous apparent power in its complex form can be written as
s = p + jq A-13
(more derivations are given in Equations (A-86) and (A-88)).
The three-phase instantaneous active power is defined as
p = pA + pB + pC , A-14
which is also defined as
3
p= V p I p cos φ A-15
2
since the double-frequency cosine terms in Equations (A-5a), (A-5b), and (A-5c) are 120 apart and
their sum is zero. Using Equations (A-4a), (A-4b), and (A-4c), Equation (A-14) can also be written as
p = vA iA + vB iB + vC iC A-16

The three-phase instantaneous active power (p) has a maximum possible value of term 32 V p I p ,
and this maximum value is referred to as instantaneous apparent power (s). The amount of power
that can be taken out of the instantaneous apparent power without altering the instantaneous
active power is the instantaneous reactive power, and it is
3 3
q= s2 − p2 = V pIp 1 − cos 2 φ = V p I p sin φ A-17
2 2
(more derivations are given in Equations (A-87), (A-97), and (A-99)).
Note that when φ = 0, the load is at the unity power factor. In this case, the three-phase reactive
power is zero, and the three-phase active power is the same as the three-phase apparent power.
When φ = ±π 2, the load is at the zero power factor. In this case, the three-phase active power
is zero, and the three-phase reactive power is the same as the three-phase apparent power.
The analysis of balanced three-phase circuits is straightforward. The analysis of unbalanced
three-phase circuits that occur due to unbalanced line impedances, unbalanced loads, unbalanced
faults, or short circuits is, however, not so straightforward, but can be simplified with the concept of
symmetrical components.

A.2 Symmetrical Components

Any unbalanced three-phase variables, as illustrated in Figure A-4, can be resolved into two sets of
balanced three-phase variables and a set of single-phase variables. The three-phase variables in the
first set reach their respective peaks in the A-phase, B-phase, and C-phase in counterclockwise
sequence; therefore, this set is said to be in positive sequence. The three-phase variables in the sec-
ond set reach their peaks in the A-phase, C-phase, and B-phase in counterclockwise sequence;
therefore, this set is said to be in negative sequence. The variables in the third set overlap with each
other; therefore, this set is said to be in zero sequence.
 Appendix A 539

fA

FA
F0
fC FA–
fB
FA+
ω
FB+

θ = ωt F0
0 FB
180° 360° FB–

FC+ FC

F0
FC–

Figure A-4 Unbalanced three-phase variables in a timing diagram and the corresponding phasor diagram at
the end of the cycle.

Each phase variable consists of positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence components, such as
f A = f A + + f A− + f 0 A-18a
f B = f B + + f B− + f 0 A-18b
fC = fC + + fC− + f0 A-18c

where fA+, fB+, and fC+ are the positive-sequence components; fA−, fB−, and fC− are the negative-
sequence components; and f0 is the zero-sequence component of the three-phase variables A, B,
and C. The phase variable (f) can be voltage, current, flux, and so on.
In phasor form, the above three-phase variables (A-18a) to (A-18c) become
FA = FA + + FA − + F0 A-19a
FB = FB + + FB − + F0 A-19b
FC = FC + + FC − + F0 A-19c
Figure A-5 shows the balanced, three-phase, positive-sequence components in a timing diagram
for one cycle and the corresponding phasor diagram at the end of the cycle. The vertical projections
of the three rotating phasors are the instantaneous values of the three-phase variables.
The positive-sequence components can be related to each other with the help of a unit vector
operator (a) where a = e j120 , a2 = e j240 = e − j120 , and a3 = e j360 = 1. The B- and C-phase positive
sequence variables are expressed in terms of the positive sequence A-phase variable as

F B + = a2 F A + A-20a
FC + = aFA + A-20b
Figure A-6 shows the balanced, three-phase, negative-sequence components in a timing diagram
for one cycle and the corresponding phasor diagram at the end of the cycle. The vertical projections
of the three rotating phasors are the instantaneous values of the three-phase variables.
540 Appendix A

fB+ fC+ fA+

FP+

FA+
ω

θ = ωt FB+
0
180° 360°

FC+
–FP+

Figure A-5 Balanced three-phase, positive-sequence components in a timing diagram and the corresponding
phasor diagram at the end of the cycle.

fC– fB– fA– ω

FP–
FA–
θ = ωt FC–
0
180° 360°
FB–
–FP–

Figure A-6 Balanced three-phase, negative-sequence components in a timing diagram and the corresponding
phasor diagram at the end of the cycle.

3ω
f0
FP0
θ = 3ωt
0
180° 360°
–FP0
FA0 = FB0 = FC0 = F0

Figure A-7 Zero-sequence component in a timing diagram and the corresponding phasor diagram at the end
of the cycle.

The negative-sequence B- and C-phase components can be expressed in terms of the negative-
sequence A-phase component as
FB − = aFA − A-21a
2
FC − = a F A − A-21b
Figure A-7 shows the zero-sequence component in a timing diagram for one cycle and the cor-
responding phasor diagram at the end of the cycle. Three zero-sequence variables from the three
phases overlap with each other. The vertical projection of the rotating phasor is the instantaneous
value of the zero-sequence component.
 Appendix A 541

Therefore, the three-phase variables defined in Equations (A-19a) to (A-19c) can be rewritten as
FA = FA + + FA − + F0 A-22a
2
FB = a FA + + aFA − + F0 A-22b
FC = aFA + + a2 FA − + F0 A-22c
Keeping the expression for FA as it is and multiplying the expressions for FB and FC with a and a2,
respectively, Equations (A-22a) to (A-22c) become
FA = FA + + FA − + F0 A-23a
2
aFB = FA + + a FA − + aF0 A-23b
a2 FC = FA + + aFA − + a2 F0 A-23c

since a3 = e j360 = 1.
The addition of the above three equations results in

FA + aFB + a2 FC = 3FA + + FA − + a2 FA − + aFA − + F0 + aF0 + a2 F0 = 3FA +

A-24
since the sum of the three phasors that are 120 apart is zero.
Therefore, the positive-sequence component is found from the three phase variables as
1
FA + = FA + aFB + a2 FC A-25
3
Keeping the expression for FA as it is and multiplying the expressions for FB and FC with a2 and a,
respectively, Equations (A-22a) to (A-22c) become
FA = FA + + FA − + F0 A-26a
2 2
a FB = aFA + + FA − + a F0 A-26b
2
aFC = a FA + + FA − + aF0 A-26c

since a3 = e j360 = 1.
The addition of the above three equations results in

FA + a2 FB + aFC = FA + + aFA + + a2 FA + + 3FA − + F0 + a2 F0 + aF0 = 3FA −

A-27
Therefore, the negative-sequence component is found to be
1
FA − = FA + a2 FB + aFC A-28
3
Simply by adding the expressions for FA, FB, and FC, Equations (A-22a) to (A-22c) become

FA + FB + FC = FA + + a2 FA + + aFA + + FA − + aFA − + a2 FA − + 3F0 = 3F0

A-29
Therefore, the zero-sequence component is found to be
1
F0 = FA + FB + FC A-30
3
542 Appendix A

The following is an example of decomposing an unbalanced set of phasors, shown in Figure A-4,
into three balanced sets of phasors as shown in Figures A-5, A-6, and A-7.
The unbalanced set of phasors, as shown in Figure A-4, are given by
FA = 1 625 ∠ 28 35 = 1 43 + j0 7716
FB = 0 6928 ∠ − 77 77 = 0 14676 − j0 6771
FC = 0 9013 ∠ − 161 32 = − 0 85382 − j0 2888
From Equation (A-25), the A-phase, positive-sequence component is given by
1
FA + = FA + aFB + a2 FC or
3
1
FA + = 1 625 ∠ 28 35 + e j120
0 6928 ∠ − 77 77 + e j240
0 9013 ∠ − 161 32 or
3
1 j 28 35 j − 77 77 + 120 j − 161 32 + 240
FA + = 1 625e + 0 6928e + 0 9013e or
3
1 j 28 35 j 42 23
FA + = 1 625e + 0 6928e + 0 9013e j 78 68
3
or in Cartesian form
1
FA + = 1 43 + j0 7716 + − 0 5 + j0 866 0 14676 − j0 6771
3
+ − 0 5 − j0 866 − 0 85382 − j0 2888
Therefore,
1
FA + = FA + aFB + a2 FC = 1 ∠ 45 = 0 7071 + j0 7071
3
as shown in Figures A-5 and A-8.

fA = fA+ + fA– + f0
FA
F0
fA+ + fA–
FA–

fA+

FA+ ω

θ = ωt
0 FB
180° 360°

FC

Figure A-8 A-phase, positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence components in a timing diagram and the
corresponding phasor diagram at the end of the cycle.
 Appendix A 543

From Equations (A-20a) and (A-20b), the B- and C-phase, positive-sequence components are
given by

FB + = a2 FA + = 1 ∠ 240 × 1 ∠ 45 = 1 ∠ 285 = 0 2588 − j0 9659

as shown in Figures A-5 and A-9 and
FC + = aFA + = 1 ∠ 120 × 1 ∠ 45 = 1 ∠ 165 = − 0 9659 + j0 2588
as shown in Figures A-5 and A-10.
The three phasors are of the same magnitude and 120 apart from each other. Since their sum is
zero, they are balanced. Since the A phase leads the B phase and the B phase leads the C phase, the
phasors are in positive sequence.
From Equation (A-28), the A-phase, negative-sequence component is given by
1
FA − = FA + a2 FB + aFC or
3

FA

fB = fB+ + fB– + f0 fB+ + fB– fB+ FB+

θ = ωt FB–
0 FB F0
180° 360°

FC

Figure A-9 B-phase positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence components in a timing diagram and the
corresponding phasor diagram at the end of the cycle.

FA
fC+ + fC–

fC = fC+ + fC– + f0 fC+

θ = ωt FB
0
180° 360°

FC+ FC

FC– F0

Figure A-10 C-phase positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence components in a timing diagram and the
corresponding phasor diagram at the end of the cycle.
544 Appendix A

1
FA − = 1 625 ∠ 28 35 + e j240 0 6928 ∠ − 77 77 + e j120 0 9013 ∠ − 161 32 or
3
1
FA − = 1 625e j 28 35 + 0 6928e j − 77 77 + 240 + 0 9013e j − 161 32 + 120 or
3
1
FA − = 1 625e j 28 35 + 0 6928e j 162 23 + 0 9013e j − 41 32
3
or in Cartesian form
1
FA − = 1 43 + j0 7716 + − 0 5 − j0 866 0 14676 − j0 6771 + − 0 5 + j0 866 − 0 85382 − j0 2888
3
Therefore,
1
FA − = FA + a2 FB + aFC = 0 5 ∠ 15 = 0 48296 + j0 1294
3
as shown in Figures A-6 and A-8.
From Equations (A-21a) and (A-21b), the B- and C-phase, negative-sequence components are
given by
FB − = aFA − = 1 ∠ 120 × 0 5 ∠ 15 = 0 5 ∠ 135 = − 0 3535 + j0 3535
as shown in Figures A-6 and A-9,

FC − = a2 FA − = 1 ∠ 240 × 0 5 ∠ 15 = 0 5 ∠ 255 = − 0 1294 − j0 4829

as shown in Figures A-6 and A-10.
The three phasors are of the same magnitude and 120 apart from each other. Since their sum is
zero, they are balanced. Since the A phase leads the C phase and the C phase leads the B phase, the
phasors are in negative sequence.
From Equation (A-30), the A-phase, zero-sequence component is given by
1
F0 = FA + FB + F C
3
1
= 1 43 + j0 7716 + 0 14676 − j0 6771 − 0 85382 − j0 2888
3
= 0 241 − j0 064 = 0 25 ∠ − 15
as shown in Figures A-7, A-8, A-9, and A-10.
The zero-sequence phasors in the three phases are of the same magnitude and they overlap.

A.3 Separation of Positive-, Negative-, and Zero-Sequence Components

in a Multiple Frequency Composite Variable

Inverter-Based Resources (IBRs) are an integral part of the modern grid. The IBRs generate mul-
tiple frequencies from the Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) operation of the switching devices. The
various frequency signals, which are of positive, negative, and zero sequences, appear in the control
circuit in the form of feedback signals through the sensors. The various control algorithms that are
used in IBRs are implemented in a positive-sequence, fundamental frequency reference frame,
which is also called a synchronously rotating reference frame. In this reference frame, any posi-
tive-sequence and fundamental frequency variable gets converted into a DC value. Any other pos-
itive- or negative-sequence component at any frequency gets converted into an oscillating
 Appendix A 545

component. For example, a fundamental frequency, negative-sequence component gets converted

into an oscillating component of − 1 − 1 = −2, i.e. 2nd harmonic, rotating clockwise; a 5th har-
monic component, which is a negative-sequence component, gets converted into an oscillating
component of − 5 − 1 = −6, i.e. 6th harmonic, rotating clockwise; a 7th harmonic component,
which is a positive-sequence component, gets converted into an oscillating component of
7 − 1 = +6, i.e. 6th harmonic, rotating counterclockwise; and so on. These non-fundamental com-
ponents must be filtered out before entering into the control algorithm, since the control algorithm
is implemented in a positive-sequence, fundamental frequency reference frame. If not filtered, the
non-fundamental components will produce unwanted reference signals. The zero-sequence com-
ponents also need to be filtered out. If needed, the zero-sequence components need to be treated
separately, since their frequencies are odd triple n, meaning n = 3 × 2k + 1 where k = 0, 1, 2…,
which are different from other frequencies, such as (6k ± 1) where k = 0, 1, 2… that are present in
the PWM waveform.
The zero-sequence component (f0) is given by

1
f0 = f + fB + fC A-31
3 A
Therefore, the three-phase variables that consist of positive- and negative-sequence components
only are given by

f A = f A − f 0 = f A + + f A− A-32a
f B = f B − f 0 = f B + + f B− A-32b
fC = fC − f0 = fC + + fC− A-32c

Consider the previous example with the same frequency positive- and negative-sequence
components, but with a triple fundamental frequency, zero-sequence component as shown in
Figure A-11.
The timing diagram for one cycle of a set of unbalanced three-phase variables that consist of
positive-, negative-, and triple fundamental frequency zero-sequence components and the corre-
sponding phasor diagram at the end of the cycle are shown in Figure A-12.
The A-B-C three-phase variables positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence components in three
phases are shown in Figures A-13 through A-15, respectively.
The three-phase variables (fA , fB , and fC ) can be used in conjunction with a vector PLL, as dis-
cussed in Chapter 3, to calculate the PLL angle (θ) that is the angle of the positive-sequence com-
ponent (fA+). The amplitude (F) consists of two components: a DC component for the positive-
sequence amplitude (F+) and a double-frequency component for the negative-sequence amplitude
(F−), rotating in the opposite direction as just discussed. The amplitude of the positive-sequence

3ω
f0
FP0
θ = 3ωt
0
–FP0
FA0 = FB0 = FC0 = F0

Figure A-11 Triple frequency, zero-sequence component in a timing diagram and the corresponding phasor
diagram at the end of the cycle.
546 Appendix A

FA
fA F0

fC FA−

fB FA+
ω
FB+
θ = ωt
0 FB F0
FB−
180° 360°

FC
FC+

F0
FC−

Figure A-12 Unbalanced three-phase variables in a timing diagram and the corresponding phasor diagram at
the end of the cycle.

fA++ fA−
F0
FA− FA
fA+

FA+ ω

θ = ωt
0 FB
180° 360°

FC

fA = fA++ fA−+ f0

Figure A-13 A-phase positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence components in a timing diagram and the
corresponding phasor diagram at the end of the cycle.

FA

fB+

fB+ + fB− FB+

θ = ωt FB–
0 FB F0
180° 360°

FC
fB = fB+ + fB− + f0

Figure A-14 B-phase positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence components in a timing diagram and the
corresponding phasor diagram at the end of the cycle.
 Appendix A 547

FA
fC+ + fC−

θ = ωt
0 FB
180° 360°
fC+

FC
FC+
FC− F0
fC = fC+ + fC− + f0

Figure A-15 C-phase positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence components in a timing diagram and the
corresponding phasor diagram at the end of the cycle.

component can be segregated using a filter (further discussed later). Once the positive-sequence
component is determined from its amplitude and angle, it can be subtracted from the three-phase
variables (fA , fB , and fC ) to calculate the negative-sequence component. A composite variable that
consists of positive- and negative-sequence components with multiple frequencies can be analyzed
in various rotating reference frames, such as fundamental negative sequence, 5th harmonic (a neg-
ative-sequence component), 7th harmonic (a positive-sequence component), and so on to convert
the amplitude of a particular frequency component into DC. All other frequency components can
be filtered to isolate the DC component of interest. Each rotating reference frame can isolate one
particular frequency component.

A.4 Three-Phase Unbalanced Voltage, Current, and Power

Consider a three-phase unbalanced voltage

vA = vA + + vA − + v0 = V p + cos θ + φv + + V p − cos θ + φv − + v0 A-33a
vB = vB + + vB − + v0 = V p + cos θ + φv + − 120 + V p − cos θ + φv − + 120 + v0
A-33b
vC = vC + + vC − + v0 = V p + cos θ + φv + + 120 + V p − cos θ + φv − − 120 + v0
A-33c
is supplying a three-phase unbalanced current
iA = iA + + iA − + i0 = I p + cos θ + φi + + I p − cos θ + φi − + i0 A-34a
iB = iB + + iB − + i0 = I p + cos θ + φi + − 120 + I p − cos θ + φi − + 120 + i0
A-34b
iC = iC + + iC − + i0 = I p + cos θ + φi + + 120 + I p − cos θ + φi − − 120 + i0
A-34c
548 Appendix A

iA

vA ZA

iA + iB + iC = i0

Z0

vC vB ZC iB ZB
iC

Figure A-16 Three-phase voltage source supplying three-phase unbalanced load.

through a three-phase impedance (ZA, ZB, and ZC) as shown in Figure A-16. The amplitudes of the
positive-sequence voltage and current in each phase are Vp+ and Ip+, respectively. The amplitudes
of the negative-sequence voltage and current in each phase are Vp− and Ip−, respectively. The zero-
sequence voltage and current in each phase are v0 and i0, respectively.
In the case of a three-phase, four-wire system, a zero-sequence current (i0) can be expressed from
Equations (A-34a) to (A-34c) as
1
i0 = iA + iB + iC A-35
3
This current flows through a zero-sequence impedance to the neutral of the source. In the case of
a three-phase, three-wire system, there is no path for zero-sequence current (i0) to flow as shown in
Figure A-1. Therefore,
iA + iB + iC = 0 A-36
A zero-sequence voltage builds up between the neutral of the load and that of the source. The
zero-sequence voltage can be expressed from Equations (A-33a) to (A-33c) as
1
v0 = vA + vB + vC A-37
3
The three-phase instantaneous power is defined as
p = pA + pB + pC A-14
where
pA = vA iA = vA + + vA − + v0 × iA + + iA − + i0
= V p + cos θ + φv + + V p − cos θ + φv − + v0 A-38a
× I p + cos θ + φi + + I p − cos θ + φi − + i0

from Equations (A-33a) and (A-34a),

pB = vB iB = vB + + vB − + v0 × iB + + iB − + i0
= V p + cos θ + φv + − 120 + V p − cos θ + φv − + 120 + v0 A-38b
× I p + cos θ + φi + − 120 + I p − cos θ + φi − + 120 + i0
 Appendix A 549

from Equations (A-33b) and (A-34b),

pC = vC iC = vC + + vC − + v0 × iC + + iC − + i0
= V p + cos θ + φv + + 120 + V p − cos θ + φv − − 120 + v0 A-38c
× I p + cos θ + φi + + 120 + I p − cos θ + φi − − 120 + i0

from Equations (A-33c) and (A-34c).

The instantaneous powers in the A phase due to positive-sequence voltage and positive-, nega-
tive-, and zero-sequence currents are given by
V p + Ip +
vA + iA + = cos 2θ + φv + + φi + + cos φv + − φi + A-39a
2
V p + Ip −
vA + iA − = cos 2θ + φv + + φi − + cos φv + − φi − A-39b
2
vA + i0 = V p + cos θ + φv + i0 A-39c

The instantaneous powers in the A phase due to negative-sequence voltage and positive-, nega-
tive-, and zero-sequence currents are given by
V p − Ip +
vA − iA + = cos 2θ + φv − + φi + + cos φv − − φi + A-40a
2
V p − Ip −
vA − iA − = cos 2θ + φv − + φi − + cos φv − − φi − A-40b
2
vA − i0 = V p − cos θ + φv − i0 A-40c

The instantaneous powers in the A phase due to zero-sequence voltage and positive-, negative-,
and zero-sequence currents are given by
v0 iA + = v0 I p + cos θ + φi + A-41a
v0 iA − = v0 I p − cos θ + φi − A-41b
v0 i0 = v0 i0 A-41c
The instantaneous powers in the B phase due to positive-sequence voltage and positive-, negative-,
and zero-sequence currents are given by
V p + Ip +
vB + iB + = cos 2θ + φv + + φi + + 120 + cos φv + − φi + A-42a
2
V p + Ip −
vB + iB − = cos 2θ + φv + + φi − + cos φv + − φi − + 120 A-42b
2
vB + i0 = V p + cos θ + φv + − 120 i0 A-42c

The instantaneous powers in the B phase due to negative-sequence voltage and positive-,
negative-, and zero-sequence currents are given by

V p − Ip +
vB − iB + = cos 2θ + φv − + φi + + cos φv − − φi + − 120 A-43a
2
V p − Ip −
vB − iB − = cos 2θ + φv − + φi − − 120 + cos φv − − φi − A-43b
2
vB − i0 = V p − cos θ + φv − + 120 i0 A-43c
550 Appendix A

The instantaneous powers in the B phase due to zero-sequence voltage and positive-, negative-,
and zero-sequence currents are given by
v0 iB + = v0 I p + cos θ + φi + − 120 A-44a
v0 iB − = v0 I p − cos θ + φi − + 120 A-44b
v0 i0 = v0 i0 A-44c
The instantaneous powers in the C phase due to positive-sequence voltage and positive-,
negative-, and zero-sequence currents are given by
V p + Ip +
vC + iC + = cos 2θ + φv + + φi + − 120 + cos φv + − φi + A-45a
2
V p + Ip −
vC + iC − = cos 2θ + φv + + φi − + cos φv + − φi − − 120 A-45b
2
vC + i0 = V p + cos θ + φv + + 120 i0 A-45c

The instantaneous powers in the C phase due to negative-sequence voltage and positive-,
negative-, and zero-sequence currents are given by
V p − Ip +
vC − iC + = cos 2θ + φv − + φi + + cos φv − − φi + + 120 A-46a
2
V p − Ip −
vC − iC − = cos 2θ + φv − + φi − + 120 + cos φv − − φi − A-46b
2
vC − i0 = V p − cos θ + φv − − 120 i0 A-46c

The instantaneous powers in the C phase due to zero-sequence voltage and positive-, negative-,
and zero-sequence currents are given by
v0 iC + = v0 I p + cos θ + φi + + 120 A-47a
v0 iC − = v0 I p − cos θ + φi − − 120 A-47b
v0 i0 = v0 i0 A-47c
The three-phase power due to positive-sequence voltage and positive-, negative-, and zero-
sequence currents are given by

3
p+ = vA + iA + + vB + iB + + vC + iC + = V p + I p + cos φv + − φi + A-48a
2
3
p+ − = vA + iA − + vB + iB − + vC + iC − = V p + I p − cos 2θ + φv + + φi − A-48b
2
p+ 0 = vA + i0 + vB + i0 + vC + i0 = 0 A-48c

The three-phase power due to negative-sequence voltage and positive-, negative-, and zero-
sequence currents are given by
3
p− + = vA − iA + + vB − iB + + vC − iC + = V p − I p + cos 2θ + φv − + φi + A-48d
2
3
p − = vA − iA − + vB − iB − + vC − iC − = V p − I p − cos φv − − φi − A-48e
2
p − 0 = vA − i0 + vB − i0 + vC − i0 = 0 A-48f
 Appendix A 551

The three-phase power due to zero-sequence voltage and positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence
currents are given by
p 0 + = v0 i A + + v0 i B + + v0 i C + = 0 A-48g
p0 − = v0 iA − + v0 iB − + v0 iC − = 0 A-48h
p0 = v0 i0 + v0 i0 + v0 i0 = 3v0 i0 A-48i
Therefore, the three-phase instantaneous power is given by
p = p + + p − + p + − + p − + + p0
3 3
= V p + I p + cos φv + − φi + + V p − I p − cos φv − − φi −
2 2
3 3
+ V p + I p − cos 2θ + φv + + φi − + V p − I p + cos 2θ + φv − + φi + + 3v0 i0
2 2
A-49
The first and second terms in Equation (A-49) are time-invariant fixed terms. The third and
fourth terms are time-variant, double-frequency cosine terms. The fifth term is time-variant and
is contributed by zero-sequence voltage and current. It is important to note that the sufficient con-
dition for a time-variant, double-frequency cosine term to exist is the presence of the negative-
sequence term in voltage or current.

A.5 d-q Transformation (3-Phase System, Transformed into d-q axes;

d-axis Is the Active Component and q-axis Is the Reactive Component)

A set of three instantaneous phase variables that sum to zero are referred to as a balanced three-
phase set of either positive sequence or negative sequence as described before. A positive-sequence
set can be represented as the projections of three equal-length rotating phasors that are 120 apart
(shown in Figure A-17a) on a stationary reference frame as explained earlier. These instantaneous

(a) (b)
+A axis

ω F+
FA+ fA+
ωt
fC+
FB+
fB+

FC+ xis +C
a axi
+B s

Figure A-17 Representation of three-phase, positive-sequence variables in (a) a phasor diagram, and (b) a
vector diagram.
552 Appendix A

values can also be represented as the projections of a rotating vector upon three stationary axes that
are 120 apart as shown in Figure A-17b. Figure A-17b shows F+ as a positive-sequence spatial
vector rotating in the counterclockwise direction. The projections of F+ on the stationary A, B,
and C axes are the positive-sequence instantaneous phase variables.
A negative-sequence set can be represented as the projections of three equal length rotating pha-
sors that are 120 apart (shown in Figure A-18a) on a stationary reference frame. These instanta-
neous values can also be represented as the projections of a rotating vector upon three stationary
axes that are 120 apart as shown in Figure A-18b. Figure A-18b shows F− as a negative-sequence
spatial vector, rotating in the clockwise direction. The projections of F− on the stationary A, B, and
C axes are the negative-sequence instantaneous phase variables.
The conversion of the A-B-C stationary variables into the d-q rotating frames is a two-step proc-
ess. First, the positive and negative-sequence variables are converted into their equivalent d-q sta-
tionary variables, denoted by subscript s, assuming that the d axis is aligned with the A axis as
shown in Figure A-19a. Second, these d-q stationary variables are rotated counterclockwise from
their original position with an arbitrary angular speed of ωa rad/s as shown in Figure A-19b.
The three-phase set of variables
f A = f A + + f A− + f 0 A-18a
f B = f B + + f B− + f 0 A-18b
fC = fC + + fC− + f0 A-18c

can be defined as projections of fds and fqs on the A-B-C axes as

f A = f ds + f 0 A-50a
1 3
f B = cos 120 f ds + cos 30 f qs + f 0 = − f + f + f0 A-50b
2 ds 2 qs
1 3
f C = cos 120 f ds + cos 150 f qs + f 0 = − f − f + f0 A-50c
2 ds 2 qs
+ A axis

(a) (b)

ω
ωt
FA− f F−
FC− A−
f
B−
fC−
FB−
xis +C
a axi
+B s

Figure A-18 Representation of three-phase, negative-sequence variables in (a) a phasor diagram and (b) a
vector diagram.
 Appendix A 553

(a) (b)

+ds axis

+ds axis
+A axis

xis
+d a
F− fA
F ωat
F+
fC
+qs axis fB +qs axis
ωat

xis
+q a
s +C
axi axi
+B s

Figure A-19 Conversion of A, B, and C stationary variables into (a) d-q stationary and (b) d-q rotating frames.

In matrix form,
1 0 1
fA f ds
1 3
− 1 f qs
fB = 2 2 × A-51a
fC 1 3
− − 1 f0
2 2
and
1 1
1 − −
f ds 2 2 fA
2 3 3
f qs = − × fB A-51b
3 0 2 2
f0 1 1 1 fC
2 2 2
From Equation (A-51b), it can be written that
2 1 1
f ds = f − f − f A-52a
3 A 2 B 2 C
2 3 3
f qs = fB − f A-52b
3 2 2 C
2 1 1 1
f0 = f + f + f A-52c
3 2 A 2 B 2 C
The above set of equations can be combined as
f s = f ds + jf qs + f 0
2 1 3 1 3 1
= fA + − fB + j f + − fC −j f + f + fB + fC
3 2 2 B 2 2 C 3 A
2
fs = f + af B + a2 f C + f 0
3 A
554 Appendix A

where a = ej120 and a2 = ej240 = e−j120 or

2
fs = fs − f0 = f + a f B + a2 f C A-53
3 A

Note that f s is a space vector, such as an airgap flux in an induction machine.

The relationship between the arbitrarily rotating d-q reference frame at ωa rad/s, denoted by sub-
script a, and the stationary d-q reference frame, as shown in Figure A-18b, is defined as

f ds = f da cos ωa t − f qa sin ωa t A-54a

and

f qs = f da sin ωa t + f qa cos ωa t A-54b

This relationship in matrix form is given by

f ds cos ωa t − sin ωa t f da
= × A-55a
f qs sin ωa t cos ωa t f qa

and

f da cos ωa t sin ωa t f ds
= × A-55b
f qa − sin ωa t cos ωa t f qs

The complete relationship including the zero-sequence component is given by

f da cos ωa t sin ωa t 0 f ds
f qa = − sin ωa t cos ωa t 0 × f qs A-56
f0 0 0 1 f0

From Equations (A-56) and (A-51b), the A-B-C phase variables can be converted into their equiv-
alent d-q variables in an arbitrarily rotating reference frame as
1 1
1 − −
f da cos ωa t sin ωa t 0 2 2 fA
2 3 3
f qa = − sin ωa t cos ωa t 0 − × fB
3 0 2 2
f0 0 0 1 1 1 1 fC
2 2 2
The above equation can be written in another form as

f da cos ωa t cos ωa t − 120 cos ωa t + 120 fA

f qa =
2 − sin ωa t − sin ωa t − 120 − sin ωa t + 120 × fB A-57
3 1 1 1
f0 2 2 2 fC

From Equation (A-57), it can be written that

2
f da = f A cos ωa t + f B cos ωa t − 120 + f C cos ωa t − 120 A-58a
3
 Appendix A 555

2
f qa = − f A sin ωa t − f B sin ωa t − 120 − f C sin ωa t − 120 A-58b
3
2 1 1 1
f0 = f + f + f A-58c
3 2 A 2 B 2 C
The above set of equations can be combined as

f A cos ωa t − j sin ωa t +
2
f a = f da + j f qa + f0 = f B cos ωa t − 120 − j sin ωa t − 120 +
3
f C cos ωa t + 120 − j sin ωa t + 120
2 1 1 1
+ f + f + f
3 2 A 2 B 2 C
or

f A e − jωa t +
2 f B e − j ωa t − 120 + 1
f a = f da + j f qa + f 0 = + f + fB + fC
3 3 A
f C e − j ωa t + 120

or
2
fa = f + a f B + a2 f C e − jωa t + f 0
3 A
where a = ej120 and a2 = ej240 = e−j120 , or

f a − f 0 = f s e − jωa t with a substitution from Equation (A-53)

or

f a = f s e − jωa t A-59a

or

f dq = f s e − jωa t A-59b

or
f dq = f d + j f q A-59c

where fdq is a space vector, f s, which is rotating at ωa rad/s as defined in Equation (A-59b). This is
called d-q transformation. Note that fd and fq are orthogonal components in d-q reference frame.
The following matrix is called Park’s original transformation matrix. It represents the projections
of the stationary A-B-C axes on to the rotating d-q axes:
cos ωa t cos ωa t − 120 cos ωa t + 120
P =
2 − sin ωa t − sin ωa t − 120 − sin ωa t + 120 A-60
3 1 1 1
2 2 2
556 Appendix A

The inverse of Park’s original transformation matrix is given by

cos ωa t − sin ωa t 1
−1
P = cos ωa t − 120 − sin ωa t − 120 1 A-61
cos ωa t + 120 − sin ωa t + 120 1

A.5.1 Conversion of a Variable Containing Positive-, Negative-, and Zero-Sequence

Components into d-q Frame
Consider a three-phase set of variables that consist of positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence com-
ponents as

f A = f A + + f A − + f 0 = F p + cos θ + φf + + F p − cos θ + φf − + f0 A-62a

f B = f B + + f B − + f 0 = F p + cos θ + φf + − 120 + F p − cos θ + φf − + 120 + f0

A-62b

f C = f C + + f C − + f 0 = F p + cos θ + φf + + 120 + F p − cos θ + φf − − 120 + f0

A-62c
Then, the relationship between the d-q-0 variables in an arbitrarily rotating reference frame and
A-B-C phase variables is given by

f da fA f A + + f A− + f 0 fA+ f A−

f qa = P × fB = P × f B + + f B− + f 0 = P × fB+ + P × f B−

f0 fC fC + + fC− + f0 fC + fC−
f0

+ P × f0

f0
A-63

But,

fA+ cos ωa t cos ωa t − 120 cos ωa t + 120

P fB+ =
2 − sin ωa t − sin ωa t − 120 − sin ωa t + 120
3 1 1 1
fC + 2 2 2
F p + cos θ + φf +
A-64

× F p + cos θ + φf + − 120

F p + cos θ + φf + + 120
 Appendix A 557

Substituting θ = ωt from Equation (A-3), it is given by

cos ωa t cos ωt + φf + + cos ωa t − 120 cos ωt + φf + − 120 +

cos ωa t + 120 cos ωt + φf + + 120

f A+
2
P fB+ = Fp + − sin ωa t cos ωt + φf + − sin ωa t −120 cos ωt + φf + −120
3
fC+
− sin ωa t + 120 cos ωt + φf + + 120

1
cos ωt + φf + + cos ωt + φf + −120 + cos ωt + φf + + 120
2

cos ω + ωa t + φf + + cos ω −ωa t + φf + + cos ω + ωa t + φf + − 240 +

cos ω−ωa t + φf + + cos ω + ωa t + φf + + 240 + cos ω −ωa t + φf +

1
= Fp + − sin ω + ωa t + φf + + sin ω−ωa t + φf + − sin ω + ωa t + φf + −240 +
3

sin ω− ωa t + φf + − sin ω + ωa t + φf + + 240 + sin ω−ωa t + φf +

cos ω− ωa t + φf +
= Fp + sin ω− ωa t + φf +
0
A-65
Therefore,

f A− cos ωa t cos ωa t − 120 cos ωa t + 120

P f B− =
2 − sin ωa t − sin ωa t − 120 − sin ωa t + 120
3 1 1 1
fC− 2 2 2

F p − cos θ + φf −

× F p − cos θ + φf − + 120 A-66

F p − cos θ + φf − − 120
558 Appendix A

Substituting θ = ωt from Equation (A-3), it is given by

cos ωa t cos ωt + φf − + cos ωa t −120 cos ωt + φf − + 120 +

f A− cos ωa t + 120 cos ωt + φf − −120

2
P f B− = F p− − sin ωa t cos ωt + φf − − sin ωa t −120 cos ωt + φf − + 120 −
3
f C− sin ωa t + 120 cos ωt + φf − −120
1
cos ωt + φf − + cos ωt + φf − + 120 + cos ωt + φf − −120
2

cos ω + ωa t + φf − + cos ω + ωa t + φf − + cos ω + ωa t + φf − +

cos ω−ωa t + φf − + 240 + cos ω + ωa t + φf − + cos ω−ωa t + φf − −240

1
= F p− − sin ω + ωa t + φf − + sin ω−ωa t + φf − − sin ω + ωa t + φf − +
3

sin ω−ωa t + φf − + 240 − sin ω + ωa t + φf − + sin ω−ωa t + φf − −240

cos ω + ωa t + φ f −

= F p− − sin ω + ωa t + φ f −

0
A-67
Therefore,

f0 cos ωa t + cos ωa t − 120 + cos ωa t + 120 f0 0

P f0 =
2 − sin ωa t + sin ωa t − 120 + sin ωa t + 120 f0 = 0
3
1
f0 3f f0
2 0
A-68
Then, it can be written from Equation (A-60) that
f da fA+ fA− f0
f qa = P × fB+ + P × f B− + P × f0
f0 fC + fC− f0
A-69
F p + cos ω − ωa t + φ f + + F p − cos ω + ωa t + φ f −

= F p + sin ω − ωa t + φ f − F p − sin ω + ωa t + φ f −
+

f0
with substitutions from Equations (A-65), (A-67), and (A-68).
 Appendix A 559

When ωa = ω, meaning that the rotating reference frame is synchronous with the system angular
frequency, Equation (A-69) becomes

fd F p + cos φf + + F p − cos 2ωt + φf −

fq = F p + sin φf − F p − sin 2ωt + φf − A-70

+
f0
f0

Throughout the book, the phase-locked loop is derived from the phase-to-neutral voltage with
cosine reference. That means A-phase voltage is at its peak when φv + = 0. If the A-B-C line voltages
are converted into their equivalent d-q variables in the synchronously rotating reference frame,
Equation (A-70) can be rewritten as

vd V p + + V p − cos 2ωt + φv −
vq = − V p − sin 2ωt + φv − A-71
v0 v0

If the phase current is at an angle (φi+) with respect to the phase-to-neutral voltage, Equation
(A-70) can be rewritten as

id I p + cos φi + + I p − cos 2ωt + φi −

iq = I p + sin φi + − I p − sin 2ωt + φi − A-72
i0 i0

In the synchronously rotating reference frame, the positive-sequence, fundamental component

turns into a DC value as described in Section A.3. The d-q components of the fundamental line
voltage are Vp+ and 0, respectively. The rotating d-axis voltage contains a DC component that is
the amplitude of the original A-B-C variables. The rotating q-axis voltage contains no DC compo-
nent under a steady-state condition. The d-q components of the fundamental line current are Ip+
cos(φi+) and Ip+ sin(φi+). In addition, the rotating d- and q-axes components contain a double-
frequency component whose amplitude is the same as that of the negative-sequence fundamental
component in the original variables. The reason for the existence of the double-frequency, negative-
sequence component in the d-q frame is because the negative-sequence fundamental component
rotates at twice the angular speed in the opposite direction of the synchronously rotating reference
frame. It is quite easy to eliminate these negative-sequence terms from the d-q components using a
half-cycle running averager. This simply uses the fact that if a variable contains an oscillatory com-
ponent that is superimposed on a DC component, then averaging the variable over the period of the
oscillatory component will result in only the DC component at the output of the averager. In this
case, the averager acts as a filter. Once the oscillatory double-frequency component is removed and
the DC component is recovered from the d-q variables, the relative angle (φi+) of the current is then
simply
iq
φi + = tan − 1 A-73
id
560 Appendix A

A.5.2 Calculation of Instantaneous Power into d-q Frame

Using Equation (A-16), the instantaneous active power in the three-phase system with phase
voltages (vA, vB, and vC) and phase currents (iA, iB, and iC) can be rewritten as
T T
iA vA iA vd id
−1 −1
p = vA iA + vB iB + vC iC = vA vB vC × iB = vB × iB = P vq × P iq
iC vC iC v0 i0

or
T
vd id 1 0 0 id
−1 T −1 3
p= vq P P iq = vd vq v0 0 1 0 iq using Equation A − 61
2
v0 i0 0 0 2 i0

or
3
p= vd id + vq iq + 3v0 i0 A-74
2
The instantaneous three-phase power consists of two terms: the first term is due to the positive-
and negative-sequence voltage and current and the second term is due to the zero-sequence voltage
and current.

A.5.3 Calculation of Instantaneous Power into d-q Frame for a Three-Phase,

Three-Wire System
Substituting iB = − (iA + iC) from Equation (A-36), Equation (A-51b) can be written for the cur-
rent as

1 1 iA 2 1 1 iA
ids 1 − − − −
2 2 2 3 3 3
= × iB = × − iA − iC
iqs 3 3 3 1 1
0 − 0 −
2 2 iC 3 3 iC

2 1 1 1
+ − iA
3 3 3 3
= ×
1 1 1 iC
− − −
3 3 3
or

ids 1 0 iA
= 1 2 × A-75a
iqs − − iC
3 3
and

iA 1 0 ids
= 1 3 × A-75b
iC − − iqs
2 2
 Appendix A 561

Equation (A-55b) can be rewritten for the current in the synchronously rotating reference
frame as

id cos ωt sin ωt ids cos ωt sin ωt 1 0 iA

= × = × 1 2
iq − sin ωt cos ωt iqs − sin ωt cos ωt − − iC
3 3
with a substitution from Equation (A-75a)
1 2
cos ωt − sin ωt − sin ωt iA
3 3
= ×
1 2 iC
− sin ωt − cos ωt − cos ωt
3 3
or

id 2 sin ωt + 120 − sin ωt iA

= × A-76
iq 3 cos ωt + 120 − cos ωt iC

Equation (A-76) can be rearranged as

iA cos ωt − sin ωt id
= × A-77
iC cos ωt + 120 − sin ωt + 120 iq

Therefore, Park’s original transformation matrix for a three-phase, three-wire system is given by

2 sin ωt + 120 − sin ωt

p = A-78a
3 cos ωt + 120 − cos ωt
and the inverse of Park’s original transformation matrix for a three-phase, three-wire system is
given by

−1 cos ωt − sin ωt
p = A-78b
cos ωt + 120 − sin ωt + 120
This transformation matrix can be used for voltage, current, and flux as well, provided that the
zero-sequence component does not exist.
Similarly, in case of voltage,

vd 2 sin ωt + 120 − sin ωt vA

= A-79
vq 3 cos ωt + 120 − cos ωt vC

In some applications, it may be easier to use the available phase-to-phase voltage. The phase-to-
phase voltage is related to the phase-to-neutral voltage as

vA vA
vAB 1 −1 0 1 −1 0
= × vB = × − vA − vC when vA + vB + vC = 0
vCB 0 −1 1 0 −1 1
vC vC

Then,

vAB 2 1 vA
= A-80a
vCB 1 2 vC
562 Appendix A

and

vA 1 2 −1 vAB
= A-80b
vC 3 −1 2 vCB

Equations (A-79) and (A-80b) can be combined as

vd 2 sin ωt + 120 − sin ωt vA

= ×
vq 3 cos ωt + 120 − cos ωt vC
1 2 sin ωt + 120 − sin ωt 2 −1 vAB
= × ×
3 3 cos ωt + 120 − cos ωt −1 2 vCB

or

vd 2 cos ωt cos ωt + 120 vAB

= A-81
vq 3 − sin ωt − sin ωt + 120 vCB

Equation (A-81) can be rearranged as

vAB sin ωt + 120 cos ωt + 120 vd

= 3 A-82
vCB − sin ωt − cos ωt vq

Substituting iB = − iA + iC from Equation (A-36), Equation (A-16) for instantaneous active

power can be rewritten as
p = vA iA + vB iB + vC iC = vA iA − vB iA + iC + vC iC = vA − vB iA + vC − vB iC
or
T
vAB iA
p = vAB iA + vCB iC = A-83
vCB iC

Substituting Equations (A-77) and (A-82) into Equation (A-83), the expression for instantaneous
active power can be derived as
T
vAB iA
p=
vCB iC
T
3 sin ωt + 120 vd + cos ωt + 120 vq cos ωt id − sin ωt iq
=
3 − sin ωt vd − cos ωt vq cos ωt + 120 id − sin ωt + 120 iq

or

p= 3 sin ωt + 120 vd + cos ωt + 120 vq × cos ωt id − sin ωt iq

+ 3 − sin ωt vd − cos ωt vq × cos ωt + 120 id − sin ωt + 120 iq

or
3
p= vd id + vq iq A-84
2
 Appendix A 563

Also, if the voltage and current rotating vectors are represented in their respective d-q reference
frames as
v = vd + jvq A-85a

and
i = id + jiq , A-85b

the instantaneous power is given by

3 ∗ 3 3 3
s= vi = vd + jvq id − jiq = vd id + vq iq + j vq id − vd iq = p + jq, A-86
2 2 2 2
which is same as Equation (A-13).
Then, the instantaneous active and reactive powers are given by
p = Re s
or
3
p= vd id + vq iq A-84
2
q = Im s
or
3
q= vq i d − vd i q A-87
2
The instantaneous apparent power (s) is given by
3 2 2 3 2 2 2 2
s= p2 + q2 = vd id + vq iq + vq id − vd iq = vd id + vq i q + vq i d + vd i q
2 2
3 3 3 3
= v2d + v2q i2d + v2d + v2q i2q = v2d + v2q i2d + i2q = v2dq i2dq = vdq idq
2 2 2 2
A-88
where
vdq = v = vd + jvq A-89

and
idq = i = id + jiq A-90

The instantaneous active and reactive powers, given in Equations (A-84) and (A-87), in engineer-
ing units can be rewritten in per unit as
3 1 1
ppu = vd id + vq iq = vd id + vq iq = vdpu idpu + vqpu iqpu A-91
2 Pbase V base × I base
3 1 1
qpu = vq id − vd iq = vq id − vd iq = vqpu idpu − vdpu iqpu A-92
2 Pbase V base × I base
Solving the Equations (A-91) and (A-92), it can be written that
ppu vdpu + qpu vqpu
idpu = A-93
v2dpu + v2qpu
564 Appendix A

ppu vqpu − qpu vdpu

iqpu = A-94
v2dpu + v2qpu

Note that vdpu, vqpu, idpu, and iqpu are in per units.
From Equation (A-76), it can be written that
2 2
id = sin ωt + 120 iA − sin ωt iC A-95a
3 3
and
2 2
iq = cos ωt + 120 iA − cos ωt iC A-95b
3 3
From Equation (A-81), it can be written that
2 2
vd = cos ωt vAB + cos ωt + 120 vCB A-96a
3 3
and
2 2
vq = − sin ωt vAB − sin ωt + 120 vCB A-96b
3 3
Substituting Equations (A-95a), (A-95b), (A-96a), and (A-96b) into Equation (A-87), the expres-
sion for instantaneous reactive power becomes

3
q= vq id − vd iq
2
3 2 2 − sin ωt vAB − sin ωt + 120 vCB sin ωt + 120 iA − sin ωt iC −
=
2 3 3 cos ωt vAB + cos ωt + 120 vCB cos ωt + 120 iA − cos ωt iC

or
vAB iA − sin ωt sin ωt + 120 − cos ωt cos ωt + 120 + vAB iC sin 2 ωt + cos 2 ωt +
2
q= vCB iA − sin ωt + 120 − cos ωt + 120
2 2
+
3
vCB iC sin ωt + 120 sin ωt + cos ωt + 120 cos ωt

or

2
q= − vAB iA cos 120 + vAB iC − vCB iA + vCB iC cos 120
3

or

2 1 1
q= vAB iA + vAB iC − vCB iA − vCB iC
3 2 2

or
2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1
q= vAB iA + vAB iC − vCB iA − vCB iC + vAB iC − vCB iA
3 2 2 2 2 3 2 2
 Appendix A 565

or
1 1
q= vAB iA + vAB iC − vCB iA − vCB iC + vAB iC − vCB iA
3 3
or
1 1
q= vAB iA + iC − vCB iA + iC + vAB iC + vBC iA
3 3
or
1 1
q= vAB − vCB iA + iC + vAB iC + vBC iA
3 3
or
1 1
q= vAC − iB + vAB iC + vBC iA
3 3
or
1 1
q= vCA iB + vAB iC + vBC iA
3 3
or
1
q= vBC iA + vCA iB + vAB iC A-97
3
Alternately from Equation (A-97), the instantaneous reactive power is given by
1 1
q= vBC iA − vCA iA + iC + vAB iC = vBC − vCA iA + vAB − vCA iC
3 3
or
1
q= − 2vC + vB + vA iA + 2vA − vB − vC iC A-98
3
In a three-phase, balanced network, vA + vB + vC = 0 Substituting vA + vB = − vC and
− vB − vC = vA and rewriting Equation (A-98),
1 1
q= − 2vC − vC iA + 2vA + vA iC = − 3vC iA + 3vA iC
3 3
or

q= 3 vA iC − vC iA A-99

Check:
Consider a three-phase, unity-amplitude voltage, vA = cos θ , vB = cos θ − 120 , and vC =
cos θ + 120 , driving a three-phase, unity-amplitude current iA = cos θ + φ , iB = cos θ +
φ − 120 , and iC = cos θ + φ + 120 . The instantaneous active and reactive powers are
566 Appendix A

p = vA iA + vB iB + vC iC
= cos θ cos θ + φ + cos θ − 120 cos θ + φ − 120 + cos θ + 120 cos θ + φ + 120
1 φ φ φ
= cos 2 θ + + cos φ + cos 2 θ − 120 + + cos φ + cos 2 θ + 120 + + cos φ
2 2 2 2
3 1
= cos φ + cos 2θ + φ + cos 2θ + 120 + φ + cos 2θ − 120 + φ
2 2
3
= cos φ
2

q= 3 vA iC − vC iA
= 3 cos θ cos θ + φ + 120 − cos θ + 120 cos θ + φ
3
= cos 2θ + φ + 120 + cos φ + 120 − cos 2θ + φ + 120 − cos φ − 120
2
3 3
= cos φ + 120 − cos φ − 120 = − 2 sin φ sin 120
2 2
3
= − sin φ
2
3
At unity power factor, φ = 0 and p = , q = 0 A-100a
2
3
At zero power factor lagging, φ = − 90 and p = 0, q = A-100b
2
3
At zero power factor leading, φ = 90 and p = 0, q = − A-100c
2

A.6 Fourier Analysis

Any periodic variable ( f ) that is a function of angle (θ) can be represented as a Fourier series
given by

f θ = a0 + a1 cos θ + a2 cos 2θ + a3 cos 3θ + … + b1 sin θ + b2 sin 2θ + b3 sin 3θ +

A-101
∞
= a0 + an cos nθ + bn sin nθ A-102
n=1
∞
= a0 + An sin nθ + αn A-103
n=1

where
an = An sin αn A-104a
bn = An cos αn A-104b

An = a2n + b2n A-104c

an
αn = tan − 1 A-104d
bn
 Appendix A 567

Integrating both sides of Equation (A-101) results in

2π 2π 2π 2π

f θ dθ = a0 dθ + a1 cos θdθ + a2 cos 2θ dθ + …

0 0 0 0
2π 2π

+ b1 sin θdθ + b2 sin 2θ dθ + …

0 0
2π
= a0 θ 0 = 2a0 π

since the integral of a sine or a cosine variable over one period is zero. Then,
2π
1
a0 = f θ dθ A-105
2π
0

is the DC component in the original variable, f(θ).

The amplitudes (an) for n = 1, 2, 3… of the cosine components can be expressed as follows. Multi-
plying both sides of Equation (A-101) with cos(nθ) and integrating over one period results in
2π 2π 2π 2π

f θ cos nθ d θ = a0 cos nθ d θ + a1 cos θ cos nθ d θ + … + am cos mθ cos nθ d θ + …

0 0 0 0
2π 2π

+ b1 sin θ cos nθ d θ + … + bm sin mθ cos nθ d θ + …

0 0

Of all the terms on the right-hand side, the only term where m = n results in a nonzero coefficient
of an and the rest of the terms are zero. Then,
2π 2π 2π
an
f θ cos nθ dθ = an 2
cos nθ dθ = 1 + cos 2nθ dθ
2
0 0 0
2π 2π
an an
= dθ + cos 2nθ dθ
2 2
0 0
2π
an sin 2nθ an
= θ 2π
0 + = 2π = an π
2 2n 0 2

and
2π
1
an = f θ cos nθ d θ A-106
π
0

The amplitudes (bn) for n = 1, 2, 3… of the sine components can be expressed following a similar
approach. Multiplying both sides of Equation (A-101) by sin(nθ) and integrating over one period results in
2π 2π 2π 2π

f θ sin nθ dθ = a0 sin nθ d θ + a1 cos θ sin nθ dθ + … + am cos mθ sin nθ d θ + …

0 0 0 0
2π 2π

+ b1 sin θ sin nθ d θ + … + bm sin mθ sin nθ d θ + …

0 0
568 Appendix A

Of all the terms on the right-hand side, the only term where m = n results in a nonzero coefficient
of bn and the rest of the terms are zero. Then,
2π 2π 2π
2π
bn bn sin 2nθ
f θ sin nθ d θ = bn 2
sin nθ dθ = 1 − cos 2nθ dθ = θ 2π
0 −
2 2 2n 0
0 0 0
bn 2π
= = bn π
2
and
2π
1
bn = f θ sin nθ d θ A-107
π
0

Check:
1 1 1
f θ = + sin θ + sin 3θ + sin 5θ
2 3 5
From Equation (A-105), the DC component is given by
2π 2π 2π 2π
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
a0 = + sin θ + sin 3θ + sin 5θ dθ = dθ + sin θdθ + sin 3θ dθ
2π 2 3 5 2π 2 3
0 0 0 0

2π
1
+ sin 5θ dθ
5
0

2π
1 1 1 2π 1 2π 1 1
= θ − cos θ 2π
0 − cos 3θ 0 − cos 5θ 0 = π =
2π 2 0 9 25 2π 2

From Equation (A-106), the cosine component coefficient is given by

2π 2π 2π 2π
1 1 1 1
an = cos nθ d θ + sin θ cos nθ dθ + sin 3θ cos nθ dθ + sin 5θ cos nθ dθ
π 2 3 5
0 0 0 0

For n = 1:
2π 2π 2π 2π
1 1 1 1
a1 = cos θdθ + sin θ cos θdθ + sin 3θ cos θdθ + sin 5θ cos θdθ
π 2 3 5
0 0 0 0
2π 2π 2π
1 1 1 1
= cos θdθ + sin 2θ dθ + sin 4θ + sin 2θ dθ
π 2 0 2 0 6 0
2π
1
+ sin 6θ + sin 4θ dθ = 0
10 0

For n = 3:
2π 2π 2π 2π
1 1 1 1
a3 = cos 3θ dθ + sin θ cos 3θ dθ + sin 3θ cos 3θ dθ + sin 5θ cos 3θ dθ = 0
π 2 3 5
0 0 0 0
 Appendix A 569

For n = 5:
2π 2π 2π 2π
1 1 1 1
a5 = cos 5θ dθ + sin θ cos 5θ dθ + sin 3θ cos 5θ dθ + sin 5θ cos 5θ dθ = 0
π 2 3 5
0 0 0 0

From Equation (A-107), the sine component coefficient is given by

2π 2π 2π 2π
1 1 1 1
bn = sin nθ d θ + sin θ sin nθ dθ + sin 3θ sin nθ dθ + sin 5θ sin nθ dθ
π 2 3 5
0 0 0 0

For n = 1:
2π 2π 2π 2π
1 1 1 1
b1 = sin θdθ + sin θ sin θdθ + sin 3θ sin θdθ + sin 5θ sin θdθ
π 2 3 5
0 0 0 0
2π
1 1 1 1 1 2π 1 2π 1 1
= 0+ − cos 2θ dθ + 0 + 0 = θ − sin 2θ = 2π − 0 − 0 = 1
π 0 2 2 π 2 0 4 0
π 2
For n = 3:
2π 2π 2π 2π
1 1 1 1
b3 = sin 3θ dθ + sin θ sin 3θ dθ + sin 3θ sin 3θ dθ + sin 5θ sin 3θ dθ
π 2 3 5
0 0 0 0
2π 2π
1 1 11 1 11 1
= 0+0+ 1 − cos 6θ dθ + 0 = θ 2π
0 − sin 6θ = 2π − 0 − 0 =
π 6 0 π6 6 0 π6 3

For n = 5:
2π 2π 2π 2π
1 1 1 1
b5 = sin 5θ dθ + sin θ sin 5θ dθ + sin 3θ sin 5θ dθ + sin 5θ sin 5θ dθ
π 2 3 5
0 0 0 0
2π 2π
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 0+0+0+ 1 − cos 10θ dθ = θ 2π
0 − sin 10θ = 2π − 0 − 0 =
π 10 0 π 10 10 0 π 10 5

Therefore, the composite variable is given by

1 1 1
f θ = a0 + b1 sin θ + b3 sin 3θ + b5 sin 5θ = + sin θ + sin 3θ + sin 5θ
2 3 5

A.7 Adams-Bashforth Numerical Integration Formula

The exact value of a function ( f ) at any time (tn+1) can be written using Taylor’s series as

h2 2 h3 3 h4 4
f t n + 1 = f t n + hDf t n + D f tn + D f tn + D f t n + φ h5 A-108
2 6 24
where f(tn) is the exact value of the function (f) at time (tn), Df(tn), D2f(tn), D3f(tn), and D4f(tn) are the
exact derivatives of the function (f) at time (tn), D ≡ d/dt, and the time step for numerical integration
is h = tn + 1 − tn. The total time (T) is divided into N equidistant segments where T = Nh.
570 Appendix A

The assumed difference equation for numerical integration is of the form

f n + 1 = α1 f n + hβ1 D f n + hβ2 D f n − 1 + hβ3 D f n − 2 + hβ4 D f n − 3 A-109

where fn+1 is the final value of the function (f) at the end of the time step n, fn is the initial value of
the function ( f ) at the beginning of the time step n, and Dfn, Dfn−1, Dfn−2, and Dfn−3 are the deri-
vatives of the function ( f ) at the beginning of the steps n, n−1, n−2, and n−3, respectively, and α
and β are constants. The initial value of the state variable ( f ) at the beginning of the (n+1)th step is
the final value of the same state variable ( f ) at the end of the nth step. It is desired to choose the
constants (α and β) to match the highest possible order.
The exact function given in Equation (A-108) is being truncated in Equation (A-109), thereby
creating a total truncation error at every step of integration in the order of ϕ(h5). Since, there
are N steps in the total duration of integration (T), and N ~ 1/h, the global truncation error is in
the order of ϕ(h4).
Expanding each term on the both sides of Equation (A-109) using Taylor’s series results in

h2 2 h3 3 h4 4
f n + hDf n + D fn + D fn + D f n + … = α1 f n + hβ1 Df n
2 6 24
h2 3 h3
+ hβ2 Df n − hD2 f n + D f n − D4 f n + …
2 6
h2 3 h3
+ hβ3 Df n − 2hD2 f n + 4 D f n − 8 D4 f n + …
2 6
h2 3 h3
+ hβ4 Df n − 3hD2 f n + 9 D f n − 27 D4 f n + … A-110
2 6
Equating term by term,
f n 1 = α1
Df n h = h β1 + β2 + β 3 + β4 β1 + β2 + β 3 + β4 = 1
2
h 1
D2 f n = − h2 β2 + 2β3 + 3β4 β2 + 2β3 + 3β4 = −
2 2 A-111
h3 h3 1
D3 f n = β + 4β3 + 9β4 β2 + 4β3 + 9β4 =
6 2 2 3
h4 h4 1
D4 f n = − β + 8β3 + 27β4 β2 + 8β3 + 27β4 = −
24 6 2 4
From Equation (A-111), it can be found that α1 = 1, β1 = 55 24, β2 = −59 24, β3 = 37 24 and
β4 = − 9 24.
Then, the difference Equation (A-109) becomes
55 59 37 9
fn+1 = fn + Df n − Df n−1 + D f n − 2 − D f n − 3 h, A-112
24 24 24 24
which is known as Adams-Bashforth’s fourth-order integration method.
 571

Appendix B

Power Flow Equations in a Lossy Line

Consider an AC line with a resistance (R), an inductive reactance (X), and

X R = tan φ = cot ϕ = 7 4, carrying power from the sending end with a voltage Vs = V s ∠δs
to the receiving end with a voltage Vr = V r ∠δr as shown in Figure B-1. Note that φ is the power
factor angle of the line impedance; however, ϕ is the phase angle between the natural reactive volt-
age (VXn) across the line reactance and the natural voltage (VRn,Xn) across the line impedance
(Z = R + jX), which is also the difference between the sending- and receiving-end voltages. This
voltage causes a natural current In = I n ∠θIn to flow through the line impedance (Z = R + jX)
as shown in Figure B-1.
Therefore, it can be written from Figure B-1 that
Vs = Vr + VRn,Xn or
V s ∠δs = V r ∠δr + V Rn,Xn ∠θVRn,Xn B-1a
or
V s ∠δs = V r ∠ δs − δ + V Rn,Xn ∠ δs + θVRn,Xns using Equation 2-27 , or
V Rn,Xn ∠ δs + θVRn,Xns = V s ∠δs − V r ∠ δs − δ B-1b
and
V s ∠ δr + δ = V r ∠δr + V Rn,Xn ∠ δr + θVRn,Xnr or
V Rn,Xn ∠ δr + θVRn,Xnr = V s ∠ δr + δ − V r ∠δr B-1c
where
δ = δs − δr 2-27
Note that θVRn,Xns and θVRn,Xnr are the phase angles of the voltage across the line impedance with
respect to the sending-end and receiving-end voltages, respectively.
Since the line impedance (Z) is inductive, the resulting natural line current In = I n ∠θIn lags the
voltage (VRn,Xn) by a phase angle of 90 – ϕ as shown in Figure B-1.
The natural voltage (VRn,Xn) across the line impedance can be redefined as
V Rn,Xn ∠θVRn,Xns = V s ∠0 − V r ∠ − δ , B-2a

Power Flow Control Solutions for a Modern Grid using SMART Power Flow Controllers, First Edition.
Kalyan K. Sen and Mey Ling Sen.
© 2022 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/sen/powerflowcontrol
572 Appendix B

Psn , Qsn Prn , Qrn

VRn VXn
In In

R X
Vs Vr
ϕ

In
VRn,Xn θIn
X φ ϕ
= 7.4 VRn V Xn
R

𝛿
2

Vs 𝛿s Vr 𝛿r

Figure B-1 Two-generator/one-line power system network with a lossy line and its phasor diagram.

considering the sending-end voltage phasor as reference (i.e. δs = 0 ) in Equation (B-1b), or

V Rn,Xn ∠θVRn,Xnr = V s ∠δ − V r ∠0 , B-2b
considering the receiving-end voltage phasor as reference (i.e. δr = 0 ) in Equation (B-1c).
Equation (B-2a) can be rewritten as
V Rn,Xn cos θVRn,Xns + jV Rn,Xn sin θVRn,Xns = V s − V r cos δ + jV r sin δ
Equating the real and imaginary parts of both sides of the above equation, it can be written that
V Rn,Xn cos θVRn,Xns = V s − V r cos δ B-3a
and
V Rn,Xn sin θVRn,Xns = V r sin δ B-3b
Therefore, the magnitude of the natural voltage (VRn,Xn) across the line impedance is
derived from Equations (B-3a) and (B-3b) using the identity (cos2θVRn,Xns + sin2θVRn,Xns = 1) as

V Rn,Xn = V 2Rn,Xn cos2 θVRn,Xns + sin2 θVRn,Xns

2 2
= V Rn,Xn cos θVRn,Xns + V Rn,Xn sin θVRn,Xns

or
2 2
V Rn,Xn = V s − V r cos δ + V r sin δ or

V Rn,Xn = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r cos2 δ + sin2 δ or

V Rn,Xn = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r B-4

using the identity (cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1).

 Appendix B 573

The phase angle of the voltage (VRn,Xn) across the line impedance is derived from Equations
(B-3a) and (B-3b) as

sin θVRn,Xns V Rn,Xn sin θVRn,Xns

θVRn,Xns = tan−1 tan θVRn,Xns = tan−1 = tan−1
cos θVRn,Xns V Rn,Xn cos θVRn,Xns

or

V r sin δ
θVRn,Xns = tan−1 B-5
V s − V r cos δ

The natural line current (In) is defined as

VRn,Xn V Rn,Xn ∠θVRn,Xn V Rn,Xn ∠ δs + θVRn,Xns

In = or I n ∠θIn = or I n ∠ δs + θIns =
Z R + jX R + jX

Considering the sending-end voltage phasor as reference (i.e. δs = 0 ), it can be written from the
above equation that

V Rn,Xn ∠θVRn,Xns
I n ∠θIns = B-6
R + jX

or

V Rn,Xn X
I n ∠θIns = ∠ θVRn,Xns − tan−1 B-7
2 2 R
R +X

From the above equation, the magnitude of the natural line current (In) is given by
V Rn,Xn
In = B-8
R2 + X 2
and the phase angle of the line current with respect to the sending-end voltage is given by

X
θIns = θVRn,Xns − tan−1 B-9
R
where θVRn,Xns is given in Equation (B-5).
Alternately, from Equation (B-6), it can be written that

V Rn,Xn cos θVRn,Xns + jV Rn,Xn sin θVRn,Xns

I n cos θIns + jI n sin θIns = or
R + jX

V Rn,Xn cos θVRn,Xns + jV Rn,Xn sin θVRn,Xns

I n cos θIns + jI n sin θIns = R − jX or
R + jX R − jX
V Rn,Xn cos θVRn,Xns + jV Rn,Xn sin θVRn,Xns
I n cos θIns + jI n sin θIns = R − jX or
R2 + X 2
RV Rn,Xn cos θVRn,Xns + XV Rn,Xn sin θVRn,Xns
I n cos θIns + jI n sin θIns =
R2 + X 2
RV Rn,Xn sin θVRn,Xns − XV Rn,Xn cos θVRn,Xns
+j or
R2 + X 2
574 Appendix B

R V s − V r cos δ + XV r sin δ RV r sin δ − X V s − V r cos δ

I n cos θIns + jI n sin θIns = +j
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
using Equations B-3a and B-3b

Equating the real and imaginary parts of both sides of the above equation, it can be written that

R V s − V r cos δ + XV r sin δ
I n cos θIns = B-10a
R2 + X 2

and

RV r sin δ − X V s − V r cos δ
I n sin θIns = B-10b
R2 + X 2

Therefore, the magnitude of the natural line current (In) is derived from Equations (B-10a) and
(B-10b) using the identity cos2 θIns + sin2 θIns = 1 as

2 2
In = I 2n cos2 θIns + sin2 θIns = I n cos θIns + I n sin θIns or

1 2 2
In = R V s − V r cos δ + XV r sin δ + RV r sin δ − X V s − V r cos δ
R2 + X 2
1 2
In = R2 + X 2 V s − V r cos δ + V 2r sin2 δ
R2 + X 2

V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r cos2 δ + sin2 δ

= or
R2 + X 2

V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r
In = using the identity cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1 , or
R2 + X 2

V Rn,Xn
In = B-8
R2 + X 2

using Equations (B-4).

The phase angle of the natural line current (In) with respect to the sending-end voltage (Vs) is
derived from Equations (B-10a) and (B-10b) as
sin θIns I n sin θIns
θIns = tan −1 tan θIns = tan −1 = tan −1
cos θIns I n cos θIns
or

RV r sin δ − X V s − V r cos δ
θIns = tan −1 B-11
R V s − V r cos δ + XV r sin δ

Figure B-2 shows the magnitude (In) of the natural current (In) for the range of power angle
δ = δs − δr from 0 to 180 when V s = V r = 1 pu, X = 0 5 pu, and R = 0 (X R = ∞), 0.2 pu
 Appendix B 575

(X R = 2 5), and 0.5 pu (X R = 1). Note that at a given power In

(pu)
angle (δ), the magnitude of natural line current (In) is less for
4
an increased value of line resistance (R) with a fixed line reac-
tance (X). X/R = ∞

X/R = 2.5
3
B.1 Power Flow Equations for a Natural or
Uncompensated Line
2
The natural or uncompensated active and reactive power
flows (Psn and Qsn) at the sending end and (Prn and Qrn) at
the receiving end of the line are derived as follows. The nat- 1 X/R = 1
ural active power flow at the sending end is given by
Psn = V s I n cos δs − θIn
𝛿
or 0
90° 180°
Psn = V s I n cos θIns 2-39
Figure B-2 Natural current (In) as a
where θIns is the phase angle of the natural line current with function of power angle δ = δs − δr
from 0 to 180 when V s = V r = 1 pu,
respect to the sending-end voltage. X = 0 5 pu, R = 0 (X R = ∞ ), 0.2 pu
Equation (2-39) can be rewritten using Equation (B-10a) as (X R = 2 5), and 0.5 pu (X R = 1),
respectively.
A Vs
Psn = R − cos δ + X sin δ
2
R +X 2 Vr
B-12
where

V sV r
A= B-13
R2 + X 2
The natural reactive power flow at the sending end is given by

Qsn = V s I n sin δs − θIn

or

Qsn = − V s I n sin θIns 2-42

where θIns is the phase angle of the natural line current with respect to the sending-end voltage.
Equation (2-42) can be rewritten using Equation (B-10b) as

A Vs
Qsn = −R sin δ + X − cos δ B-14
2
R +X 2 Vr

where A is given in Equation (B-13). For R = 0, refer to Equations (2-41), (2-40), and (2-43).
Using Equation (B-13), Equation (B-12) can be rewritten as

RV 2s A
Psn − = − R cos δ + X sin δ B-15
R + X2
2
R2 + X 2
576 Appendix B

Using Equation (B-13), Equation (B-14) can be rewritten as

XV 2s A
Qsn − = − R sin δ − X cos δ B-16
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2

Using Equations (B-12), (B-14), and (B-13), the natural apparent power (Ssn) at the sending end is
given by

Ssn = P2sn + Q2sn B-17

or

Vs
Ssn = R V s − V r cos δ + XV r sin δ 2 + − RV r sin δ + X V s − V r cos δ 2
R2 + X 2
Vs
= 2 R2 + X 2 V s − V r cos δ 2 + V r sin δ 2
R + X2
Vs
= 2 2
V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r cos2 δ + sin2 δ
R +X
Vs
= V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r using the identity cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1 ,
R + X2
2

or
V s V Rn,Xn
Ssn = using Equation B-4 , or
R2 + X 2
Ssn = V s I n B-18
using Equation (B-8).
Using Equation (B-13), Equations (B-15) and (B-16) can be combined as
2
RV 2s XV 2s
Psn − + Qsn −
R + X2
2
R + X2
2

2
V sV r 2 2
= − R cos δ + X sin δ + − R sin δ − X cos δ
R + X2
2

2
V sV r
= R2 + X 2 cos2 δ + sin2 δ
R + X2
2

2
V sV r
= using the identity cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1 , or
R2 + X 2
2 2
RV 2s XV 2s
Psn − + Qsn − = A2 B-19
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2

RV 2s XV 2s
The Equation (B-19) represents the locus of a circle, centered at , with a radius
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
of A, which is defined in Equation (B-13).
From Equations (B-15) and (B-16), the relationship between the active and reactive power flows
at the sending end can be derived as
 Appendix B 577

(a) (c)
Ssn
(pu)
4

X/R = ∞
X/R = 2.5
3

Psn
(pu)
2 X/R = 1 2
X/R = 2.5

1 X/R = ∞ 1 X/R = 1

𝛿 𝛿
0 0
90° 180° 90° 180°

(b) (d)
Qsn Qsn
(pu) (pu)
4 4
X/R = ∞

3 3
X/R = 2.5
X/R = ∞
X/R = 2.5
2 2
X/R = 1
X/R = 1

1 1

𝛿 Psn(pu)
0 0
90° 180° 1 2

Figure B-3 (a) Natural active power (Psn), (b) natural reactive power (Qsn), and (c) natural apparent power (Ssn)
as a function of power angle δ = δs − δr from 0 to 180 when V s = V r = 1 pu, X = 0 5 pu for three cases:
R = 0 (X R = ∞ ), 0.2 pu (X R = 2 5), and 0.5 pu (X R = 1), respectively, and (d) Qsn vs Psn at the sending end of
the line.

XV 2s
Qsn −
R + X 2 = − R sin δ − X cos δ or
2

RV 2 − R cos δ + X sin δ
Psn − 2 s 2
R +X
− R sin δ − X cos δ RV 2 XV 2s
Qsn = Psn − 2 s 2 + B-20
− R cos δ + X sin δ R +X R + X2
2

At first glance, it seems that if the line is operated at a larger power angle, more current and
more power will flow through the line. Let us examine the active and reactive power flows in
the line.
578 Appendix B

Figure B-3 shows the natural active power (Psn), natural reactive power (Qsn), and natural apparent
power (Ssn) at the sending end, and Qsn vs Psn for the range of power angle δ = δs − δr from 0 to
180 when V s = V r = 1 pu, X = 0 5 pu for three cases: R = 0 (X R = ∞ ), 0.2 pu (X R = 2 5), and
0.5 pu (X R = 1), respectively. Note that at a given power angle (δ), the magnitude of apparent
power (Ssn) at the sending end is less for an increased value of line resistance (R) with a fixed
line reactance (X). Typically, the X/R ratio in a transmission network is 20 or higher, sub-
transmission network is 5 to 20 and distribution network is 1 to 10, respectively. As X/R ratio
decreases, the stability limit increases from 90 to higher values. However, the addition of line
resistance (R) also increases line losses. Therefore, it is not a practical way to increase the system
stability limit.
The natural active power flow at the receiving end is given by

Prn = V r I n cos δr − θIn or

Prn = V r cos δI n cos θIns − V r sin δI n sin θIns 2-45

where θIns is the phase angle of the natural line current with respect to the sending-end voltage.
Equation (2-45) can be rewritten using Equations (B-10a) and (B-10b) as

R V s − V r cos δ + XV r sin δ RV r sin δ − X V s − V r cos δ

Prn = V r cos δ − V r sin δ or
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2

Vr
Prn = R V s − V r cos δ + XV r sin δ cos δ − RV r sin δ − X V s − V r cos δ sin δ or
R2 + X 2

Vr
Prn = RV s cos δ − RV r cos2 δ + sin2 δ + XV s sin δ or
R2 + X 2

Vr
Prn = R V s cos δ − V r + XV s sin δ using the identity cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1 , or
R + X2
2

A Vr
Prn = R cos δ − + X sin δ B-21
R2 + X 2 Vs

where A is given in Equation (B-13).

The natural reactive power flow at the receiving end is given by

Qrn = V r I n sin δr − θIn or

Qrn = − V r sin δI n cos θIns − V r cos δI n sin θIns 2-47

where θIns is the phase angle of the natural line current with respect to the sending-end voltage.
Equation (2-47) can be rewritten using Equations (B-10a) and (B-10b) as

R V s − V r cos δ + XV r sin δ RV r sin δ − X V s − V r cos δ

Qrn = − V r sin δ − V r cos δ or
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
 Appendix B 579

Vr
Qrn = − R V s − V r cos δ + XV r sin δ sin δ
R + X2
2

− RV r sin δ − X V s − V r cos δ cos δ or

Vr
Qrn = − RV s sin δ + XV s cos δ − XV r cos2 δ + sin2 δ or
R2 + X 2

Vr
Qrn = − RV s sin δ + X V s cos δ − V r using the identity cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1 , or
R2 + X 2

A Vr
Qrn = − R sin δ + X cos δ − B-22
R2 + X 2 Vs

where A is given in Equation (B-13). For R = 0, refer to Equations (2-46) and (2-48).
Using Equation (B-13), Equation (B-21) can be rewritten as

RV 2r V sV r
Prn + 2 2 = R cos δ + X sin δ B-23
R +X R + X2
2

Using Equation (B-13), Equations (B-22) can be rewritten as

XV 2r V sV r
Qrn + = 2 − R sin δ + X cos δ B-24
R + X2
2
R + X2

Using Equations (B-21), (B-22), and (B-13), the natural apparent power (Srn) at the receiving end
is given by

Srn = P2rn + Q2rn B-25

or

Vr 2 2
Srn = R V s cos δ − V r + XV s sin δ + − RV s sin δ + X V s cos δ − V r
R + X2
2

Vr 2 2
= R2 + X 2 V s cos δ − V r + V s sin δ
R2 + X 2

Vr
= V 2s cos2 δ + sin2 δ − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r
R2 + X 2

Vr
= V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r using the identity cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1 , or
R + X2
2

V r V Rn,Xn
Srn = using Equation B-4 , or
R2 + X 2

Srn = V r I n B-26

using Equation (B-8).

580 Appendix B

Using Equation (B-13), Equations (B-23) and (B-24) can be combined as

2 2
RV 2r XV 2r
Prn + + Qrn +
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
2
V sV r 2 2
= R cos δ + X sin δ + − R sin δ + X cos δ
R2 + X 2
2
V sV r
= R2 + X 2 cos2 δ + sin2 δ
R + X2
2

2
V sV r
= using the identity cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1 , or
R2 + X 2
2 2
RV 2r XV 2r
Prn + + Qrn + = A2 B-27
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
− RV 2r − XV 2r
The Equation (B-27) represents the locus of a circle, centered at , with a radius
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
of A, which is defined in Equation (B-13).
From Equations (B-23) and (B-24), the relationship between the active and reactive power flows
at the receiving end can be derived as

XV 2r
Qrn +
R2 + X 2 = − R sin δ + X cos δ or
RV 2 R cos δ + X sin δ
Prn + 2 r 2
R +X

− R sin δ + X cos δ RV 2 XV 2
Qrn = Prn + 2 r 2 − 2 r 2 B-28
R cos δ + X sin δ R +X R +X

Figure B-4 shows the natural active power (Prn), natural reactive power (Qrn), and natural appar-
ent power (Srn) at the receiving end, and Qrn vs Prn for the range of power angle δ = δs − δr from 0
to 180 when V s = V r = 1 pu, X = 0 5 pu for three cases: R = 0 (X R = ∞), 0.2 pu (X R = 2 5),
and 0.5 pu (X R = 1), respectively. Note that at a given power angle (δ), the magnitude of apparent
power (Srn) at the receiving end is less for an increased value of line resistance (R) with a fixed line
reactance (X).
The difference between the active power at the sending and receiving ends is given by

A Vs
Psn − Prn = R − cos δ + X sin δ
R +X2 2 Vr

A Vr
− R cos δ − + X sin δ
R +X2 2 Vs
 Appendix B 581

(a) (c)
Prn Srn
(pu) (pu)
2 4
X/R = ∞

X/R = ∞ X/R = 2.5

1 3

𝛿
0 2
90° 180°

−1 X/R = 2.5 1 X/R = 1

X/R = 1 𝛿
−2 0
90° 180°

(b) (d)

Qrn Qrn
(pu) (pu) Prn(pu)
0
−2 −1 0 1 2
X/R = ∞

−1
–1
X/R = 1

−2
−2
X/R = 1 X/R = 2.5

−3
X/R = 2.5
−3

𝛿 X/R = ∞
−4
−4
90° 180°

Figure B-4 (a) Natural active power (Prn), (b) natural reactive power (Qrn), and (c) natural apparent power
(Srn) as a function of power angle δ = δs − δr from 0 to 180 when V s = V r = 1 pu, X = 0 5 pu for three cases:
R = 0 (X R = ∞), 0.2 pu (X R = 2 5), and 0.5 pu (X R = 1), respectively, and (d) Qrn vs Prn at the receiving end of
the line.

using Equations (B-12) and (B-21), or

A Vs Vr
Psn − Prn = R − cos δ − cos δ + + X sin δ − X sin δ
R2 + X 2 Vr Vs
R 2RV s V r
2 Vs + Vr − 2 cos δ after substituting for A from Equation B-13 , or
2 2
= 2
R +X R + X2
R R
= V 2 − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r = 2 V2 using Equation B-4 , or
R2 + X 2 s R + X 2 Rn,Xn
2
V Rn,Xn
= R
R2 + X 2
582 Appendix B

or

Psn − Prn = I 2n R B-29a

using Equation (B-8). It is the active power absorbed by the line resistance (R).
Similarly, the difference between the reactive power at the sending and receiving ends is given by

A Vs
Qsn − Qrn = − R sin δ + X − cos δ
R +X2 2 Vr
A Vr
− − R sin δ + X cos δ −
R2 + X 2 Vs

using Equations (B-14) and (B-22), or

A Vs Vr
Qsn − Qrn = − R sin δ + X − cos δ − cos δ + + R sin δ
2
R +X 2 Vr Vs
X 2XV s V r
= V 2 + V 2r − 2 cos δ after substituting for A from Equation B-13 , or
R2 + X 2 s R + X2
X X
2 V s − 2V s V r cos δ + V r =
2 2
= 2 V2 using Equation B-4 , or
R +X R + X 2 Rn,Xn
2

2
V Rn,Xn
= X
R2 + X 2
or

Qsn − Qrn = I 2n X B-29b

using Equation (B-8). It is the reactive power absorbed by the line reactance (X).

B.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line

The electric power flow through an AC transmission/distribution line is a function of the line
impedance (Z = R + jX), the magnitudes of the sending-end voltage (Vs) and the receiving-end
voltage (Vr), and the difference of phase angles (δs–δr) between these voltages. Figure B-5 shows
that the active power at the sending end is the same as that at the receiving end since there is
no active power absorbed by the line reactance (X) when R = 0, (X R = ∞). However, the reactive
power at the sending end is inductive and that at the receiving end is capacitive. Figure B-3 shows
that when the line becomes more and more resistive, the value of δ at which the maximum active
power at the sending end takes place is higher. Figure B-4 shows that when the line becomes more
and more resistive, the value of δ at which the maximum active power at the receiving end takes
place is lower. In the case when X R = ∞ , the active power at the sending end, as well as at the
receiving end, is maximum when δ = 90 . However, for stable operation of the electric power sys-
tem, δ is maintained at a much lower value. The simulations in EMTP throughout this book are set
at δ = 20 and X R = 7 4.
Assuming that the line impedance does not change in a short period of time, and there is little
control over the distant bus voltage (e.g. receiving-end voltage), the only parameter that is able to
 Appendix B 583

(a) (b)
Qsn Qrn
(pu) (pu) Prn(pu)
4 0
1 2

3.5 − 0.5

3 −1
δ = 165° δ = 15°
δ = 180° δ=0
δ = 150° δ = 30°
2.5 − 1.5
δ = 120° δ = 60°

δ = 90°
2 −2
δ = 90°

δ = 60° δ = 120°
1.5 − 2.5
δ = 30° δ = 150°
δ=0 δ = 180°
δ = 15° δ = 165°
1 −3

0.5 − 3.5

Psn(pu)
0 −4
1 2

Figure B-5 (a) Qsn vs Psn at the sending end and (b) Qrn vs Prn at the receiving end of the line for the range of
power angle δ = δs − δr from 0 to 180 when V s = V r = 1 pu, X = 0 5 pu, and R = 0 (X R = ∞ ).

vary the power flow in a line is the modified sending-end voltage Vs = V s ∠δs . There are basically
two ways to modify the sending-end voltage as discussed below.

B.2.1 Shunt-Compensating Voltage

The line voltage can be modified by connecting a compensating voltage Vs = V s ∠δs with the
desired magnitude and phase angle in shunt with the modified sending end of the line as shown
in Figure B-6. As an example, the sending-end voltage (Vs) can be used to excite the primary wind-
ings of a transformer. The induced secondary voltage (Vs ) can be shunt-connected as the modified
sending-end voltage. For a given amount of transmitted power, the Shunt-Shunt configuration is
rated for the full amount of transmitted power. In certain special cases for point-to-point transfer of
power between two isolated networks with different voltages or phase angles, the use of the Shunt-
Shunt configuration may be the preferred topology. If a magnetic link-based Shunt-Shunt compen-
sator is used for this purpose, the frequencies of both AC lines must be the same.
When the sending-end voltage is modified to Vs , the line voltage (VR,X), which is the difference
between the modified sending- and receiving-end voltages, causes a prevailing current I = I∠θI to
flow through the line impedance (Z = R + jX). Therefore, it can be written from Figure B-6 that
VR,X = Vs − Vr ; B-30a
584 Appendix B

Ps′ , Qs′ Pr , Qr
Psh
VR VX
Qsh I

R X
XTIE

E Vs′ Vr

Figure B-6 Modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) with a shunt-compensating voltage.

substituting the subscript s with s in Equation (B-4), it can be written that

V R,X = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r B-30b

where
δ = δs − δr 2-62
δ =δ+ψ 2-51a
Rewriting Equations (B-8) and (B-11) for the modified sending-end voltage Vs = V s ∠δs , the
magnitude and phase angle of the prevailing line current are given by
V R,X
I= B-31
R2 + X 2
and
RV r sin δ − X V s − V r cos δ
θIs = tan −1 B-32
R V s − V r cos δ + XV r sin δ

B.2.1.1 Power Flow at the Modified Sending End with a Shunt-Compensating Voltage
Rewriting Equation (B-12), replacing Vs = V s ∠δ with Vs = V s ∠δ , the active power flow at the
modified sending end of the line is given by
A Vs
Ps = R − cos δ + X sin δ B-33
R +X 2 2 Vr
where
Vs Vr
A = B-34
R2 + X 2
and δ is defined in Equations (2-62) and (2-51a).
Rewriting Equation (B-14), replacing Vs = V s ∠δ with Vs = V s ∠δ , the reactive power flow at the
modified sending end of the line is given by
A Vs
Qs = − R sin δ + X − cos δ B-35
R +X 2 2 Vr
For R = 0, refer to Equations (2-59), (2-61), and (2-60).
 Appendix B 585

Following the steps to derive Equation (B-19), Equations (B-33), (B-35), and (B-34) can be com-
bined as
2 2
RV 2s XV 2s
Ps − + Qs − = A2 B-36
R + X2
2
R + X2
2

From Equations (B-34), (B-33), and (B-35), it can be written that

XV 2s RV 2
− R Qs −
2 + X Ps − 2 s 2
2
R +X R +X
tan δ = B-37
RV 2s XV 2s
− R Ps − 2 − X Q s −
R + X2 R2 + X 2
Digress:

RV 2s
Ps −
R + X 2 = − R cos δ + X sin δ or
2

XV 2 − R sin δ − X cos δ
Qs − 2 s 2
R +X
RV 2s XV 2s
Ps − − R sin δ − X cos δ = Qs − − R cos δ + X sin δ or
R + X2
2
R + X2
2

RV 2s XV 2s
− R Ps − 22 sin δ − X Qs − 2 sin δ
R +X R + X2
XV 2 RV 2
= − R Qs − 2 s 2 cos δ + X Ps − 2 s 2 cos δ
R +X R +X
or

XV 2s RV 2
− R Qs −
2 + X Ps − 2 s 2
2
R +X R +X
tan δ =
RV 2s XV 2s
− R Ps − 2 2 − X Qs − 2
R +X R + X2

Recall that for R = 0,

2
V 2s
P2s + Qs − =a2 2-64
X

RV 2s XV 2s
The Equation (B-36) represents the locus of a circle, centered at , with a radius
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
of A , which is defined in Equation (B-34). The Equation (2-64) represents the locus of a circle, cen-
V2
tered at 0, s with a radius of a , which is defined in Equation (2-61).
X
Using Equation (B-34), Equation (B-36) can be rearranged as

2 2
RV 2s XV 2s
Ps − + Qs − = A2
R + X2
2
R + X2
2
586 Appendix B

2 2
RV 2s XV 2s 2RPs 2XQs V 2r
+ − + + V 2s + P2s + Q2s = 0
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
or
2
V 2s − 2RPs + 2XQs + V 2r V 2s + R2 + X 2 P2s + Q2s = 0 B-38

Solving the above quadratic equation results in

2
2RPs + 2X Qs + V 2r ± 2RPs + 2X Qs + V 2r − 4 R2 + X 2 P2s + Q2s
V 2s =
2
or
2
V 2r V 2r
V 2s = RPs + X Qs + ± RPs + X Qs + − R2 + X 2 P2s + Q2s
2 2
or

2
V 2r V 2r
Vs = + RPs + X Qs + + RPs + X Qs + − R2 + X 2 P2s + Q2s
2 2
B-39a
or

2
V 2r V 2r
Vs = + RPs + X Qs + − RPs + X Qs + − R2 + X 2 P2s + Q2s
2 2
B-39b
or

2
V 2r V 2r
Vs = − RPs + X Qs + + RPs + X Qs + − R2 + X 2 P2s + Q2s
2 2
B-39c
or

2
V 2r V 2r
Vs = − RPs + X Qs + − RPs + X Qs + − R2 + X 2 P2s + Q2s
2 2
B-39d
Out of the four possible values of Vs , given in Equations (B-39a through B-39d), the most desired
value is the one that provides the lowest Apparent Power Rating (APR), thus the lowest cost
solution.
From Equation (B-37), the modified power angle is given by

XV 2s RV 2
− R Qs − 22 + X Ps − 2 s 2
R +X R +X
δ = tan −1 , B-40a
RV 2s XV 2s
− R Ps − 2 − X Q s −
R + X2 R2 + X 2
 Appendix B 587

which can be rearranged to obtain the phase-shift angle as

XV 2s RV 2s
− R Qs − + X P s −
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
ψ = tan −1 2 − δ, B-40b
RV XV 2
− R P s − 2 s 2 − X Qs − 2 s 2
R +X R +X
using Equation (2-51b).
For the desired active and reactive power flows (Ps ∗ and Qs ∗) at the modified sending end within
the allowable range, the magnitude (Vs ) and the phase-shift angle (ψ) of the shunt-compensating
voltage are determined by substituting Ps = P∗s and Qs = Q∗s in Equations (B-39a through B-39d)
and (B-40b), respectively. A Power Flow Controller (PFC) with a Shunt-Shunt configuration applies
a voltage Vs = V s ∠ψ at the modified sending end. For R = 0, refer to Equations (2-67a through
2-67d) and (2-68).
Using Equations (B-33), (B-35), and (B-34), the apparent power (Ss ) at the modified sending end
is given by

Ss = P2s + Q2s 2-63

or
Vs 2 2
Ss = R V s − V r cos δ + XV r sin δ + − RV r sin δ + X V s − V r cos δ
R2 + X 2
Vs 2 2
= 2 R2 + X 2 V s − V r cos δ + V r sin δ
R + X2
Vs
= V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r cos2 δ + sin2 δ
R + X2
2

Vs
= V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r using the identity cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1 , or
R2 + X 2
V s V R,X
Ss = using Equation B-30b , or using Equation B-31
R2 + X 2
Ss = V s I, B-41
which is same as Equation (2-69).
Rewriting Equation (B-20) by substituting Vs = V s ∠δ with Vs = V s ∠δ , Psn with Ps , and Qsn
with Qs , the relationship between the active and reactive power flows at the modified sending
end is given by
− R sin δ − X cos δ RV 2s XV 2s
Qs = Ps − + B-42
− R cos δ + X sin δ R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
For R = 0, refer to Equation (2-70a). For a given line with fixed R, X, and Vr, the locus of (Qs
versus Ps ) depends on the modified sending-end voltage Vs = V s ∠δ .
B.2.1.2 Power Flow at the Receiving End with a Shunt-Compensating Voltage
Rewriting Equation (B-21) by substituting Vs = V s ∠δ with Vs = V s ∠δ , A with A , and Prn with Pr,
the active power flow at the receiving end of the line is given by
A Vr
Pr = R cos δ − + X sin δ B-43
R2 + X 2 Vs
where A is given in Equation (B-34) and δ is defined in Equations (2-62) and (2-51a).
588 Appendix B

Rewriting Equation (B-22) by substituting Vs = V s ∠δ with Vs = V s ∠δ , A with A , and Qrn

with Qr, the reactive power flow at the receiving end of the line is given by
A Vr
Qr = − R sin δ + X cos δ − B-44
2
R +X 2 Vs
For R = 0, refer to Equations (2-74), (2-75), and (2-61).
Following the steps to derive Equation (B-27), Equations (B-43) and (B-44) can be combined as
2 2
RV 2r XV 2r
Pr + + Qr + = A2 B-45
R + X2
2
R + X2
2

From Equations (B-34), (B-43), and (B-44), it can be written that

XV 2r RV 2r
R Qr + 2 − X Pr +
2
R +X R + X2
2
tan δ = 2 B-46
RV XV 2
− R P r + 2 r 2 − X Qr + 2 r 2
R +X R +X

Digress:

RV 2r
Pr +
R2 + X 2 = R cos δ + X sin δ or
XV 2 − R sin δ + X cos δ
Qr + 2 r 2
R +X
RV 2r XV 2r
Pr + − R sin δ + X cos δ = Qr + R cos δ + X sin δ or
R + X2
2
R + X2
2

RV 2r XV 2r
− R Pr + sin δ − X Q r + sin δ
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
XV 2r RV 2r
= R Qr + 2 2 cos δ − X P r + cos δ
R +X R + X2
2

or

XV 2r RV 2r
R Qr + 2 − X Pr +
2
R +X R + X2
2
tan δ = 2
RV XV 2
− R P r + 2 r 2 − X Qr + 2 r 2
R +X R +X
Recall that for R = 0,

2
V 2r
P2r + Qr + = a2 2-79
X

− RV 2r − XV 2r
The Equation (B-45) represents the locus of a circle, centered at 2, 2 with a radius
R + X R + X2
2

of A , which is defined in Equation (B-34). The Equation (2-79) represents the locus of a circle, cen-
V2
tered at 0, − r with a radius of a , which is defined in Equation (2-61).
X
 Appendix B 589

Using Equation (B-34), Equation (B-45) can be rearranged as

2 2
R2 + X 2 RV 2r XV 2r
Vs = Pr + + Qr + B-47
Vr R + X2
2
R + X2
2

From Equation (B-46), the modified power angle is given by

XV 2r RV 2r
R Qr + 2 2 − X Pr +
R +X R + X2
2
δ = tan −1 2 , B-48a
RV r XV 2r
− R Pr + 2 − X Qr + 2
R + X2 R + X2
which can be rearranged to obtain the phase-shift angle as

XV 2r RV 2r
R Qr + 2 2 − X Pr +
R +X R + X2
2
ψ = tan −1 2 −δ B-48b
RV XV 2
− R P r + 2 r 2 − X Qr + 2 r 2
R +X R +X
using Equation (2-51b).
For the desired active and reactive power flows (Pr∗, Qr∗) at the receiving end within the allowable
range, the magnitude (Vs ) and the phase-shift angle (ψ) of the shunt-compensating voltage are
determined by substituting Pr = P∗r and Qr = Q∗r in Equations (B-47) and (B-48b), respectively.
A PFC with a Shunt-Shunt configuration applies a voltage Vs = V s ∠ψ at the modified sending
end. For R = 0, refer to Equations (2-81) and (2-82a) or (2-82b).
Using Equations (B-43), (B-44), and (B-34), the apparent power (Sr) at the receiving end is
given by

Sr = P2r + Q2r 2-76

or
Vr 2 2
Sr = R V s cos δ − V r + XV s sin δ + −RV s sin δ + X V s cos δ − V r
R2 + X 2
Vr 2 2
= 2 R2 + X 2 V s cos δ − V r + V s sin δ
R + X2
Vr
= V 2s cos2 δ + sin2 δ − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r
R2 + X 2
Vr
= 2 2
V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r using the identity cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1 , or
R +X
V r V R,X
Sr = using Equation B-30b , or using Equation B-31
R2 + X 2
Sr = V r I, B-49
which is same as Equation (2-77).
Rewriting Equation (B-28) with a substitution δ = δ , the relationship between the active and
reactive power flows at the receiving end is given by

− R sin δ + X cos δ RV 2r XV 2r
Qr = Pr + 2 − 2 B-50
R cos δ + X sin δ 2
R +X R + X2
590 Appendix B

For R = 0 , refer to Equation (2-83a). For a given line with fixed R, X, and Vr, the locus of
(Qr versus Pr) depends on the modified power angle δ = δs − δr .

B.2.1.3 Exchanged Power by a Shunt-Compensating Voltage

The shunt-compensating voltage is an AC voltage source that carries a current, which is at any
phase angle with its terminal voltage. Therefore, the compensating voltage, essentially, emulates
a four-quadrant, shunt-compensating impedance (Zsh = Rsh − jX sh ) at its terminals. This virtual
impedance consists of a resistance Rsh = + R or −R and a reactance X sh = X C or − X L in shunt
with the line. A Xsh > 0 means the compensating reactance is capacitive and Xsh < 0 means the
compensating reactance is inductive.
The active and reactive powers that are exchanged by the shunt-compensating voltage source are
Psh and Qsh, respectively. Referring to Figure B-6, for any (Ps and Qs ), the active and reactive powers
(Psh and Qsh) of the shunt compensator are defined as

Psh = − Ps 2-87a

and

Qsh = − Qs 2-87b

where Ps and Qs are defined in Equations (B-33) and (B-35), respectively.

B.2.1.4 Representation of a Shunt-Compensating Voltage as a Shunt-Compensating Impedance

The active power (Psh) and reactive power (Qsh) of the shunt compensator are defined by

Psh = I 2 Rsh 2-88a

and

Qsh = − I 2 X sh 2-88b

where the line current (I) is defined in Equation (B-31).

Using Equations (2-87a), (2-87b), (2-88a), and (2-88b), the shunt-compensating resistance (Rsh)
and shunt-compensating reactance (Xsh) are given by

Psh
Rsh = 2-89a
I2
or
Ps
Rsh = − 2-89b
I2
and
Qsh
X sh = − 2-90a
I2
or
Qs
X sh = 2-90b
I2
 Appendix B 591

The emulated shunt-compensating resistance (Rsh), reactance (Xsh), and impedance (Zsh) are
defined as
Zsh = Z sh ∠θZsh = Rsh − jX sh 2-91a
or
− X sh
Z sh ∠θZsh = R2sh + X 2sh ∠ tan −1 2-91b
Rsh
where
Z sh ∠θZsh = Z sh cos θZsh + jZ sh sin θZsh , 2-92
Rsh = Z sh cos θZsh 2-93a
and
X sh = − Z sh sin θZsh 2-93b
Note that Xsh > 0 means the shunt-compensating reactance is capacitive and Xsh < 0 means the
shunt-compensating reactance is inductive.

B.2.2 Series-Compensating Voltage as an Impedance Regulator, Voltage Regulator,

and Phase Angle Regulator (Asymmetric)
The line voltage can be modified by connecting a compensating voltage (Vs s = V s s ∠ δs + β ) in
series with the line as shown in Figure B-7. As an example, the sending-end voltage (Vs) can be
used to excite the primary windings of a transformer. The induced secondary (compensating) volt-
age modifies the sending-end voltage to be the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ). For a given
amount of transmitted power, the Shunt-Series configuration needs to be rated for only a fractional
amount of transmitted power. Therefore, it is the preferred topology of a PFC.
When the sending-end voltage is modified to Vs , the line voltage (VR,X), which is the difference
between the modified sending- and receiving-end voltages, causes a prevailing current I = I∠θI to
flow through the line impedance Z = R + jX . When a series-compensating voltage is used to mod-
ify the line voltage, the modified sending-end voltage is given by
Vs = Vs + Vs s or V s ∠ δs + ψ = V s ∠δs + V s s ∠ δs + β 2-94a

Ps , Qs Ps′ , Qs′ Pr , Qr
Vs′s
VR VX
I

R X

Pse
Vs Vs′ Vr
Qse

Figure B-7 Modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) with a series-compensating voltage.

592 Appendix B

as shown in Figure B-7, or

Vs s = Vs − Vs or V s s ∠ δs + β = V s ∠ δs + ψ − V s ∠δs 2-94b

where Vs s, the difference between the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) and the sending-end volt-
age (Vs), is the compensating voltage, β is the relative phase angle of the compensating voltage (Vs s)
with respect to the sending-end voltage (Vs), and ψ is the phase-shift angle of the modified sending
end voltage (Vs ) with respect to the sending-end voltage (Vs).
Alternatively, the above equations can be rewritten as

V s ∠ δr + δ = V s ∠ δr + δ + V s s ∠ δr + δ + β 2-95a

or

V s s ∠ δr + δ + β = V s ∠ δr + δ − V s ∠ δr + δ 2-95b

For a given compensating voltage (Vs s = V s s ∠ δs + β , the magnitude (Vs ) and modified power
angle δ = δs − δr of the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) are derived as

Vs = V 2s + V 2s s + 2V s V s s cos β 2-103

and

V s sin δ + V s s sin δ + β
δ = tan −1 2-104
V s cos δ + V s s cos δ + β

For a given modified sending-end voltage Vs = V s ∠δs , the magnitude (Vs s) and the relative
phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) are derived as

Vs s = V 2s + V 2s − 2V s V s cos δ − δ 2-106

and

V s sin δ − V s sin δ
β = tan −1 −δ 2-107
V s cos δ − V s cos δ

The phase-shift angle ψ = δ − δ of the modified sending-end voltage (Vs ) is derived as

V s s sin β
ψ = tan −1 2-98
V s + V s s cos β

Alternately, this can be found by substituting Equation (2-51a) into Equation (2-104) and setting
δ = 0 on both sides of the Equation (2-104).
The magnitude (Vs s) and relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) are
derived as

Vs s = V 2s + V 2s − 2V s V s cos ψ 2-100

and
V s sin ψ
β = tan −1 2-101
V s cos ψ − V s
 Appendix B 593

From Equation (B-30a), it can be written that

VR,X = Vs − Vr or
VR,X = Vs + Vs s − Vr using Equation 2-94a or
V R,X ∠θVR,X = V s ∠δs + V s s ∠ δs + β − V r ∠δr or
V R,X ∠ δs + θVR,Xs = V s ∠δs + V s s ∠ δs + β − V r ∠ δs − δ using Equation 2-27
where θVR,Xs is the phase angle of the voltage across the line impedance with respect to the sending-
end voltage.
Considering the sending-end voltage phasor as reference (i.e. δs = 0 ), it can be written from the
above equation that

V R,X ∠θVR,Xs = V s ∠0 + V s s ∠β − V r ∠ − δ or
V R,X cos θVR,Xs + jV R,X sin θVR,Xs = V s + V s s cos β − V r cos δ + jV s s sin β + jV r sin δ

Equating the real and imaginary parts of both sides of the above equation, it can be written that

V R,X cos θVR,Xs = V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β B-51a

and

V R,X sin θVR,Xs = V r sin δ + V s s sin β B-51b

Therefore, the magnitude of the voltage (VR,X) across the line impedance is derived from Equa-
tions (B-51a) and (B-51b) using the identity (cos2θVR,Xs + sin2θVR,Xs = 1) as

2 2
V R,X = V 2R,X cos2 θVR,Xs + sin2 θVR,Xs = V R,X cos θVR,Xs + V R,X sin θVR,Xs

or

2 2
V R,X = V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β + V r sin δ + V s s sin β

or

V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r cos2 δ + sin2 δ + V 2s s cos2 β + sin2 β

V R,X =
+ 2V s V s s cos β − 2V s s V r cos δ + β

or

V R,X = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r + V 2s s + 2V s V s s cos β − 2V s s V r cos δ + β B-52

using the identities (cos2δ + sin2δ = 1) and (cos2β + sin2β = 1).

Using Equation (B-4), Equation (B-52) can be rewritten as

V R,X = V 2Rn,Xn + V s s V s s + 2 V s cos β − V r cos δ + β B-53

The phase angle of the voltage (VR,X) across the line impedance with respect to the sending-end
voltage is derived from Equations (B-51a) and (B-51b) as

sin θVR,Xs V R,X sin θVR,Xs

θVR,Xs = tan −1 tan θVR,Xs = tan −1 = tan −1
cos θVR,Xs V R,X cos θVR,Xs
594 Appendix B

or
V r sin δ + V s s sin β
θVR,Xs = tan −1 B-54
V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β
The line current (I) is defined as
VR,X V R,X ∠θVR,X V R,X ∠ δs + θVR,Xs
I= or I∠θI = or I∠ δs + θIs =
Z R + jX R + jX
Considering the sending-end voltage phasor as reference (i.e. δs = 0 ), it can be written from the
above equation that
V R,X ∠θVR,Xs
I∠θIs = B-55a
R + jX
or
V R,X X
I∠θIs = ∠ θVR,Xs − tan −1 B-55b
2 2 R
R +X
where the magnitude of the prevailing line current (I) is given by
V R,X
I= B-31
R2 + X 2
and the phase angle of the line current (I) with respect to the sending-end voltage (Vs) is given by
X
θIs = θVR,Xs − tan −1 B-56
R
where θVR,Xs is given in Equations (B-54).
Equations (B-31) and (B-53) can be combined as

V 2Rn,Xn + V s s V s s + 2 V s cos β − V r cos δ + β

I= B-57a
R2 + X 2

V 2Rn,Xn V s s V s s + 2 V s cos β − V r cos δ + β

I= + or
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
V s s V s s + 2 V s cos β − V r cos δ + β
I= I 2n + B-57b
R2 + X 2
using Equation (B-8).
Equation (B-55a) can be expanded as
V R,X ∠θVR,Xs
I∠θIs = or
R + jX
V R,X cos θVR,Xs + jV R,X sin θVR,Xs
I cos θIs + jI sin θIs = or
R + jX
V R,X cos θVR,Xs + jV R,X sin θVR,Xs
I cos θIs + jI sin θIs = R − jX or
R + jX R − jX
V R,X cos θVR,Xs + jV R,X sin θVR,Xs
I cos θIs + jI sin θIs = R − jX or
R2 + X 2
 Appendix B 595

RV R,X cos θVR,Xs + XV R,X sin θVR,Xs

I cos θIs + jI sin θIs =
R2 + X 2
RV R,X sin θVR,Xs − XV R,X cos θVR,Xs
+j or
R2 + X 2
R V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β + X V r sin δ + V s s sin β
I cos θIs + jI sin θIs =
R2 + X 2
R V r sin δ + V s s sin β − X V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β
+j
R2 + X 2
using Equations (B-51a) and (B-51b).
Equating the real and imaginary parts of both sides of the above equation, it can be written that

R V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β + X V r sin δ + V s s sin β

I cos θIs = B-58a
R2 + X 2

and

R V r sin δ + V s s sin β − X V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β

I sin θIs = B-58b
R2 + X 2

Therefore, the magnitude of the prevailing line current (I) is derived from Equations (B-58a) and
(B-58b) using the identity cos2 θIs + sin2 θIs = 1 as

2 2
I= I 2 cos2 θIs + sin2 θIs = I cos θIs + I sin θIs or

2
1 R V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β + X V r sin δ + V s s sin β +
I= or
R + X2
2
R V r sin δ + V s s sin β − X V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β 2

1 2 2
I= R2 + X 2 V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β + V r sin δ + V s s sin β or
R2 + X 2
1 2 2
I= V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β + V r sin δ + V s s sin β or
R2 + X 2
1
I= V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r + V 2s s + 2V s V s s cos β − 2V s s V r cos δ + β or
R2 + X 2
V R,X
I= B-31
R2 + X 2
using Equation (B-52).
The phase angle of the line current (I) with respect to the sending-end voltage (Vs) is given by

V r sin δ + V s s sin β X
θIs = tan −1 − tan −1 B-59a
V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β R

using Equations (B-56) and (B-54), or

sin θIs I sin θIs

θIs = tan −1 tan θIs = tan −1 = tan −1
cos θIs I cos θIs
596 Appendix B

Table B-1 Line current for a VR and a PAR (asym).

VR PAR (asym)

I V s s V s s ± 2 V s − V r cos δ V s s V s s ± 2V r sin δ
I 2n + I 2n +
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
V r sin δ X V r sin δ ± V s s X
θIs tan −1 − tan −1 θIs = tan −1 − tan −1
V s − V r cos δ ± V s s R V s − V r cos δ R
RV r sin δ − X V s − V r cos δ ± V s s R V r sin δ ± V s s − X V s − V r cos δ
tan −1 θIs = tan −1
R V s − V r cos δ ± V s s + XV r sin δ R V s − V r cos δ + X V r sin δ ± V s s

or
R V r sin δ + V s s sin β − X V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β
θIs = tan −1 B-59b
R V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β + X V r sin δ + V s s sin β
using Equations (B-58a) and (B-58b).
For a Voltage Regulator (VR), β = 0 and 180 represent increasing and decreasing voltages,
respectively. For a Phase Angle Regulator (Asymmetric), PAR (asym), β = ± 90 represents increas-
ing and decreasing power flows, respectively. The expressions for the magnitude and phase angle
for the line current (I) are derived in Equations (B-57b) and (B-59a) or (B-59b), respectively. They
are shown in Table B-1 for a VR and a PAR (asym), respectively.

B.2.2.1 Power Flow at the Sending End with a Series-Compensating Voltage

The active power flow at the sending end of the line when the line is series-compensated is given by
Ps = V s I cos δs − θI or
Ps = V s I cos θIs 2-116
where θIs is the phase angle of the line current with respect to the sending-end voltage.
Equation (2-116) can be rewritten using Equation (B-58a) as
R V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β + X V r sin δ + V s s sin β
Ps = V s or
R2 + X 2
A Vs Vs s Vs s
Ps = R − cos δ + cos β + X sin δ + sin β or
2
R +X 2 V r V r Vr
A Vs Vs s Vs s
Ps = R − cos δ + X sin δ + R cos β + X sin β B-60
R2 + X 2 Vr Vr Vr
or
As
Ps = Psn + R cos β + X sin β B-61
R + X2
2

where Psn is given in Equation (B-12) and

V sV s s
As = B-62
R2 + X 2
The reactive power flow at the sending end of the line when the line is series-compensated is
given by
 Appendix B 597

Qs = V s I sin δs − θI or
Qs = − V s I sin θIs 2-120
where θIs is the phase angle of the line current with respect to the sending-end voltage.
Equation (2-120) can be rewritten using Equation (B-58b) as
R V r sin δ + V s s sin β − X V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β
Qs = − V s or
R2 + X 2
A Vs s Vs Vs s
Qs = − R sin δ + sin β + X − cos δ + cos β or
2
R +X 2 V r V r Vr
A Vs Vs s Vs s
Qs = − R sin δ + X − cos δ − R sin β + X cos β B-63
2
R +X 2 Vr Vr Vr
or
As
Qs = Qsn + −R sin β + X cos β B-64
R + X2
2

where Qsn and As are given in Equations (B-14) and (B-62), respectively. For R = 0, the active and
reactive power flows at the sending end of the line are given in Equations (2-118) and (2-122),
respectively.
Equations (B-61) and (B-64) can be combined as
2
2 2 As 2 2
Ps − Psn + Qs − Qsn = 2 2
R cos β + X sin β + −R sin β + X cos β
R +X
2 2 A2
Ps − Psn + Qs − Qsn = 2 s 2 R2 + X 2 cos2 β + sin2 β
R +X
2 2
Ps − Psn + Qs − Qsn = A2s B-65

using the identity cos2 β + sin2 β = 1 and

− R Qs − Qsn + X Ps − Psn
tan β = B-66
R Ps − Psn + X Qs − Qsn
Digress:
From Equations (B-61) and (B-64), the active and reactive power flows at the sending end are
related as

Qs − Qsn −R sin β + X cos β

= or
Ps − Psn R cos β + X sin β
Qs − Qsn R cos β + X sin β = Ps − Psn −R sin β + X cos β
or R Ps − Psn sin β + X Qs − Qsn sin β = −R Qs − Qsn cos β + X Ps − Psn cos β
or
−R Qs − Qsn + X Ps − Psn
tan β =
R Ps − Psn + X Qs − Qsn
Using Equation (B-62), Equation (B-65) can be rearranged as

R2 + X 2 2 2
Vs s = Ps − Psn + Qs − Qsn B-67
Vs
598 Appendix B

Equation (B-66) can be rearranged as

− R Qs − Qsn + X Ps − Psn
β = tan −1 B-68
R Ps − Psn + X Qs − Qsn
For R = 0, Vs s and β are given in Equations (2-125) and (2-126), respectively.
For the desired active and reactive power flows (Ps∗, Qs∗) within the allowable range, the mag-
nitude (Vs s) and the relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) are deter-
mined by substituting Ps = P∗s and Qs = Q∗s in Equations (B-67) and (B-68), respectively. The
relative phase angle (β) is the angle between the voltage regulator line (i.e. β = 0 line) and the line
that passes through (Psn, Qsn) and (Ps∗, Qs∗).
Recall that for R = 0,
2 2
Ps − Psn + Qs − Qsn = a2s 2-123

The Equation (B-65) represents the locus of a circle, centered at [Psn, Qsn] with a radius of As,
which is defined in Equation (B-62). The Equation (2-123) represents the locus of a circle, centered
at [Psn, Qsn] with a radius of as, which is defined in Equation (2-119).
For implementation of the VR, the relative phase angle is set to β = 0 or β = 180 in Equa-
tions (B-61) and (B-64). For β = 0 , the variations of Ps and Qs are given by
As RAs
Ps = Psn + 2 2
R cos 0 + X sin 0 or Ps = Psn +
R +X R2 + X 2
and
As XAs
Qs = Qsn + 2 2
−R sin 0 + X cos 0 or Qs = Qsn +
R +X R2 + X 2
For β = 180 , the variations of Ps and Qs are given by
As RAs
Ps = Psn + 2 2
R cos 180 + X sin 180 or Ps = Psn −
R +X R2 + X 2
and
As XAs
Qs = Qsn + −R sin 180 + X cos 180 or Qs = Qsn −
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
For β = 0 or β = 180 , the variations of Ps and Qs are then given by
RAs
Ps = Psn ± B-69a
R2 + X 2
or
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
Vs s = ± Ps − Psn or Vs s = Ps − Psn B-69b
RV s RV s
using Equation (B-62) and
XAs
Qs = Qsn ± B-69c
R2 + X 2
or
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
Vs s = ± Qs − Qsn or Vs s = Qs − Qsn B-69d
XV s XV s
 Appendix B 599

using Equation (B-62). For a desired Ps, the required Vs s can be determined using Equation (B-69b);
for a desired Qs, the required Vs s can be determined using Equation (B-69d).
For implementation of the PAR (asym), the relative phase angle is set to β = 90 or β = − 90 in
Equations (B-61) and (B-64). For β = 90 , the variations of Ps and Qs are given by
As XAs
Ps = Psn + 2 2
R cos 90 + X sin 90 or Ps = Psn +
R +X R2 + X 2
and
As RAs
Qs = Qsn + −R sin 90 + X cos 90 or Qs = Qsn −
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
For β = − 90 , the variations of Ps and Qs are given by
As XAs
Ps = Psn + 2 2
R cos −90 + X sin −90 or Ps = Psn −
R +X R2 + X 2
and
As RAs
Qs = Qsn + 2 2
−R sin −90 + X cos −90 or Qs = Qsn +
R +X R2 + X 2
For β = ± 90 , the variations of Ps and Qs are then given by
XAs
Ps = Psn ± B-70a
R2 + X 2
or

R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
Vs s = ± Ps − Psn or Vs s = Ps − Psn B-70b
XV s XV s
using Equation (B-62) and
RAs
Qs = Qsn B-70c
R2 + X 2
or

R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
Vs s = Qs − Qsn or Vs s = Qs − Qsn B-70d
RV s RV s
using Equation (B-62). For a desired Ps, the required Vs s can be determined using Equation (B-70b);
for a desired Qs, the required Vs s can be determined using Equation (B-70d).
From equations (B-61) and (B-64), the active and reactive power flows at the sending end are
related as
Qs − Qsn − R sin β + X cos β − R sin β + X cos β
= or Qs = Ps − Psn + Qsn B-71
Ps − Psn R cos β + X sin β R cos β + X sin β
For a VR, β = 0 or β = 180 represents an increase or decrease in voltage, respectively. The rela-
tionship between active and reactive power flows at the sending end, derived in Equation (B-71),
can be reduced to
X
Qs = Ps − Psn + Qsn B-72
R
600 Appendix B

For a PAR (asym), β = + 90 or β = − 90 represents an increase or decrease in power flow,

respectively. The relationship between the active and the reactive power flows at the sending
end, derived in Equation (B-71), can be reduced to
R
Qs = − Ps − Psn + Qsn B-73
X
B.2.2.2 Power Flow at the Receiving End with a Series-Compensating Voltage
The active power flow at the receiving end of the line when the line is series-compensated is
given by

Pr = V r I cos δr − θI or
Pr = V r cos δI cos θIs − V r sin δI sin θIs 2-129

where θIs is the phase angle of the line current with respect to the sending-end voltage.
Equation (2-129) can be rewritten using Equations (B-58a) and (B-58b) as
R V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β + X V r sin δ + V s s sin β
Pr = V r cos δ
R2 + X 2
R V r sin δ + V s s sin β − X V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β
− V r sin δ
R2 + X 2
or
A Vr Vs s Vr Vs s
Pr = R 1− cos δ + cos β cos δ + X sin δ + sin β cos δ
R +X2 2 Vs Vs Vs Vs

Vr Vs s Vr Vs s
−R sin δ + sin β sin δ + X 1 − cos δ + cos β sin δ
Vs Vs Vs Vs
or
A Vr Vs s Vr Vs s
Pr = R 1− cos δ + cos β cos δ − R sin δ + sin β sin δ
2
R +X 2 Vs Vs Vs Vs

Vr Vs s Vr Vs s
+X sin δ + sin β cos δ + X 1 − cos δ + cos β sin δ
Vs Vs Vs Vs
or
A Vr Vs s Vr
Pr = R 1− cos δ cos δ + R cos δ + β − R sin δ sin δ
2
R +X 2 Vs Vs Vs

Vr Vr Vs s
+X sin δ cos δ + X 1 − cos δ sin δ + X sin δ + β
Vs Vs Vs
or
A Vr Vs s
Pr = R cos δ − cos2 δ + sin2 δ + X sin δ + R cos δ + β
2
R +X 2 Vs Vs

Vs s
+X sin δ + β
Vs
 Appendix B 601

or
A Vr Vs s Vs s
Pr = R cos δ − + X sin δ + R cos δ + β + X sin δ + β
2
R +X 2 Vs Vs Vs
B-74

using the identity (cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1), or

Ar
Pr = Prn + R cos δ + β + X sin δ + β B-75
R + X2
2

where Prn is given in Equation (B-21) and

VrVs s
Ar = B-76
R2 + X 2
The reactive power flow at the receiving end of the line when the line is series-compensated is
given by
Qr = V r I sin δr − θI or
Qr = − V r sin δ I cos θIs − V r cos δ I sin θIs 2-133
where θIs is the phase angle of the line current with respect to the sending-end voltage.
Equation (2-133) can be rewritten using Equations (B-58a) and (B-58b) as
R V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β + X V r sin δ + V s s sin β
Qr = − V r sin δ
R2 + X 2
R V r sin δ + V s s sin β − X V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β
− V r cos δ
R2 + X 2
or
A Vr Vs s Vr Vs s
Qr = −R 1 − cos δ + cos β sin δ − X sin δ + sin β sin δ
R2 + X 2 Vs Vs Vs Vs

Vr Vs s Vr Vs s
−R sin δ + sin β cos δ + X 1 − cos δ + cos β cos δ
Vs Vs Vs Vs
or
A Vr Vs s Vr Vs s
Qr = −R 1 − cos δ + cos β sin δ − R sin δ + sin β cos δ
R2 + X 2 Vs Vs Vs Vs

Vr Vs s Vr Vs s
−X sin δ + sin β sin δ + X 1 − cos δ + cos β cos δ
Vs Vs Vs Vs
or
A Vr Vs s Vr
Qr = −R 1 − cos δ sin δ − R sin δ + β − R sin δ cos δ
R +X2 2 Vs Vs Vs

Vr Vr Vs s
−X sin δ sin δ + X 1 − cos δ cos δ + X cos δ + β
Vs Vs Vs
602 Appendix B

or
A Vr
Qr = −R sin δ + X cos δ − cos2 δ + sin2 δ
R +X2 2 Vs

Vs s Vs s
−R sin δ + β + X cos δ + β
Vs Vs
or
A Vr Vs s Vs s
Qr = −R sin δ + X cos δ − −R sin δ + β + X cos δ + β
R +X2 2 Vs Vs Vs
B-77

using the identity (cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1), or

Ar
Qr = Qrn + −R sin δ + β + X cos δ + β B-78
R + X2
2

where Qrn and Ar are given in Equations (B-22) and (B-76), respectively. For R = 0, the active and
reactive power flows at the receiving end of the line are given in Equations (2-131) and (2-135),
respectively.
Equations (B-75) and (B-78) can be combined as
2
2 2 Ar 2
Pr − Prn + Qr − Qrn = R cos δ + β + X sin δ + β
R2 + X 2
2
+ −R sin δ + β + X cos δ + β

or

2 2 A2r
Pr − Prn + Qr − Qrn = R2 + X 2 cos2 δ + β + sin2 δ + β
R + X2
2

or
2 2
Pr − Prn + Qr − Qrn = A2r B-79

using the identity cos2 δ + β + sin2 δ + β = 1 and

− R Qr − Qrn + X Pr − Prn
tan δ + β = B-80
R Pr − Prn + X Qr − Qrn

Digress:
From Equations (B-75) and (B-78), the active and reactive power flows at the receiving end are
related as

Qr − Qrn − R sin δ + β + X cos δ + β

= or
Pr − Prn R cos δ + β + X sin δ + β
Qr − Qrn R cos δ + β + X sin δ + β = Pr − Prn −R sin δ + β + X cos δ + β
or R Pr − Prn sin δ + β + X Qr − Qrn sin δ + β = − R Qr − Qrn cos δ + β
+ X Pr − Prn cos δ + β
 Appendix B 603

or
− R Qr − Qrn + X Pr − Prn
tan δ + β =
R Pr − Prn + X Qr − Qrn
Using Equation (B-76), Equations (B-79) can be rearranged as

R2 + X 2 2 2
Vs s = Pr − Prn + Qr − Qrn B-81
Vr
Equation (B-80) can be rearranged as
− R Qr − Qrn + X Pr − Prn
β = tan −1 −δ B-82
R Pr − Prn + X Qr − Qrn
For R = 0, Vs s and β are given in Equations (2-138) and (2-139), respectively.
For the desired active and reactive power flows (Pr∗, Qr∗) within the allowable range, the mag-
nitude (Vs s) and the relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) are deter-
mined by substituting Pr = P∗r and Qr = Q∗r in Equations (B-81) and (B-82), respectively. The
relative phase angle (β) is the angle between the voltage regulator line (i.e. β = 0 line) and the line
that passes through (Prn, Qrn) and (Pr∗, Qr∗).
Recall that for R = 0,
2 2
Pr − Prn + Qr − Qrn = a2r 2-136
The Equation (B-79) represents the locus of a circle, centered at [Prn, Qrn] with a radius of Ar,
which is defined in Equation (B-76). The Equation (2-136) represents the locus of a circle, centered
at [Prn, Qrn] with a radius of ar, which is defined in Equation (2-132).
For implementation of the VR, the relative phase angle is set to β = 0 or β = 180 in Equa-
tions (B-75) and (B-78). For β = 0 , the variations of Pr and Qr are given by
Ar
Pr = Prn + R cos δ + 0 + X sin δ + 0 or
R2 + X 2
Ar
Pr = Prn + R cos δ + X sin δ
R2 + X 2
and
Ar
Qr = Qrn + −R sin δ + 0 + X cos δ + 0 or
R + X2
2

Ar
Qr = Qrn + −R sin δ + X cos δ
R2 + X 2
For β = 180 , the variations of Ps and Qs are given by

Ar
Pr = Prn + R cos δ + 180 + X sin δ + 180 or
R + X2
2

Ar
Pr = Prn + −R cos δ − X sin δ
R2 + X 2
and
Ar
Qr = Qrn + −R sin δ + 180 + X cos δ + 180 or
R + X2
2

Ar
Qr = Qrn + R sin δ − X cos δ
R2 + X 2
604 Appendix B

For β = 0 or β = 180 , the variations of Pr and Qr are then given by

Ar
Pr = Prn ± R cos δ + X sin δ B-83a
R + X2
2

or

R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
Vs s = ± Pr − Prn or Vs s = Pr − Prn
V r R cos δ + X sin δ V r R cos δ + X sin δ
B-83b
using Equation (B-76) and

Ar
Qr = Qrn ± −R sin δ + X cos δ B-83c
R + X2
2

or

R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
Vs s = ± Qr − Qrn or Vs s = Qr − Qrn
V r −R sin δ + X cos δ V r −R sin δ + X cos δ
B-83d

using Equation (B-76). For a desired Pr, the required Vs s can be determined using Equation (B-83b);
for a desired Qr, the required Vs s can be determined using Equation (B-83d).
For implementation of the PAR (asym), the relative phase angle is set to β = 90 or β = − 90 in
Equations (B-75) and (B-78). For β = 90 , the variations of Pr and Qr are given by
Ar
Pr = Prn + R cos δ + 90 + X sin δ + 90 or
R2 + X 2
Ar
Pr = Prn + −R sin δ + X cos δ
R2 + X 2
and
Ar
Qr = Qrn + −R sin δ + 90 + X cos δ + 90 or
R + X2
2

Ar
Qr = Qrn + −R cos δ − X sin δ
R2 + X 2
For β = −90 , the variations of Pr and Qr are given by
Ar
Pr = Prn + R cos δ − 90 + X sin δ − 90 or
R + X2
2

Ar
Pr = Prn + R sin δ − X cos δ
R2 + X 2
and
Ar
Qr = Qrn + −R sin δ − 90 + X cos δ − 90 or
R2 + X 2
Ar
Qr = Qrn + R cos δ + X sin δ
R2 + X 2
 Appendix B 605

For β = ± 90 , the variations of Pr and Qr are then given by

Ar
Pr = Prn ± −R sin δ + X cos δ B-84a
R + X2
2

or

R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
Vs s = ± Pr − Prn or Vs s = Pr − Prn
V r −R sin δ + X cos δ V r −R sin δ + X cos δ
B-84b

using Equation (B-76) and

Ar
Qr = Qrn R cos δ + X sin δ B-84c
R + X2
2

or

R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
Vs s = Qr − Qrn or Vs s = Qr − Qrn
V r R cos δ + X sin δ V r R cos δ + X sin δ
B-84d

using Equation (B-76). For a desired Pr, the required Vs s can be determined using Equation (B-84b);
for a desired Qr, the required Vs s can be determined using Equation (B-84d).
From Equations (B-75) and (B-78), the active and reactive power flows at the receiving end are
related as

Qr − Qrn − R sin δ + β + X cos δ + β

=
Pr − Prn R cos δ + β + X sin δ + β

or

− R sin δ + β + X cos δ + β
Qr = Pr − Prn + Qrn B-85
R cos δ + β + X sin δ + β

For a VR, β = 0 or 180o represents an increase or decrease in voltage, respectively. The relation-
ship between the active and reactive power flows at the receiving end, derived in Equation (B-85),
can be reduced to

R sin δ ± X cos δ − R sin δ + X cos δ

Qr = Pr − Prn + Qrn or Qr = Pr − Prn + Qrn
± R cos δ ± X sin δ R cos δ + X sin δ
B-86

For a PAR (asym), β = 90 or –90o represents an increase or decrease in power flow, respectively.
The relationship between the active and reactive power flows at the receiving end, derived in Equa-
tion (B-85), can be reduced to

R cos δ X sin δ R cos δ + X sin δ

Qr = Pr − Prn + Qrn or Qr = Pr − Prn + Qrn
R sin δ ± X cos δ R sin δ − X cos δ
B-87
606 Appendix B

B.2.2.3 Power Flow at the Modified Sending End with a Series-Compensating Voltage
The active power flow at the modified sending end of the line when the line is series-compensated is
given by
Ps = V s Icos δs − θI or
Ps = V s cos ψ I cos θIs + V s sin ψI sin θIs 2-147
where θIs is the phase angle of the line current with respect to the sending-end voltage.
Equation (2-147) can be rewritten using Equations (2-96a), (2-96b), (B-58a), and (B-58b) as
R V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β + X V r sin δ + V s s sin β
Ps = V s + V s s cos β
R2 + X 2
R V r sin δ + V s s sin β − X V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β
+ V s s sin β
R2 + X 2
or
V s + V s s cos β V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β + V s s sin β V r sin δ + V s s sin β
Ps = R
R2 + X 2
V s + V s s cos β V r sin δ + V s s sin β − V s s sin β V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β
+X
R2 + X 2
or

1 R V s + V s s cos β V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β + V s s sin β V r sin δ + V s s sin β

Ps =
R + X2
2
+ X V s + V s s cos β V r sin δ + V s s sin β − V s s sin β V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β
or

1 R V 2s + 2V s V s s cos β + V 2s s − V s V r cos δ − V s s V r cos δ + β

Ps = B-88
R2 + X 2 + X V s V r sin δ + V s s V r sin δ + β
or

A Vs RV 2s s
Ps = R − cos δ + X sin δ +
R2 + X 2 Vr R2 + X 2
Vs s
+ 2 R 2V s cos β − V r cos δ + β + XV r sin δ + β
R + X2
or

RV 2s s 1
Ps = Psn + + R 2As cos β − Ar cos δ + β + XAr sin δ + β
R + X2
2
R + X2
2

B-89
where Psn, As, and Ar are given in Equations (B-12), (B-62), and (B-76), respectively.
The reactive power flow at the modified sending end of the line when the line is series-
compensated is given by
Qs = V s Isin δs − θI or
Qs = V s sin ψ I cos θIs − V s cos ψI sin θIs 2-150
where θIs is the phase angle of the line current with respect to the sending-end voltage.
Equation (2-150) can be rewritten using Equations (2-96a), (2-96b), (B-58a), and (B-58b) as
 Appendix B 607

R V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β + X V r sin δ + V s s sin β

Qs = V s s sin β
R2 + X 2
R V r sin δ + V s s sin β − X V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β
− V s + V s s cos β
R2 + X 2
or

V s s sin β V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β − V s + V s s cos β V r sin δ + V s s sin β

Qs = R
R2 + X 2
V s s sin β V r sin δ + V s s sin β + V s + V s s cos β V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β
+X
R2 + X 2
or

1 R V s s sin β V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β − V s + V s s cos β V r sin δ + V s s sin β

Qs =
R + X2
2
+ X V s s sin β V r sin δ + V s s sin β + V s + V s s cos β V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β

or

1 − R V s V r sin δ + V s s V r sin δ + β
Qs =
R2 + X 2 + X V 2s + 2V s V s s cos β + V 2s s − V s V r cos δ − V s s V r cos δ + β
B-90

or

A Vs XV 2s s
Qs = − R sin δ + X − cos δ +
2
R +X 2 Vr R2 + X 2
Vs s
+ 2 − RV r sin δ + β + X 2V s cos β − V r cos δ + β
R + X2

or

XV 2s s 1
Qs = Qsn + + − RAr sin δ + β + X 2As cos β − Ar cos δ + β
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2

B-91

where Qsn, As, and Ar are given in Equations (B-14), (B-62), and (B-76), respectively. For R = 0,
the active and reactive power flows at the modified sending end of the line are given in
Equations (2-149) and (2-152), respectively.
Equations (B-89) and (B-91) can be combined as
2 2
Ps − Psn + Qs − Qsn
2
RV 2s s
+ R 2As cos β − Ar cos δ + β + XAr sin δ + β
1 R2 + X 2
=
R2 + X 2 2
XV 2s s
+ − RAr sin δ + β + X 2As cos β − Ar cos δ + β
R2 + X 2
608 Appendix B

or substituting for As and Ar,

2 2
Ps − Psn + Qs − Qsn
2
V 2s s RV s s + R 2V s cos β − V r cos δ + β + XV r sin δ + β
= 2
R2 + X 2 + XV s s − RV r sin δ + β + X 2V s cos β − V r cos δ + β 2

or

2 2 V 2s s
Ps − Psn + Qs − Qsn =
2 RV s s 2 + R 2V s cos β − V r cos δ + β 2
R2 + X 2
+ XV r sin δ + β 2 + 2RV s s R 2V s cos β − V r cos δ + β
+ 2R 2V s cos β − V r cos δ + β XV r sin δ + β + 2XV r sin δ + β RV s s + XV s s 2
+ RV r sin δ + β 2 + X 2V s cos β − V r cos δ + β 2 − 2XV s s RV r sin δ + β
− 2RV r sin δ + β X 2V s cos β − V r cos δ + β + 2X 2V s cos β − V r cos δ + β XV s s

or

2 2 V 2s s
Ps − Psn + Qs − Qsn = Vs s 2 + 2V s cos β − V r cos δ + β 2
R2 + X 2
2
+ V r sin δ + β + 2V s s 2V s cos β − V r cos δ + β

or

2 2 V 2s s
Ps − Psn + Qs − Qsn = V 2 + 2V s s 2V s cos β − V r cos δ + β
R2 + X 2 s s
+ 4V 2s cos2 β − 4V s V r cos β cos δ + β + V 2r B-92

or
2 2
Ps − Psn + Qs − Qsn R2 + X 2 = V 2s s V 2s s + 2V s s 2V s cos β − V r cos δ + β

+ 4V 2s cos2 β − 4V s V r cos β cos δ + β + V 2r

or

V 4s s + 2 2V s cos β − V r cos δ + β V 3s s + 4V 2s cos2 β − 4V s V r cos β cos δ + β + V 2r V 2s s

2 2
− Ps − Psn + Qs − Qsn R2 + X 2 = 0 B-93

Note that the Equation (B-93) is a fourth-order equation that may need to be solved using a
numerical method to determine the magnitude (Vs s) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s).
Out of the four possible values of Vs , given in Equation (B-93), the most desired value is the
one that provides the lowest APR, thus the lowest cost solution.
Recall that for R = 0,

V 4s s + 2 2V s cos β − V r cos δ + β V 3s s + 4V 2s cos2 β − 4V s V r cos β cos δ + β + V 2r V 2s s

2 2
− Ps − Psn + Qs − Qsn X2 = 0 2-154
 Appendix B 609

Alternately, Equations (B-89) and (B-91) can be combined as

2 2
RV 2s s XV 2s s
Ps − Psn − + Qs − Qsn −
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
2
1 R 2As cos β − Ar cos δ + β + XAr sin δ + β +
=
R2 + X 2 − RAr sin δ + β + X 2As cos β − Ar cos δ + β 2

or
2 2
RV 2s s XV 2
Ps − Psn − 2 2 + Qs − Qsn − 2 s s 2
R +X R +X B-94
= 4As cos β − 4As Ar cos β cos δ + β + A2r
2 2

and

RV 2s s XV 2s s
R Ps − Psn − + X Q s − Q sn − V r sin δ
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
XV 2 RV 2
+ R Qs − Qsn − 2 s s 2 − X Ps − Psn − 2 s s 2 2V s − V r cos δ
R +X R +X
tan β = − 2 2
RV XV
R Ps − Psn − 2 s s 2 + X Qs − Qsn − 2 s s 2 V r cos δ
R +X R +X
XV 2 RV 2
+ R Qs − Qsn − 2 s s 2 − X Ps − Psn − 2 s s 2 V r sin δ
R +X R +X
B-95

Digress:
From Equations (B-89) and (B-91), it can be written that

RV 2s s
Ps − Psn −
R + X 2 = R 2As cos β − Ar cos δ + β + XAr sin δ + β
2
or
XV 2 − RAr sin δ + β + X 2As cos β − Ar cos δ + β
Qs − Qsn − 2 s s 2
R +X
RV 2s s
Ps − Psn − −RAr sin δ + β + X 2As cos β − Ar cos δ + β
R2 + X 2

XV 2s s
= Qs − Qsn − R 2As cos β − Ar cos δ + β + XAr sin δ + β or
R2 + X 2
RV 2s s RV 2s s
− R Ps − Psn − 2 2 Ar sin δ + β + X P s − Psn − 2 2As cos β
R +X R + X2
− Ar cos δ + β
XV 2s s
= R Qs − Qsn − 2As cos β − Ar cos δ + β
R2 + X 2
XV 2s s
+ X Qs − Qsn − Ar sin δ + β
R2 + X 2
or
610 Appendix B

RV 2s s XV 2s s
− R Ps − Psn − 2 2 Ar sin δ + β − X Qs − Qsn − 2 Ar sin δ + β
R +X R + X2
XV 2
= R Qs − Qsn − 2 s s 2 2As cos β − Ar cos δ + β
R +X
RV 2
− X Ps − Psn − 2 s s 2 2As cos β − Ar cos δ + β
R +X
or

RV 2s s XV 2s s
− R Ps − Psn − + X Q s − Q sn − Ar sin δ + β
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
XV 2 RV 2
= R Qs − Qsn − 2 s s 2 − X Ps − Psn − 2 s s 2 2As cos β − Ar cos δ + β
R +X R +X
or using intermediate variables (P and Q)
− R P + X Q Ar sin δ + β = R Q − X P 2As cos β − Ar cos δ + β
or
− R P + X Q Ar sin δ cos β + cos δ sin β
= R Q −X P 2As cos β − Ar cos δ cos β − sin δ sin β
or
− R P + X Q Ar cos δ sin β − R Q − X P Ar sin δ sin β
= R P + X Q Ar sin δ cos β + R Q − X P 2As cos β − Ar cos δ cos β
or
− R P + X Q Ar cos δ + R Q − X P Ar sin δ sin β
= R P + X Q Ar sin δ + R Q − X P 2As − Ar cos δ cos β
or

RV 2s s XV 2
R Ps − Psn − 2 + X Qs − Qsn − 2 s s 2
2 V r sin δ
R +X R +X
XV 2 RV 2
+ R Qs − Qsn − 2 s s 2 − X Ps − Psn − 2 s s 2 2V s − V r cos δ
R +X R +X
tan β = −
RV 2 XV 2
R Ps − Psn − 2 s s 2 + X Qs − Qsn − 2 s s 2 V r cos δ
R +X R +X
XV 2 RV 2
+ R Qs − Qsn − 2 s s 2 − X Ps − Psn − 2 s s 2 V r sin δ
R +X R +X
Recall that for R = 0,
2
2 V 2s s
Ps − Psn + Qs − Qsn − = 4a2s cos2 β − 4as ar cos β cos δ + β + a2r 2-153a
X
 Appendix B 611

RV 2s s XV 2s s
The Equation (B-94) represents the locus of a circle, centered at Psn + 2 2 , Qsn +
R +X R2 + X 2
with a radius of 4A2s cos2 β − 4As Ar cos β cos δ + β + A2r The Equation (2-153a)
V 2s s
represents the locus of a circle, centered at with a radius of
Psn , Qsn +
X
4a2s cos2 β − 4as ar cos β cos δ + β + a2r . Note that for a given series-compensating voltage (Vs s),
the center of the locus is fixed, but the radius is a function of the relative phase angle (β) and the
locus is actually an ellipse.
For the desired active and reactive power flows (Ps ∗ and Qs ∗) at the modified sending end, the
required magnitude (Vs s) and the relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s)
can be determined by substituting Ps = P∗s and Qs = Q∗s in Equations (B-93) and (B-95), respec-
tively. The relative phase angle (β) is the angle between the voltage regulator line (i.e. β = 0 line)
and the line that passes through (Psn, Qsn) and (Ps ∗, Qs ∗).
For implementation of the VR, the relative phase angle is set to β = 0 or β = 180 in Equa-
tions (B-89) and (B-91). For β = 0 , the variations of Ps and Qs are given by

RV 2s s 1
Ps = Psn + + R 2As cos 0 − Ar cos δ + 0 + XAr sin δ + 0 or
R + X2
2
R + X2
2

RV 2s s 1
Ps = Psn + + R 2As − Ar cos δ + XAr sin δ
R + X2
2
R2 + X 2
and
XV 2s s 1
Qs = Qsn + + −RAr sin δ + 0 + X 2As cos 0 − Ar cos δ + 0 or
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2

XV 2s s 1
Qs = Qsn + + −RAr sin δ + X 2As − Ar cos δ
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2

For β = 180 , the variations of Ps and Qs are given by

RV 2s s 1
Ps = Psn + + R 2As cos 180 − Ar cos δ + 180 + XAr sin δ + 180 or
R2 + X 2 R + X2 2

RV 2s s 1
Ps = Psn + + R −2As + Ar cos δ − XAr sin δ
R + X2
2
R + X2 2

and

XV 2s s 1
Qs = Qsn + + −RAr sin δ + 180 + X 2As cos 180 − Ar cos δ + 180 or
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2

XV 2s s 1
Qs = Qsn + + RAr sin δ + X −2As + Ar cos δ
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2

For β = 0 or β = 180 , the variations of Ps and Qs are then given by

RV 2s s 1
Ps = Psn + + R ± 2As Ar cos δ ± XAr sin δ B-96a
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2
612 Appendix B

or substituting for As and Ar from Equations (B-62) and (B-76)

Ps − Psn R2 + X 2 = RV 2s s ± R 2V s − V r cos δ + XV r sin δ V s s

or
X 1 2
V 2s s ± 2V s − V r cos δ + V r sin δ V s s − Ps − Psn R + X2 = 0
R R
or

X
2V s − V r cos δ + V r sin δ
R
2
X 4
± 2V s − V r cos δ + V r sin δ + Ps − Psn R2 + X 2
R R
Vs s = or
2

1 X
Vs s = 2V s − V r cos δ + V r sin δ
2 R

2
X 4
− 2V s − V r cos δ + V r sin δ + Ps − Psn R2 + X 2 B-96b
R R

and

XV 2s s 1
Qs = Qsn + + RAr sin δ + X ± 2As Ar cos δ B-96c
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2

or substituting for As and Ar from Equations (B-62) and (B-76)

Qs − Qsn R2 + X 2 = XV 2s s ± −RV r sin δ + X 2V s − V r cos δ V s s

or
R 1 2
V 2s s ± − V r sin δ + 2V s − V r cos δ V s s − Qs − Qsn R + X2 = 0
X X
or

R
− V r sin δ + 2V s − V r cos δ
X
2
R 4
± − V r sin δ + 2V s − V r cos δ + Q − Qsn R2 + X 2
X X s
Vs s = or
2
1 R
Vs s = − V r sin δ + 2V s − V r cos δ
2 X
2
R 4
− − V r sin δ + 2V s − V r cos δ + Q − Qsn R2 + X 2 B-96d
X X s
 Appendix B 613

For implementation of the PAR (asym), the relative phase angle is set to β = 90 or β = −90 in
Equations (B-89) and (B-91). For β = 90 , the variations of Ps and Qs are given by
RV 2s s 1
Ps = Psn + + R 2As cos 90 − Ar cos δ + 90 + XAr sin δ + 90 or
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2

RV 2s s 1
Ps = Psn + + R Ar sin δ + XAr cos δ
R + X2
2
R + X2
2

and
XV 2s s 1
Qs = Qsn + + −RAr sin δ + 90 + X 2As cos + 90
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2

− Ar cos δ + 90 or
XV 2s s 1
Qs = Qsn + + −RAr cos δ + X Ar sin δ
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2

For β = −90 , the variations of Ps and Qs are given by

RV 2s s 1
Ps = Psn + + R 2As cos −90 − Ar cos δ − 90
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2

+ XAr sin δ − 90 or
RV 2s s 1
Ps = Psn + 2 2 + R − Ar sin δ − XAr cos δ
R +X R + X2
2

and

XV 2s s 1
Qs = Qsn + + −RAr sin δ − 90 + X 2As cos −90 − Ar cos δ − 90 or
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2

XV 2s s 1
Qs = Qsn + + RAr cos δ + X − Ar sin δ
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
For β = ±90 , the variations of Ps and Qs are then given by
RV 2s s 1
Ps = Psn + ± R Ar sin δ + XAr cos δ B-97a
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2

or substituting for As and Ar from Equations (B-62) and (B-76)

Ps − Psn R2 + X 2 = RV 2s s ± RV r sin δ + XV r cos δ V s s

or
X 1 2
V 2s s ± V r sin δ + V r cos δ V s s − Ps − Psn R + X2 = 0
R R
or
2
X X 4
V r sin δ + V r cos δ ± V r sin δ + V r cos δ + Ps − Psn R2 + X 2
R R R
Vs s = or
2
2
1 X X 4
Vs s = V r sin δ + V r cos δ − V r sin δ + V r cos δ + Ps − Psn R2 + X 2
2 R R R

B-97b
614 Appendix B

and

XV 2s s 1
Qs = Qsn + ± −RAr cos δ + XAr sin δ B-97c
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2

or substituting for As and Ar from Equations (B-62) and (B-76)

Qs − Qsn R2 + X 2 = XV 2s s ± −RV r cos δ + XV r sin δ V s s

or
R 1 2
V 2s s ± − V r cos δ + V r sin δ V s s − Qs − Qsn R + X2 = 0
X X
or

2
R R 4
− V r cos δ + V r sin δ ± − V r cos δ + V r sin δ + Q − Qsn R2 + X 2
X X X s
Vs s =
2
2
1 R R 4
Vs s = − V r cos δ + V r sin δ − − V r cos δ + V r sin δ + Q − Qsn R2 + X 2
2 X X X s

B-97d

For a desired Ps , the required Vs s can be determined using Equation (B-97b); for a desired Qs , the
required Vs s can be determined using Equation (B-97d).
From Equations (B-89) and (B-91), the active and reactive power flows at the modified sending
end are related as
XV 2s s
Qs − Qsn − R2 + X 2 − RAr sin δ + β + X 2As cos β − Ar cos δ + β
=
Ps − Psn −
RV 2s s R 2As cos β − Ar cos δ + β + XAr sin δ + β
R2 + X 2

or

− RAr sin δ + β + X 2As cos β − Ar cos δ + β RV 2s s

Qs = Ps − Psn −
R 2As cos β − Ar cos δ + β + XAr sin δ + β R + X2
2
B-98
XV 2
+ Qsn + 2 s s 2
R +X
For a VR, β = 0 or 180o represents an increase or decrease in voltage, respectively. The relation-
ship between the active and reactive power flows at the modified sending end, derived in
Equation (B-98), can be reduced to

RAr sin δ ± X 2As − Ar cos δ RV 2 XV 2s s

Qs = Ps − Psn − 2 s s 2 + Qsn +
± R 2As − Ar cos δ ± XAr sin δ R +X R2 + X 2
or

− RAr sin δ + X 2As − Ar cos δ RV 2s s XV 2s s

Qs = Ps − Psn − + Qsn + B-99
R 2As − Ar cos δ + XAr sin δ R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
 Appendix B 615

For a PAR (asym), β = 90 or −90 represents an increase or decrease in power flow, respectively.
The relationship between the active and reactive power flows at the modified sending end, derived
in Equation (B-98), can be reduced to

RAr cos δ ± XAr sin δ RV 2 XV 2s s

Qs = Ps − Psn − 2 s s 2 + Qsn +
± RAr sin δ ± XAr cos δ R +X R2 + X 2

or

− RAr cos δ + XAr sin δ RV 2 XV 2s s

Qs = Ps − Psn − 2 s s 2 + Qsn + B-100
RAr sin δ + XAr cos δ R +X R2 + X 2

B.2.2.4 Exchanged Power by a Series-Compensating Voltage

The series-compensating voltage is an AC voltage source that carries a current, which is at any
phase angle with its terminal voltage. Therefore, the compensating voltage, essentially, emulates
a four-quadrant, series-compensating impedance Zse = Rse − jX se at its terminals. This virtual
impedance consists of a resistance Rse = + R or − R and a reactance X se = X C or − X L in series
with the line. A Xse > 0 means the compensating reactance is capacitive and Xse < 0 means the com-
pensating reactance is inductive.
The exchanged active and reactive powers by the series-compensating voltage with the line are
defined as

Pse = Ps − Ps 2-169a

Qse = Qs − Qs 2-179a

where

As
Ps = Psn + R cos β + X sin β B-61
R2 + X 2
As
Qs = Qsn + −R sin β + X cos β B-64
R2 + X 2
RV 2s s 1
Ps = Psn + + R 2As cos β − Ar cos δ + β + XAr sin δ + β B-89
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2

XV 2s s 1
Qs = Qsn + + −RAr sin δ + β + X 2As cos β − Ar cos δ + β
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2

B-91

Using Equations (B-61) and (B-89), it can be written from Equation (2-169a) that

As RV 2s s
Pse = Ps − Ps = R cos β + X sin β −
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2

1
− R 2As cos β − Ar cos δ + β + XAr sin δ + β
R2 + X 2
616 Appendix B

or

RV 2s s 1
Pse = − + −R As cos β − Ar cos δ + β + X As sin β − Ar sin δ + β
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2

B-101
where As and Ar are given in Equations (B-62) and (B-76), respectively.
Using Equations (B-64) and (B-91), it can be written from Equation (2-179a) that

As XV 2s s
Qse = Qs − Qs = −R sin β + X cos β −
2
R +X 2 R2 + X 2
1
− −RAr sin δ + β + X 2As cos β − Ar cos δ + β
R2 + X 2
or

XV 2s s 1
Qse = − + −R As sin β − Ar sin δ + β − X As cos β − Ar cos δ + β
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
B-102
where As and Ar are given in Equations (B-62) and (B-76), respectively.
Equations (B-101) and (B-102) can be combined as
2 2
RV 2s s XV 2s s 1
Pse + + Qse + = ×
R + X2
2
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
2
−R As cos β − Ar cos δ + β + X As sin β − Ar sin δ + β
2
+ −R As sin β − Ar sin δ + β − X As cos β − Ar cos δ + β

or
2 2 2
RV 2s s XV 2s s 1 As cos β − Ar cos δ + β
Pse + + Qse + = R2 + X 2
R + X2
2
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2
+ As sin β − Ar sin δ + β 2

or
2 2
RV 2s s XV 2s s
Pse + + Qse + = A2s + A2r − 2As Ar cos δ
R + X2
2
R2 + X 2
or substituting for As and Ar from Equations (B-62) and (B-76)
2 2
RV 2s s XV 2s s V 2s s
Pse + + Qse + = V 2 + V 2r − 2V s V r cos δ
R + X2
2
R2 + X 2 R + X2 s
2

or with a substitution from Equations (B-4)

2 2
RV 2s s XV 2s s V 2s s
Pse + + Qse + = V2
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2 Rn,Xn
or
2 2
RV 2s s XV 2s s
Pse + + Qse + = A2se B-103
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
 Appendix B 617

where

V Rn,Xn
Ase = V s s B-104
R2 + X 2

with a substitution from Equation (B-8) and

RV 2s s
− Pse + RAr sin δ − X As − Ar cos δ
R + X2
2

XV 2
+ Qse + 2 s s 2 −R As − Ar cos δ − XAr sin δ
R +X
tan β = B-105
RV 2s s
Pse + 2 −R As − Ar cos δ − XAr sin δ
R + X2
XV 2
− Qse + 2 s s 2 −RAr sin δ + X As − Ar cos δ
R +X

Digress:
From Equations (B-101) and (B-102), the exchanged active and reactive powers by the series-
compensating voltage are related as

RV 2s s
Pse +
R + X 2 = − R As cos β − Ar cos δ + β + X As sin β − Ar sin δ + β
2

XV 2 − R As sin β − Ar sin δ + β − X As cos β − Ar cos δ + β

Qse + 2 s s 2
R +X

or

RV 2s s
Pse + −R As sin β − Ar sin δ + β − X As cos β − Ar cos δ + β
R + X2
2

XV 2s s
= Qse + −R As cos β − Ar cos δ + β + X As sin β − Ar sin δ + β
R + X2
2

RV 2s s
Pse + − R As sin β − Ar sin δ cos β − Ar cos δ sin β
R2 + X 2
− X As cos β − Ar cos δ cos β + Ar sin δ sin β
XV 2s s
= Qse + − R As cos β − Ar cos δ cos β + Ar sin δ sin β
R + X2
2

+ X As sin β − Ar sin δ cos β − Ar cos δ sin β

RV 2s s
Pse + − R As − Ar cos δ sin β + RAr sin δ cos β
R + X2
2

− X As − Ar cos δ cos β − XAr sin δ sin β

XV 2s s
= Qse + − R As − Ar cos δ cos β − RAr sin δ sin β
R2 + X 2
+ X As − Ar cos δ sin β − XAr sin δ cos β
618 Appendix B

RV 2s s
Pse + −R As − Ar cos δ − XAr sin δ sin β
R + X2
2

XV 2s s
− Qse + −RAr sin δ + X As − Ar cos δ sin β
R2 + X 2

RV 2s s
= − Pse + RAr sin δ − X As − Ar cos δ cos β
R + X2
2

XV 2s s
+ Qse + −R As − Ar cos δ − XAr sin δ cos β
R2 + X 2
RV 2s s
− Pse +
RAr sin δ − X As − Ar cos δ
R2 + X 2
XV 2
+ Qse + 2 s s 2 −R As − Ar cos δ − XAr sin δ
R +X
tan β =
RV 2s s
Pse + 2 −R As − Ar cos δ − XAr sin δ
R + X2
XV 2
− Qse + 2 s s 2 −RAr sin δ + X As − Ar cos δ
R +X

Recall that for R = 0,

2
V 2s s
P2se + Qse + = a2se 2-183
X

RV 2s s XV 2s s
The Equation (B-103) represents the locus of a circle, centered at − 2, − 2 with a 2
R +X R + X2
radius of Ase, which is defined in Equation (B-104). The Equation (2-183) represents the locus of a
V2
circle, centered at 0, − s s with a radius of ase, which is defined in Equation (2-178).
X
Using Equation (B-104), Equation (B-103) can be rearranged as

2 2 2
RV 2s s RV 2s s XV 2s s XV 2s s V s s V Rn,Xn
P2se + 2Pse + + Q2se + 2Qse + − =0
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2

or
2
V 2s s − V 2Rn,Xn − 2RPse − 2XQse V 2s s + R2 + X 2 P2se + Q2se = 0 B-106

Solving the above quadratic equation results in

2
V 2Rn,Xn − 2RPse − 2XQse ± V 2Rn,Xn − 2RPse − 2XQse − 4 R2 + X 2 P2se + Q2se
V 2s s =
2
or
2
V 2Rn,Xn V 2Rn,Xn
V 2s s = − RPse − XQse ± − RPse − XQse − R2 + X 2 P2se + Q2se
2 2
 Appendix B 619

or

2
V 2Rn,Xn V 2Rn,Xn
Vs s = + − RPse − XQse + − RPse − XQse − R2 + X 2 P2se + Q2se
2 2
B-107a

2
V 2Rn,Xn V 2Rn,Xn
Vs s = + − RPse − XQse − − RPse − XQse − R2 + X 2 P2se + Q2se
2 2
B-107b

2
V 2Rn,Xn V 2Rn,Xn
Vs s = − − RPse − XQse + − RPse − XQse − R2 + X 2 P2se + Q2se
2 2
B-107c

2
V 2Rn,Xn V 2Rn,Xn
Vs s = − − RPse − XQse − − RPse − XQse − R2 + X 2 P2se + Q2se
2 2
B-107d

Out of the four possible values of Vs s, given by Equations (B-107a through B-107d), the most
desired value is the one that provides the lowest APR, thus the lowest cost solution.
The relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) is derived from
Equation (B-105) as

RV 2s s
− Pse + RAr sin δ − X As − Ar cos δ
R2 + X 2
XV 2
+ Qse + 2 s s 2 −R As − Ar cos δ − XAr sin δ
R +X
β = tan −1 B-108
RV 2
Pse + 2 s s 2 −R As − Ar cos δ − XAr sin δ
R +X
XV 2
− Qse + 2 s s 2 −RAr sin δ + X As − Ar cos δ
R +X
For the desired exchanged active and reactive powers (Pse∗, Qse∗) within the allowable range, the
required magnitude (Vs s) and the relative phase angle (β) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s)
can be determined by substituting Pse = P∗se and Qse = Q∗se in Equations (B-107a through B-107d)
and (B-108), respectively. The relative phase angle (β) is the angle between the voltage regulator
line (i.e. β = 0 line) and the line that passes through (Prn, Qrn) and (Pse∗, Qse∗). For R = 0, refer
to Equations (2-186a through 2-186d) and (2-187a or 2-187b).
For implementation of the VR, the relative phase angle is set to β = 0 or β = 180 in
Equations (B-101) and (B-102). For β = 0 , the variations of Pse and Qse are given by
RV 2s s 1
Pse = − + −R As cos 0 − Ar cos δ + 0 + X As sin 0 − Ar sin δ + 0 or
R + X2
2
R + X2
2

RV 2s s 1
Pse = − + −R As − Ar cos δ + X − Ar sin δ
R + X2
2
R + X2
2
620 Appendix B

and

XV 2s s 1
Qse = − + −R As sin 0 − Ar sin δ + 0
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2

− X As cos 0 − Ar cos δ + 0 or
XV 2s s 1
Qse = − 2 2 + −R − Ar sin δ − X As − Ar cos δ
R +X R2 + X 2
For β = 180 , the variations of Pse and Qse are given by

RV 2s s 1
Pse = − + −R As cos 180 − Ar cos δ + 180
R + X2
2
R2 + X 2
+ X As sin 180 − Ar sin δ + 180 or
RV 2s s 1
Pse = − 2 2 + −R − As + Ar cos δ + X + Ar sin δ
R +X R + X2
2

and

XV 2s s 1
Qse = − + −R As sin 180 − Ar sin δ + 180
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
− X As cos 180 − Ar cos δ + 180 or
XV 2s s 1
Qse = − 2 2 + −R + Ar sin δ − X − As + Ar cos δ
R +X R + X2
2

For β = 0 or β = 180 , the variations of Pse and Qse are then given by

RV 2s s 1
Pse = − + −R ± As Ar cos δ +X Ar sin δ B-109a
R + X2
2
R + X2
2

or substituting for As and Ar from Equations (B-62) and (B-76)

Pse R2 + X 2 = −RV 2s s + R V s − V r cos δ XV r sin δ V s s

or
X 1
V 2s s ± V s − V r cos δ + V r sin δ V s s + Pse R2 + X 2 = 0
R R
or
2
X X 4
V s − V r cos δ + V r sin δ ± V s − V r cos δ + V r sin δ − Pse R2 + X 2
R R R
Vs s =
2
B-109b
and

XV 2s s 1
Qse = − + −R Ar sin δ − X ± As Ar cos δ B-109c
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2

or substituting for As and Ar from Equations (B-62) and (B-76)

Qse R2 + X 2 = −XV 2s s −RV r sin δ + X V s − V r cos δ V s s

 Appendix B 621

or
R 1 2
V 2s s ± − V r sin δ + V s − V r cos δ V s s + Qse R + X2 = 0
X X
or
2
− XR V r sin δ + V s − V r cos δ ± − XR V r sin δ + V s − V r cos δ − 4
X Qse R2 + X 2
Vs s =
2
or

2
1 R R 4
Vs s = − V r sin δ + V s − V r cos δ − V r sin δ + V s − V r cos δ − Q R2 + X 2
2 X X X se

B-109d
For R = 0, it can be written from Equation (B-109b) that
Pse X
Vs s = X or Vs s = Pse B-109e
V r sin δ V r sin δ
For R = 0, it can be written from Equation (B-109d) that

V s − V r cos δ ± V s − V r cos δ 2 − 4XQse

Vs s = or
2
B-109f
V s − V r cos δ V s − V r cos δ 2 − 4XQse
Vs s =
2

For implementation of the PAR (asym), the relative phase angle is set to β = 90 or β = −90 in
Equations (B-101) and (B-102). For β = 90 , the variations of Pse and Qse are given by

RV 2s s 1
Pse = − + −R As cos 90 − Ar cos δ + 90
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2

+ X As sin 90 − Ar sin δ + 90 or
RV 2s s 1
Pse = − + −R Ar sin δ + X As − Ar cos δ
R + X2
2
R2 + X 2
and

XV 2s s 1
Qse = − + −R As sin 90 − Ar sin δ + 90
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2

− X As cos 90 − Ar cos δ + 90 or
XV 2s s 1
Qse = − 2 2 + −R As − Ar cos δ − X Ar sin δ
R +X R + X2
2

For β = −90 , the variations of Pse and Qse are given by

RV 2s s 1
Pse = − + −R As cos −90 − Ar cos δ − 90
R + X2
2
R2 + X 2
+ X As sin −90 − Ar sin δ − 90 or
RV 2s s 1
Pse = − 2 2 + −R − Ar sin δ + X − As + Ar cos δ
R +X R + X2
2
622 Appendix B

and

XV 2s s 1
Qse = − + −R As sin −90 − Ar sin δ − 90
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2

− X As cos −90 − Ar cos δ − 90 or

XV 2s s 1
Qse = − + −R − As + Ar cos δ − X − Ar sin δ
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2

For β = ±90 , the variations of Pse and Qse are then given by

RV 2s s 1
Pse = − + −R ± Ar sin δ + X ± As Ar cos δ B-110a
R + X2
2
R + X2
2

or substituting for As and Ar from Equations (B-62) and (B-76)

Pse R2 + X 2 = −RV 2s s RV r sin δ + X V s − V r cos δ V s s

or
X 1
V 2s s ± V r sin δ + V s − V r cos δ V s s + Pse R2 + X 2 = 0
R R
or
2
X X 4
V r sin δ + V s − V r cos δ ± V r sin δ + V s − V r cos δ − Pse R2 + X 2
R R R
Vs s =
2
or

2
X X 4
V r sin δ + V s − V r cos δ − V r sin δ + V s − V r cos δ − Pse R2 + X 2
R R R
Vs s =
2

B-110b

and

XV 2s s 1
Qse = − + −R ± As Ar cos δ − X ± Ar sin δ B-110c
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2

or substituting for As and Ar from Equations (B-62) and (B-76)

Qse R2 + X 2 = −XV 2s s R V s − V r cos δ + XV r sin δ V s s

or
R 1 2
V 2s s ± V s − V r cos δ + V r sin δ V s s + Qse R + X2 = 0
X X
 Appendix B 623

or

2
R R 4
V s − V r cos δ + V r sin δ ± V s − V r cos δ + V r sin δ − Q R2 + X 2
X X X se
Vs s =
2
or
2
R R 4
V s − V r cos δ + V r sin δ − V s − V r cos δ + V r sin δ − Q R2 + X 2
X X X se
Vs s =
2

B-110d
For R = 0, it can be written from Equation (B-110b) that

Pse X
Vs s = X or Vs s = Pse B-110e
V s − V r cos δ V s − V r cos δ

For R = 0, it can be written from Equation (B-110d) that

V r sin δ ± V r sin δ 2 − 4XQse V r sin δ − V r sin δ 2 − 4XQse

Vs s = or Vs s =
2 2

B-110f

From Equations (B-62), (B-76), (B-101), and (B-102), the exchanged active and reactive powers by
the compensating voltage are related as

XV 2s s
Qse +
R2 + X 2 = − R V s sin β − V r sin δ + β − X V s cos β − V r cos δ + β
RV 2 − R V s cos β − V r cos δ + β + X V s sin β − V r sin δ + β
Pse + 2 s s 2
R +X
or

R V s sin β − V r sin δ + β + X V s cos β − V r cos δ + β RV 2s s XV 2s s

Qse = Pse + 2 − 2
R V s cos β − V r cos δ + β − X V s sin β − V r sin δ + β 2
R +X R + X2
B-111

For a VR, β = 0 or 180o represents an increase or decrease in voltage, respectively. The relation-
ship between the exchanged active and reactive powers by the compensating voltage, derived in
Equation (B-111), can be reduced to

R V r sin δ + X ± V s V r cos δ RV 2s s XV 2s s
Qse = Pse + −
R ± V s V r cos δ − X V r sin δ R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2

or

− RV r sin δ + X V s − V r cos δ RV 2s s XV 2s s
Qse = Pse + 2 − 2 B-112
R V s − V r cos δ + XV r sin δ 2
R +X R + X2
624 Appendix B

For a PAR (asym), β = 90 or −90 represents an increase or decrease in power flow, respectively.
The relationship between the exchanged active and reactive powers by the compensating voltage,
derived in Equation (B-111), can be reduced to

R ± V s V r cos δ + X ± V r sin δ RV 2s s XV 2s s
Qse = Pse + 2 − 2
R ± V r sin δ − X ± V s V r cos δ 2
R +X R + X2

or

R V s − V r cos δ + XV r sin δ RV 2 XV 2
Qse = Pse + 2 s s 2 − 2 s s 2 B-113
RV r sin δ − X V s − V r cos δ R +X R +X

B.2.2.5 Additional Series-Compensating Voltages

A series-compensating voltage can be used to implement (1) Phase Angle Regulator (symmetric)
and (2) Reactance Regulator. The expressions for the magnitude and phase angle for the line cur-
rent (I) are derived in Equations (B-57b) and (B-59a) or (B-59b), respectively, where the relative
phase angle (β) is given by
ψ ψ
Equation (2-200): β = + 90 for ψ > 0 or β = + 270 for ψ < 0 for a PAR (sym) and
2 2
− R Qr − Qrn + X Pr − Prn
Equation (B-82): β = tan −1 − δ for a RR.
R Pr − Prn + X Qr − Qrn

B.2.2.5.1 Phase Angle Regulator (Symmetric)

A PAR (sym) connects a compensating voltage (Vs s) in series with the line to regulate the phase-
shift angle (ψ) of the line voltage (Vs) at the sending end. The magnitude (Vs ) of the modified send-
ing-end voltage (Vs ) and that (Vs) of the sending-end voltage (Vs) are the same, i.e. V s = V s . The
magnitude (Vs s) of the series-compensating voltage (Vs s) for a phase-shift angle (ψ) is defined as
ψ
V s s = 2V s sin 2-198
2
The relative phase angle is defined as
ψ ψ
β= + 90 for ψ > 0 or β= + 270 for ψ < 0 2-200
2 2
Rewriting Equation (B-12), the active power flow at the modified sending end of the line is
given by
A Vs
Ps = R − cos δ + X sin δ B-114
2
R +X 2 Vr
where
V sV r
A= B-13
R2 + X 2
and the modified power angle (δ ) is given by
δ =δ+ψ 2-51a
 Appendix B 625

Rewriting Equation (B-14), the reactive power flow at the modified sending end of the line is
given by
A Vs
Qs = − R sin δ + X − cos δ B-115
R +X 2 2 Vr
Using Equation (B-13), Equations (B-114) and (B-115) can be combined as
2 2
RV 2s XV 2
Ps − 2 2 + Qs − 2 s 2
R +X R +X
A2 2 2
= 2 −R cos δ + X sin δ + −R sin δ − X cos δ
R + X2
or
2 2
RV 2s XV 2
Ps − 2 2 + Qs − 2 s 2
R +X R +X
2
A
= 2 R2 cos2 δ + sin2 δ + X 2 cos2 δ + sin2 δ = A2
R + X2
using the identity cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1 , or
2 2
RV 2s XV 2s
Ps − + Qs − = A2 B-116
R + X2
2
R + X2
2

Recall that for R = 0,

2
V 2s
P2s + Qs − = a2 2-205
X

RV 2s XV 2s
The Equation (B-116) represents the locus of a circle, centered at , with a
R 2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
radius of A, which is defined in Equation (B-13). The Equation (2-205) represents the locus of a
V2
circle, centered at 0, s with a radius of a, which is defined in Equation (2-41).
X
Rewriting Equation (B-21), the active power flow at the receiving end of the line is given by
A Vr
Pr = R cos δ − + X sin δ B-117
2
R +X 2 Vs
since V s = V s .
Rewriting Equation (B-22), the reactive power flow at the receiving end of the line is given by
A Vr
Qr = −R sin δ + X cos δ − B-118
R2 + X 2 Vs
since V s = V s .
Using Equation (B-13), Equations (B-117) and (B-118) can be combined as
2 2
RV 2r XV 2
Pr + 2 2 + Qr + 2 r 2
R +X R +X
2
A 2 2
= 2 R cos δ + X sin δ + −R sin δ + X cos δ
R + X2
626 Appendix B

or
2 2
RV 2r XV 2
Pr + 2 2 + Qr + 2 r 2
R +X R +X
A2
= 2 R2 cos2 δ + sin2 δ + X 2 cos2 δ + sin2 δ = A2
R + X2
using the identity cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1 , or
2 2
RV 2r XV 2r
Pr + + Qr + = A2 B-119
R + X2
2
R + X2
2

and

XV 2r RV 2r
R Qr + 2 − X Pr +
2
R +X R + X2
2
tan δ = 2 B-46
RV XV 2
− R P r + 2 r 2 − X Qr + 2 r 2
R +X R +X
Recall that for R = 0,
2
V 2r
P2r + Qr + = a2 2-206
X

− RV 2r − XV 2r
The Equation (B-119) represents the locus of a circle, centered at , with a
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
radius of A, which is defined in Equation (B-13). The Equation (2-206) represents the locus of a
V2
circle, centered at 0, − r with a radius of a, which is defined in Equation (2-41).
X
Rearranging Equation (B-119), it can be written that
2 2
RV 2r XV 2r
Pr + + Qr + = A2 or
R + X2
2
R + X2
2

2 2
XV 2r RV 2r
Qr + = A2 − Pr + or
R + X2
2
R + X2
2

2
XV 2r RV 2r
Qr + = A2 − P r + B-120
R + X2
2
R + X2
2

Rearranging Equation (B-46), it can be written that

XV 2r RV 2r
R Qr + 2 − X Pr +
2
R +X R + X2
2
tan δ = or
RV 2 XV 2
− R P r + 2 r 2 − X Qr + 2 r 2
R +X R +X
RV 2r XV 2r
− R Pr + 2 2 tan δ − X Qr + tan δ
R +X R + X2
2

XV 2 RV 2
= R Qr + 2 r 2 − X P r + 2 r 2 or
R +X R +X
 Appendix B 627

XV 2r XV 2r
− R Qr + 2 2 − X Qr + tan δ
R +X R + X2
2

RV 2r RV 2r
= R Pr + tan δ − X P r + or
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
RV 2r
Pr + −R tan δ + X
XV 2r R2 + X 2
Qr + = B-121
R + X2
2
R + X tan δ

The Equations (B-120) and (B-121) can be combined as

RV 2r
2 Pr + −R tan δ + X
RV 2r R2 + X 2
A2 − P r + = or
R + X2
2 R + X tan δ
2
RV 2r RV 2r
R + X tan δ A2 − P r + = Pr + −R tan δ + X or
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
2 2
RV 2r RV 2r
R A2 − P r + +X A2 − P r + tan δ
R + X2
2
R + X2
2

RV 2r RV 2r
= −R Pr + tan δ + X P r + or
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
2
RV 2r RV 2r
R Pr + +X A2 − Pr + tan δ
R + X2
2
R + X2
2

2
RV 2r RV 2r
= −R A2 − Pr + + X Pr + or
R + X2
2
R + X2
2

2
RV 2r RV 2r
−R A2 − Pr + + X Pr +
R + X2
2
R + X2
2
tan δ = B-122a
2
RV 2 RV 2
R Pr + 2 r 2 +X A − Pr + 2 r 2
2
R +X R +X

or

2
RV 2r RV 2r
−R A2 − P r + + X Pr +
R + X2
2
R + X2
2
δ = tan −1 B-122b
2
RV 2 RV 2
R Pr + 2 r 2 +X A − Pr + 2 r 2
2
R +X R +X

For a desired active power flow (Pr∗), the required modified power angle δ = δs − δr can be
determined by substituting Pr = P∗r in Equation (B-122b). The phase-shift angle (ψ) can be deter-
mined using the following equation:
ψ = δ −δ 2-51b
628 Appendix B

B.2.2.5.2 Reactance Regulator

A Reactance Regulator (RR) connects a variable capacitor/reactor with a compensating reactance
(X se = X C or −XL) either directly or indirectly in series with the line to regulate the effective reac-
tance of the line between its two ends. A Xse > 0 means the series-compensating reactance is capac-
itive and Xse < 0 means the series-compensating reactance is inductive. When a compensating
reactance (Xse) is connected directly in series with a line, a voltage (Vq), which is in quadrature with
the prevailing line current (I), is formed across the reactance as shown in Figure 2-28.
A compensating voltage (Vs s = −Vq ) may also be used, maintaining the quadrature relationship
with the prevailing line current (I) to emulate a capacitor or reactor in series with the line. In the
process, the compensating voltage modifies the magnitude (Vs ) and phase angle (δs ) of the mod-
ified sending-end voltage (Vs ) simultaneously.
For a desired series-compensating reactance (Xse∗), the required effective line reactance (Xeff) can
be determined by substituting X se = X ∗se in the following equation:
X eff = X − X se 2-210a

Rewriting Equation (B-21), the active power flow at the receiving end of the line is given by
Aeff Vr
Pr = R cos δ − + X eff sin δ B-123
2
R + X 2eff Vs

Rewriting Equation (B-22), the reactive power flow at the receiving end of the line is given by
Aeff Vr
Qr = −R sin δ + X eff cos δ − B-124
2
R + X 2eff Vs

where
V sV r
Aeff = B-125
R2 + X 2eff

Using Equation (B-125), Equations (B-123) and (B-124) can be combined as

2 2
RV 2r X eff V 2r
Pr + + Qr +
R + X 2eff
2
R2 + X 2eff
A2eff 2 2
= R cos δ + X eff sin δ + −R sin δ + X eff cos δ
R2 + X 2eff

or
2 2
RV 2r X eff V 2r
Pr + + Qr +
R + X 2eff
2
R2 + X 2eff
A2eff
= R2 cos2 δ + sin2 δ + X 2eff cos2 δ + sin2 δ = A2eff
R2 + X 2eff

using the identity cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1 , or

2 2
RV 2 X eff V 2r
Pr + 2 r 2 + Qr + 2 = A2eff B-126
R + X eff R + X 2eff
 Appendix B 629

and

X eff V 2r RV 2r
R Qr + − X eff Pr +
R2 + X 2eff R + X 2eff
2
tan δ = , B-127
RV 2 X eff V 2r
− R Pr + 2 r 2 − X eff Qr + 2
R + X eff R + X 2eff

which can also be verified by substituting δ with δ and X with Xeff in Equation (B-46).
Combining Equations (B-123) and (B-125), it can be written that

V sV r Vr
Pr = R cos δ − + X eff sin δ B-128
R2 + X 2eff Vs

or

V sV r V sV r Vr
X 2eff − sin δX eff + R2 − R cos δ − =0
Pr Pr Vs

Solving the above quadratic equation results in

2
V sV r V sV r V sV r Vr
sin δ ± sin δ − 4R2 + 4R cos δ −
Pr Pr Pr Vs
X eff = B-129
2
For a desired active power flow (Pr∗), the required effective line reactance (Xeff) can be determined
by substituting Pr = P∗r in Equation (B-129). The series-compensating reactance (Xse) can be deter-
mined using the following equation:
X se = X − X eff 2-210b

using Equation (2-210a).

The active power flow at the receiving end of the line when the line is series-compensated is
given by
Pr = V r I cos δr − θI = V r I cos δr − δr + θIr = V r I cos −θIr
where θIr is the phase angle of the line current with respect to the receiving-end voltage or
Pr
Pr = V r I cos θIr or I cos θIr = 2-218
Vr
The reactive power flow at the receiving end of the line when the line is series-compensated is
given by

Qr = V r Isin δr − θI = V r Isin δr − δr + θIr = V r Isin −θIr

where θIr is the phase angle of the line current with respect to the receiving-end voltage or
Qr
Qr = −V r I sin θIr or I sin θIr = − 2-219
Vr
From Figure B-7, it can be written that
Vs = Vr + VR + VX B-130
630 Appendix B

Considering the receiving-end voltage phasor as reference (i.e. δr = 0 ), it can be written from
Equation (B-130) that
V s ∠δ = V r ∠0 + I∠θIr R + jX or
V s cos δ + jV s sin δ = V r + I cos θIr + jI sin θIr × R + jX or
V s cos δ + jV s sin δ = V r + RI cos θIr − XI sin θIr + jRI sin θIr + jXI cos θIr
Equating the real and imaginary parts of the both sides of the above equation, it can be writ-
ten that
V s cos δ = V r + RI cos θIr − XI sin θIr B-131a
and
V s sin δ = RI sin θIr + XI cos θIr B-131b

Therefore, the magnitude (Vs ) and modified power angle δ = δs − δr of the modified sending-
end voltage (Vs ) are derived from Equations (B-131a) and (B-131b) using the identity
cos2 δ + sin2 δ = 1 as

2
2
Vs = V 2s cos2 δ + sin2 δ = V s cos δ + V s sin δ

or

2 2
Vs = V r + RI cos θIr − XI sin θIr + RI sin θIr + XI cos θIr

or

2 2
Vs = V 2r + RI + XI + 2V r I R cos θIr − X sin θIr

or using Equations (2-218) and (2-219)

Vs = V 2r + R2 + X 2 I 2 + 2 RPr + XQr B-132

and
sin δ V s sin δ RI sin θIr + XI cos θIr
δ = tan −1 tan δ = tan −1 = tan −1 = tan −1
cos δ V s cos δ V r + RI cos θIr − XI sin θIr
or

XPr − RQr
δ = tan −1 B-133
V 2r + RPr + XQr

Using Equation (2-51b), Equation (B-133) can be rewritten as

XPr − RQr
ψ = tan −1 −δ B-134
V 2r + RPr + XQr

Recall that for R = 0,

2
Vs = V 2r + XI + 2XQr 2-221
 Appendix B 631

and
XPr
δ = tan −1 2-222
V 2r + XQr

The apparent power (Sr) at the receiving end is given by

Sr = P2r + Q2r 2-76

The line current (I) is given by

Sr
I= 2-77
Vr
The series-compensating voltage (Vs s) is given by
V s s = IX se 2-263a
Note that only the absolute value is considered to determine the rating of the series-compensating
voltage.
The relative phase angle (β) is given by
− R Qr − Qrn + X Pr − Prn
β = tan −1 −δ B-82
R Pr − Prn + X Qr − Qrn
The active and reactive power flows (Ps and Qs ) at the modified sending end are given by
Ps = Pr + Pline B-135
and
Qs = Qr + Qline 2-78a
where Pline and Qline are given in Equations (2-318) and (2-11b), respectively.
Changing one parameter (voltage, Vs , or phase angle, δs , of the modified sending-end voltage)
using a PFC affects both the active and the reactive power flows in the line simultaneously. The key
to be able to independently control the active and reactive power flows (P and Q) in a line is to be
able to control both the magnitude and phase angle of the line voltage independently. A PFC modi-
fies the line voltage using the series-compensating voltage of a shunt-series power converter.
The UPFC that consists of two VSCs in a shunt-series configuration can provide independent
controls of the active and reactive power flows in the line. However, the faster response of the UPFC
in ms to subcycle is not needed in most utility applications. The ST brings the right technology for
an independent power flow control at a cost that is an order-of-magnitude less than the life-cycle
cost (installation, operation, and maintenance) of a UPFC.

B.2.2.6 Representation of a Series-Compensating Voltage as a Series-Compensating Impedance

The series-compensating voltage (Vs s = V s s ∠ δs + β = −Vdq , being at any phase angle with
the prevailing line current (I), emulates a four-quadrant, series-compensating impedance
Zse = Rse − jX se that consists of a resistance Rse = + R or −R and a reactance X se = X C or
−X L in series with the line. The equation defining the series-compensating impedance (Zse)
can be written as
Vdq − Vs s
Zse = Z se ∠θZse = or using Equation 1-4 , Z se ∠θZse =
I∠θI I∠θI
632 Appendix B

or
Vs s ∠180 V s s ∠ δs + β + 180
Z se ∠θZse = or Z se ∠θZse =
I∠θI I∠ δs + θIs
or

Vs s
Z se ∠θZse = ∠ β + 180 − θIs , 2-245a
I
which can be further expanded using Equation (B-31) to obtain

Vs s
Z se ∠θZse = R2 + X 2 ∠ β + 180 − θIs B-136
V R,X

where θIs is the phase angle of the line current with respect to the sending-end voltage.
Equation (B-136) can be expanded using Equation (B-59a) as

Vs s
Z se ∠θZse = R2 + X 2 ∠ β + 180 − θIs
V R,X

or
Vs s V r sin δ + V s s sin β X
Z se ∠θZse = R2 + X 2 ∠ β + 180 − tan −1 + tan −1
V R,X V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β R
or

X X
− V s sin β + tan −1 + V r sin δ + β + tan −1
R R
X
− V s s sin tan −1
Vs s R
Z se ∠θZse = R2 + X 2 ∠ tan −1
V R,X X X
− V s cos β + tan −1 + V r cos δ + β + tan −1
R R
X
− V s s cos tan −1
R
B-137

Digress:

V r sin δ + V s s sin β X
F = β + 180 − tan −1 + tan −1
V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β R

or

V r sin δ + V s s sin β X
tan −1 = β + 180 + tan −1 − F
V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β R

or
V r sin δ + V s s sin β X
= tan β + 180 + tan −1 − F
V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β R
 Appendix B 633

or

V r sin δ + V s s sin β X
= tan β + tan −1 − F
V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β R

or

X
sin β + tan −1 −F
V r sin δ + V s s sin β R
=
V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β X
cos β + tan −1 − F
R
X X
sin β + tan −1 cos F − cos β + tan −1 sin F
R R
=
X X
cos β + tan −1 cos F + sin β + tan −1 sin F
R R

or

X X
V r sin δ + V s s sin β cos β + tan −1 cos F + sin β + tan −1 sin F
R R
X X
= sin β + tan −1 cos F − cos β + tan −1 sin F V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β
R R

or

X
cos β + tan −1 cos F V r sin δ + V s s sin β
R
X
− sin β + tan −1 cos F V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β
R
X
= − cos β + tan −1 sin F V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β
R
X
− sin β + tan −1 sin F V r sin δ + V s s sin β
R

or
X
cos F cos β + tan −1 V r sin δ + V s s sin β
R
X
− sin β + tan −1 V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β
R
X
= − sin F cos β + tan −1 V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β
R
X
+ sin β + tan −1 V r sin δ + V s s sin β
R
634 Appendix B

or
X
cos β + tan −1 V r sin δ + V s s sin β
R
X
− sin β + tan −1 V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β
sin F R
=−
cos F X
cos β + tan −1 V s − V r cos δ + V s s cos β
R
X
+ sin β + tan −1 V r sin δ + V s s sin β
R
or
X X X
V r sin δ cos β + tan −1 + V s s sin β cos β + tan −1
− V s sin β + tan −1
R R R
X X
+ V r cos δsin β + tan −1 − V s s cos βsin β + tan −1
R R
tan F = −
X X X
V s cos β + tan −1 − V r cos δ cos β + tan −1 + V s s cos β cos β + tan −1
R R R
X X
+ V r sin δsin β + tan −1 + V s s sin βsin β + tan −1
R R
or
X X X
− V s sin β + tan −1
+ V r sin δ + β + tan −1 − V s s sin tan −1
R R R
tan F =
X X X
− V s cos β + tan −1 + V r cos δ + β + tan −1 − V s s cos tan −1
R R R
or
X X X
− V s sin β + tan −1 + V r sin δ + β + tan −1 − V s s sin tan −1
R R R
F = tan −1
X X X
− V s cos β + tan −1 + V r cos δ + β + tan −1 − V s s cos tan −1
R R R
The emulated series-compensating resistance (Rse) and series-compensating reactance (Xse) are
defined in Equations (2-244a) and (2-244b), which can be redefined using Equation (B-137) as
X X X
− V s cos β + tan −1 + V r cos δ + β + tan −1 − V s s cos tan −1
Vs s R R R
Rse = R2 + X 2
V R,X V R,X

B-138a
and
X X X
V s sin β + tan −1 − V r sin δ + β + tan −1 + V s s sin tan −1
Vs s R R R
X se = R2 + X 2
V R,X V R,X

B-138b
 Appendix B 635

where Xse > 0 means that the series-compensating reactance is capacitive and Xse < 0 means that the
series-compensating reactance is inductive.
The magnitude and phase angle of the series-compensating impedance are given by

− X se
Z se ∠θZse = R2se + X 2se ∠ tan −1 2-242b
Rse

Recall for R = 0,

V s s V s sin β − V r sin δ + β
Rse = X , 2-247a
VX VX

V s s V s cos β − V r cos δ + β + V s s
X se = X , and 2-247b
VX VX

Vs s − V s cos β + V r cos δ + β − V s s
Z se ∠θZse = X ∠ tan −1 2-246
VX V s sin β − V r sin δ + β

B.2.2.6.1 Equivalent Impedance of a Voltage Regulator (VR)

For a VR, the relative phase angle (β) is either 0 or 180 . For β = 0 , the series-compensating resist-
ance (Rse) can be defined from Equation (B-138a) as

X X X
− V s cos tan −1 + V r cos δ + tan −1 − V s s cos tan −1
Vs s R R R
Rse = R2 + X 2
V R,X V R,X

and the series-compensating reactance (Xse) can be defined from Equation (B-138b) as

X X X
V s sin tan −1 − V r sin δ + tan −1 + V s s sin tan −1
Vs s R R R
X se = R2 + X 2
V R,X V R,X

For β = 180 , the series-compensating resistance (Rse) can be defined from Equation (B-138a) as

X X X
V s cos tan −1 − V r cos δ + tan −1 − V s s cos tan −1
Vs s R R R
Rse = R2 + X 2
V R,X V R,X

and the series-compensating reactance (Xse) can be defined from Equation (B-138b) as
X X X
− V s sin tan −1 + V r sin δ + tan −1 + V s s sin tan −1
Vs s R R R
X se = R2 + X 2
V R,X V R,X
636 Appendix B

In general,
X X X
− V s cos tan −1 + V r cos δ + tan −1 − V s s cos tan −1
2 Vs s 2 R R R
Rse = R +X
V R,X V R,X

B-139a
and
X X X
V s sin tan −1 − V r sin δ + tan −1 + V s s sin tan −1
2Vs s 2 R R R
X se = R +X
V R,X V R,X

B-139b
where Vs s > 0 represents β = 0 and Vs s < 0 represents β = 180 .
Using Equation (2-242b), the series-compensating impedance (Zse) can be written from Equa-
tions (B-139a) and (B-139b) as
− X se
Z se ∠θZse = R2se + X 2se ∠ tan −1
Rse
X X X
− V s sin tan −1 + V r sin δ + tan −1 − V s s sin tan −1
Vs s −1 R R R
= R2 + X 2 ∠ tan
V R,X X X X
− V s cos tan −1 + V r cos δ + tan −1 − V s s cos tan −1
R R R
or
X X X
V s sin tan −1 − V r sin δ + tan −1 + V s s sin tan −1
Vs s R R R
Z se ∠θZse = R2 + X 2 ∠ tan −1
V R,X X X X
V s cos tan −1 − V r cos δ + tan −1 + V s s cos tan −1
R R R
B-140
where Vs s > 0 represents β = 0 and Vs s < 0 represents β = 180 .
Recall that for R = 0,

V s s V r sin δ
Rse = −X , 2-249a
VX VX

V s s V s − V r cos δ + V s s
X se = X , and 2-249b
VX VX

Vs s V s − V r cos δ + V s s
Z se ∠θZse = X ∠ tan −1 2-250
VX V r sin δ

B.2.2.6.2 Equivalent Impedance of a Phase Angle Regulator (Asymmetric)

For a PAR (asym), the relative phase angle (β) is either +90 or −90 . For β = 90 , the series-
compensating resistance (Rse) can be defined from Equation (B-138a) as
X X X
V s sin tan −1 − V r sin δ + tan −1 − V s s cos tan −1
Vs s R R R
Rse = R2 + X 2
V R,X V R,X
 Appendix B 637

and the series-compensating reactance (Xse) can be defined from Equation (B-138b) as
X X X
V s cos tan −1 − V r cos δ + tan −1 + V s s sin tan −1
Vs s R R R
X se = R2 + X 2
V R,X V R,X

For β = −90 , the series-compensating resistance (Rse) can be defined from Equation (B-138a) as
X X X
− V s sin tan −1 + V r sin δ + tan −1 − V s s cos tan −1
Vs s R R R
Rse = R2 + X 2
V R,X V R,X

and the series-compensating reactance (Xse) can be defined from Equation (B-138b) as
X X X
− V s cos tan −1 + V r cos δ + tan −1 + V s s sin tan −1
Vs s R R R
X se = R2 + X 2
V R,X V R,X

In general,
X X X
V s sin tan −1 − V r sin δ + tan −1 − V s s cos tan −1
Vs s R R R
Rse = R2 + X 2
V R,X V R,X

B-141a
and
X X X
V s cos tan −1 − V r cos δ + tan −1 + V s s sin tan −1
Vs s R R R
X se = R2 + X 2
V R,X V R,X

B-141b
where Vs s > 0 represents β = 90 and Vs s < 0 represents β = −90 .
Using Equation (2-242b), the series-compensating impedance (Zse) can be written from Equa-
tions (B-141a) and (B-141b) as

X X
− V s cos tan −1 + V r cos δ + tan −1
R R
X
− V s s sin tan −1
2 Vs s 2 −1 R
Z se ∠θZse = R +X ∠ tan
V R,X X X
V s sin tan −1 − V r sin δ + tan −1
R R
X
− V s s cos tan −1
R
B-142

where Vs s > 0 represents β = 90 and Vs s < 0 represents β = −90 .

638 Appendix B

Recall that for R = 0,

V s s V s − V r cos δ
Rse = X , 2-251a
VX VX

V s s V r sin δ + V s s
X se = X , and 2-251b
VX VX

Vs s − V r sin δ − V s s
Z se ∠θZse = X ∠ tan −1 2-252
VX V s − V r cos δ

B.2.2.6.3 Equivalent Impedance of a Phase Angle Regulator (Symmetric)

ψ
For a PAR (sym), the regulation parameter is the phase-shift angle, ψ. For ψ > 0, β = + 90 , the
2
series-compensating resistance (Rse) can be defined from Equation (B-138a) as

ψ X ψ X X
V s sin + tan −1 − V r sin δ + + tan −1 − V s s cos tan −1
Vs s 2 R 2 R R
Rse = R2 + X 2
V R,X V R,X

and the series-compensating reactance (Xse) can be defined from Equation (B-138b) as

ψ X ψ X X
V s cos + tan −1 − V r cos δ + + tan −1 + V s s sin tan −1
Vs s 2 R 2 R R
X se = R2 + X 2
V R,X V R,X

ψ
For ψ < 0, β = + 270 , the series-compensating resistance (Rse) can be defined from
2
Equation (B-138a) as

ψ X ψ X X
− V s sin + tan −1 + V r sin δ + + tan −1 − V s s cos tan −1
2 Vs s2 2 R 2 R R
Rse = R +X
V R,X V R,X

and the series-compensating reactance (Xse) can be defined from Equation (B-138b) as
ψ X ψ X
− V s cos + tan −1 + V r cos δ + + tan −1
2 R 2 R
X
+ V s s sin tan −1
Vs s R
X se = R2 + X 2
V R,X V R,X
 Appendix B 639

In general,
ψ X ψ X
+V s sin + tan −1 − V r sin δ + + tan −1
2 R 2 R
X
− V s s cos tan −1
Vs s R
Rse = R2 + X 2
V R,X V R,X

B-143a
and
ψ X ψ X X
V s cos + tan −1 − V r cos δ + + tan −1 + V s s sin tan −1
Vs s 2 R 2 R R
X se = R2 + X 2
V R,X V R,X

B-143b
ψ ψ
where Vs s > 0 represents β = + 90 and Vs s < 0 represents β = + 270 .
2 2
Therefore, the series-compensating impedance (Zse) can be written from Equations (B-143a) and
(B-134b) as
ψ X ψ X
− V s cos + tan −1 + V r cos δ + + tan −1
2 R 2 R
X
− V s s sin tan −1
Vs s R
Z se ∠θZse = R2 + X 2 ∠ tan −1
V R,X ψ X ψ X
+ V s sin + tan −1 − V r sin δ + + tan −1
2 R 2 R
X
− V s s cos tan −1
R
B-144
ψ ψ
where Vs s > 0 represents β = + 90 and Vs s < 0 represents β = + 270 .
2 2
Recall that for R = 0,
ψ ψ
Vs s V s cos − V r cos δ +
Rse = X 2 2 , 2-253a
VX VX
ψ ψ
Vs s − V s sin + V r sin δ + + Vs s
X se = X 2 2 , and 2-253b
VX VX

ψ ψ
Vs s + V s sin − V r sin δ + − Vs s
Z se ∠θZse =X ∠ tan −1 2 2 2-254
VX ψ ψ
V s cos − V r cos δ +
2 2
640 Appendix B

B.2.2.6.4 Equivalent Impedance of a Reactance Regulator

For a RR, the regulation parameter is the series-compensating reactance (Xse) while the series-
compensating resistance (Rse) is set to zero. Therefore,
Rse = 0 2-257
Vs s
X se = R2 + X 2 B-145
V R,X
From Equations (B-145) and (B-31), it can be written that
Vs s V R,X
= = I, B-146
X se R2 + X 2
which is same as Equation (2-234d).
Therefore, the series-compensating impedance (Zse) can be written from Equation (2-257) and
(B-145) as
Vs s
Z se ∠θZse = Rse − jX se = R2 + X 2 ∠ −90 B-147
V R,X
where Vs s > 0 represents a capacitive compensating-reactance and Vs s < 0 represents an inductive
compensating-reactance.
Recall that for R = 0,
Vs s
X se = X 2-262
VX
and
Vs s
Z se ∠θZse = X ∠ −90 2-258
VX
The compensating reactance (Xse) can be emulated using a series-connected inverter, called Static
Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC). Note that the SSSC inherently emulates a compensating
resistance (Rse = + R) that is equivalent to the active power loss in the inverter and the series-
coupling transformer, which is in the range of 2–3% of the rating of the inverter. It is also possible
to design a compensating resistance (Rse = + R or –R) by using an energy sink or source that is
coupled with the inverter. The most inexpensive way to emulate a four-quadrant, series-connected
reactance/impedance is possible by using a traditional transformer/LTCs-based technology, such as
Sen Transformer in which the active power loss is limited to the loss in the transformer in less than
1% of the rating of the Sen Transformer.

B.2.2.7 RPI, LI, and APR of a PFC

The magnitude (VRn,Xn) of the natural voltage (VRn,Xn) across the line is given by

V Rn,Xn = V 2s − 2V s V r cos δ + V 2r B-4

For the desired series-compensating resistance (Rse∗) and reactance (Xse∗), the required effective
line resistance (Reff) and reactance (Xeff) can be determined by substituting Rse = R∗se and X se = X ∗se
in the following equations:
Reff = R + Rse B-148
 Appendix B 641

and
X eff = X − X se 2-210a

Therefore, the line current is given by

V Rn,Xn
I= B-149
R2eff + X 2eff

Rewriting Equation (B-21) with a substitution from Equation (B-13), the active power flow at the
receiving end of the line is given by
V sV r Vr
Pr = Reff cos δ − + X eff sin δ B-150
R2eff + X 2eff Vs

The Reactive Power Index (RPI), which is a measure of total reactive power (Qline) needed by the
line for a unit of active power (Pr) transmitted, is defined as
Qline
RPI = 2-321
Pr
The reactive power absorbed by the line is given by

Qline = I 2 X 2-11b
where X is the line reactance.
From Equation (2-321), the RPI per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted is given by
2
RPI Q I2X V 2Rn,Xn X R2eff + X 2eff
= line
2 = =
Pr Pr P2r R2eff + X 2eff V 2s V 2r Reff cos δ − Vr
+ X eff sin δ
2
Vs

using Equation (2-11b), (B-149), (B-150), or

RPI V2 X R2eff + X 2eff

= Rn,Xn
2 2 2 B-151
Pr Vs Vr Vr
Reff cos δ − + X eff sin δ
Vs
The Loss Index (LI), which is a measure of line loss as a multiple of baseline loss, is defined as
I2
LI = kR 2-324
I 2n
where
R
kR = 2-325
Rn
where the line resistance is R at line current I and the line resistance is Rn at line current In. Note
that as the line current (I) increases, the loss increases, which increases the temperature and, in
turn, the resistance of the conductor.
From Equations (2-324) and (2-325), the LI per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted is given by

LI I2 V 2Rn,Xn R2eff + X 2eff 1

= kR 2 = kR
Pr I n Pr R2eff + X 2eff I 2n V s V r Reff Vr
cos δ − + X eff sin δ
Vs
642 Appendix B

using Equations (B-149) and (B-150), or

LI V2 R2 + X 2 1 R2 + X 2
= k R 2 Rn,Xn = kR
Pr V Rn,Xn V s V r Vr V sV r Vr
Reff cos δ − + X eff sin δ Reff cos δ − + X eff sin δ
Vs Vs
B-152

using Equation (B-8).

The Apparent Power Rating (APR) of the PFC is defined as

APR = V s s I 2-326

when the PFC is used to increase power flow with a prevailing line current (I);

APR = V s s I n 2-327

when the PFC is used to decrease power flow from a natural line current (In).
From Equation (2-326), the APR per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted is given by

APR Vs s I R2se + X 2se I 2 V 2Rn,Xn R2eff + X 2eff R2se + X 2se

= = =
Pr Pr Pr R2eff + X 2eff V s V r Vr
Reff cos δ − + X eff sin δ
Vs

using Equation (2-245a), (2-242b), (B-149), (B-150), or

APR Vs s I V2 R2se + X 2se

= = Rn,Xn B-153
Pr Pr V sV r Vr
Reff cos δ − + X eff sin δ
Vs

Equations (B-151), (B-152), and (B-153) apply to a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), and an IR, since
all three PFCs emulate a four-quadrant, series-compensating impedance Zse = Rse − jX se that
consists of a resistance Rse = + R or −R and a reactance X se = X C or − X L in series with the line.
However, for a RR, Rse = 0. Therefore, the Equations (B-151), (B-152), and (B-153) can be rewritten
as follows.
The RPI per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted is given by

RPI Q I2X V 2Rn,Xn X R2 + X 2eff

= line = = B-151a
Pr P2r P2r V 2s V 2r Vr 2
R cos δ − + X eff sin δ
Vs

The LI per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted is given by

LI I2 V2 1
= k R 2 = k R 2 Rn,Xn
Pr I n Pr I nV sV r Vr
Reff cos δ − + X eff sin δ
Vs
1 R2 + X 2
= kR B-152a
V sV r Vr
R cos δ − + X eff sin δ
Vs
 Appendix B 643

The APR per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted is given by

APR Vs s I X se I 2 V2 X se
= = = Rn,Xn B-153a
Pr Pr Pr V sV r Vr
R cos δ − + X eff sin δ
Vs
If the line resistance (R) is neglected, the Equations (B-151), (B-152), and (B-153) can be rewritten
as follows.
The RPI per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted is given by

RPI Q I2X V 2Xn X R2se + X 2eff

= line
2 = 2 = B-151b
Pr Pr Pr V 2s V 2r Vr 2
Rse cos δ − + X eff sin δ
Vs
The LI per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted is given by

LI I2 V2 1
= k R 2 = k R 2 Xn
Pr I n Pr InV sV r Vr
Rse cos δ − + X eff sin δ
Vs
1 X2
= kR B-152b
V sV r Vr
Rse cos δ − + X eff sin δ
Vs
The APR per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted is given by

APR Vs s I R2se + X 2se I 2 V 2Xn R2se + X 2se

= = = B-153b
Pr Pr Pr V sV r Vr
Rse cos δ − + X eff sin δ
Vs
Equations (B-151b), (B-152b), and (B-153b) apply to a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), and an IR, since
all three PFCs emulate a four-quadrant, series-compensating impedance Zse = Rse − jX se that
consists of a resistance Rse = + R or −R and a reactance X se = X C or − X L in series with the line.
However, for a RR, Rse = 0. Therefore, the Equations (B-151b), (B-152b), and (B-153b) can be rewrit-
ten as follows.
The RPI per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted is given by

RPI Q I2X V 2Xn X 1 V 2Xn 1

= line = = = B-151c
Pr P2r P2r V 2s V 2r sin δ 2 P2rn X

using Equations (2-41) and (2-46).

The LI per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted is given by

LI I2 V2 1 1 X2 1 X
= k R 2 = k R 2 Xn = kR = kR B-152c
Pr I n Pr I n V s V r X eff sin δ V s V r X eff sin δ Prn X eff

using Equations (2-33), (2-41), and (2-46).

The APR per unit of active power (Pr) transmitted is given by

APR Vs s I X se I 2 X se V 2Xn X eff V2 X se

= = = = Xn B-153c
Pr Pr Pr X eff V s V r sin δ
2
V s V r X eff sin δ

using Equations (2-234d), (2-207), and (2-209). Note that V Xn = V Xeff .

644 Appendix B

B.3 Descriptions of the Examples in Chapter 2

A list of all the “Examples” from Chapter 2 is presented below.

Example 2-1 In Figures 2-2a and 2-2b, the magnitude (Vs) of the sending-end voltage and the line
reactance (X) are 1 and 0.5 pu, respectively. For maximum power transfer, (a) what is
the load resistance (Rload)? (b) what is the load voltage (Vr)? (c) what is the line current
(I)? (d) what is the load power (Pr)? and (e) what is the line reactive power (Qline)?
Example 2-2 In Figures 2-4a and 2-4b, (a) what type and how much of shunt compensation (Xsh) is
needed for maximum amount of power transfer to the resistive load Rload = 0 5 pu ,
assuming the line reactance, X = 0 5pu? (b) what is the load voltage (Vr)? (c) what is the
line current (Iload)? (d) what is the load power (Pr)? (e) what is the line reactive power
(Qline)? and (f ) what is the rating of the shunt compensator (Qsh)?
Example 2-3 Consider in a near no-load line, the magnitude (Vs) of the sending-end voltage (Vs) in
Figure 2-1 is 0.99 pu and Z = jX = j0 045 pu; (a) what is the magnitude (Vr) of the
receiving-end voltage (Vr) when Zload = jX L where X L = 0 945 pu? (b) what is the
magnitude (Vr) when Zload = −jX C where X C = 1 035 pu? (c) what is the rating of the
shunt compensator?
Example 2-4 In Figure 2-6, the magnitudes (Vs and Vr) of the sending- and receiving-end voltages are
1 pu each, the power angle, δ = δs − δr = 30 , and the line reactance, X = 0.5 pu; (a) what
is the natural voltage (VXn) across the line reactance (X)? (b) what is the resulting
current (In)? (c) plot the voltage magnitude along the line.
Example 2-5 Consider the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1. What are the active and
reactive power flows (Psn and Qsn) at the sending end, (Pmn and Qmn) at the midpoint,
and (Prn and Qrn) at the receiving end of the line?
Examples 2-6 through 2-43, except 2-34, employ the electrical system data as given in Table 2-1.
Example 2-6 For V s = 1 2 pu and V s = 0 8 pu, calculate ms and cs .
(VRT)
Example 2-7 For β = 0 or β = 180 , calculate mr and cr.
(VRT)
Examples 2-8 through 2-11 are applicable to PFCs with both Shunt-Shunt and Shunt-Series configurations.
Example 2-8 For a given V s = 0 967715 pu and δ = 41 515336 , calculate Ps and Qs .
Example 2-9 For a given V s = 0 967715 pu and δ = 41 515336 , calculate Pr and Qr.
Example 2-10 For a given Ps = 1 282843 pu and Qs = 0 423737 pu, calculate Vs and δ .
Example 2-11 For a given Pr = 1 282843 pu and Qr = −0 550792 pu, calculate Vs and δ .
Example 2-12 Using a Shunt-Shunt configuration, V s = 0 967715 pu, δ = 41 515336 , Ps = 1 282843
pu, and Qs = 0 423737. Calculate VX, I, Rsh, and Xsh.

Example 2-13 For a given V s s = 0 2 pu and β = 105 , calculate Vs , ψ, and δ .

(IR)
Example 2-14 For a given V s = 0 967715 pu, ψ = 11 515336 , and δ = 41 515336 , calculate Vs s
(IR) and β.
Example 2-15 For a given V s s = 0 2 pu and β = 105 , calculate VX and I.
(IR)
Example 2-16 Using a VR, (a) for Ps = 1 4pu, what is Vs s? (b) for Ps = 0 6pu, what is Vs s? Using a PAR
VR & PAR(asym) (asym), (c) for Qs = 0 667949 pu, what is Vs s? (d) for Qs = −0 132051 pu, what is Vs s?
Example 2-17 Using a VR, (a) for Pr = 1 2 pu, what is Vs s? (b) for Pr = 0 8 pu, what is Vs s? (c) for
VR Qr = 0 078461 pu, what is Vs s? (d) for Qr = −0 614359 pu, what is Vs s?
 Appendix B 645

Example 2-18 Using a PAR (asym), (a) for Pr = 1 34641 pu, what is Vs s? (b) for Pr = 0 65359 pu, what
PAR(asym) is Vs s? (c) for Qr = −0 467949 pu, what is Vs s? (d) for Qr = −0 067949 pu, what is Vs s?
Example 2-19 For β = 90 or β = −90 , calculate mr and cr.
PAR(asym)
Example 2-20 Using a VR, (a) for Ps = 1 2 pu, what is Vs s? (b) for Ps = 0 8 pu, what is Vs s? (c) for
VR Qs = 0 801539 pu, what is Vs s? (d) for Qs = −0 105641 pu, what is Vs s?
Example 2-21 For β = 0 or β = 180 and V s s = 0 2 pu, calculate ms and cs .
Example 2-22 Using a PAR (asym), (a) for Ps = 1 34641 pu, what is Vs s? (b) for Ps = 0 65359 pu, what
PAR(asym) is Vs s? (c) for Qs = 0 547949 pu, what is Vs s? (d) for Qs = 0 147949 pu, what is Vs s?
Example 2-23 For β = 90 or β = −90 and V s s = 0 2, calculate ms and cs .
PAR(asym)
Example 2-24 Using a VR, (a) for Pse = −0 2 pu, what is Vs s? (b) for Pse = 0 2 pu, what is Vs s? (c) for
VR Qse = −0 13359 pu, what is Vs s? (d) for Qse = −0 02641 pu, what is Vs s?
Example 2-25 For β = 0 or β = 180 , calculate mse and cse.
Example 2-26 Using a PAR (asym), (a) for Pse = 0 05359 pu, what is Vs s? (b) for Pse = −0 05359 pu,
PAR(asym) what is Vs s? (c) for Qse = −0 28 pu, what is Vs s? (d) for Qse = 0 12 pu, what is Vs s?
Example 2-27 For β = 90 or β = −90 , calculate mse and cse.
PAR(asym)
Example 2-28 For a given V s s = 0 2 pu and β = 105 , calculate Ps and Qs.
(IR)
Example 2-29 For a given V s s = 0 2 pu and β = 105 , calculate Pr and Qr.
(IR)
Example 2-30 For a given V s s = 0 2 pu and β = 105 , calculate Ps and Qs .
(IR)
Example 2-31 For a given V s s = 0 2 pu and β = 105 , calculate Pse and Qse
(IR)
Example 2-32 For a given Ps = 1 386370 pu and Qs = 0 164422 pu, calculate Vs s and β.
(IR)
Example 2-33 For a given Pr = 1 282843 pu and Qr = −0 550792 pu, calculate Vs s and β
(IR)
Example 2-34 For a given Ps = 1 282843 pu and Qs = 0 423737 pu, calculate Vs s and β.
(IR)
Example 2-35 For a given Pse = 0 103528 pu and Qse = −0 259315 pu, calculate Vs s and β.
(IR)
Example 2-36 For a given V s s = 0 2 pu and β = 105 , calculate Rse and Xse.
(IR)
Example 2-37 For an IR operating at V s s = 0 2 pu and β = 105 , calculate Rse and Xse.
(IR)
Example 2-38 For a VR operating at V s s = 0 2 pu and β = 0 , calculate Vs , δ , Rse, and Xse.
(VR)
Example 2-39 For a PAR (asym) operating at V s s = 0 2 pu and β = 90 , calculate Vs , δ , Rse, and Xse.
PAR(asym)
Example 2-40 For a PAR (sym) operating at ψ = 11 478341 , calculate Vs , δ , Rse, and Xse.
PAR(sym)
Example 2-41 Consider the magnitudes of the sending- and receiving-end voltages: V s = V r = 1 pu,
(RR) the power angle: δ = δs − δr = 60 , and the line reactance: X = 0 5 pu. For a RR
operating at V s s = 0 5 pu (capacitive) and −0.5 pu (inductive), respectively, calculate
Vs , δ , and Xse.

(Continued)
646 Appendix B

Example 2-42 For a PAR (sym) operating at ψ = − 30 , calculate Ps , Qs , Pr, Qr, Rse, and Xse.
PAR(sym)
Example 2-43 For a PAR (sym) operating at ψ = 60 , calculate Ps , Qs , Pr, Qr, Rse, Xse, RPI, LI for k R = 1,
PAR(sym) and APR. Adjusting the control parameter (ψ), tabulate RPI, LI, and APR of a PAR (sym)
for power flow increases in three cases: Case 1 (40%), Case 2 (70%), and Case 3 (100%).
Example 2-44 For a PAR (asym) operating at V s s = −0 577350 pu, calculate Ps , Qs , Pr, Qr, Rse, and Xse.
PAR(asym)
Example 2-45 For a PAR (asym) operating at V s s = 0 577350 pu, calculate Ps , Qs , Pr, Qr, Rse, Xse, RPI,
PAR(asym) LI for k R = 1, and APR. Adjusting the control parameter, Vs s, tabulate RPI, LI, and APR
of a PAR (asym) for power flow increases in three cases: Case 1 (40%), Case 2 (70%), and
Case 3 (100%).
Example 2-46 For a RR operating at V s s = −0 517638 pu, calculate Pr, Qr, Ps , Qs , Rse, and Xse.
(RR)
Example 2-47 For a RR operating at V s s = 0 5 pu, calculate Pr, Qr, Ps , Qs , Rse, Xse, RPI, LI for k R = 1,
(RR) and APR. Adjusting the control parameter, Vs s, tabulate RPI, LI, and APR of a RR for
power flow increases in three cases: Case 1 (40%), Case 2 (70%), and Case 3 (100%).
Example 2-48 For an IR operating at V s s = 0 5 pu and β = 240 , calculate Ps , Qs , Pr, Qr, Rse, and Xse.
(IR)
Example 2-49 For an IR operating at V s s = 0 5 pu and β = 60 , calculate Ps , Qs , Pr, Qr, Rse, Xse, RPI, LI
(IR) for k R = 1, and APR. Adjusting the control parameter (Vs s) while β = 60 , tabulate RPI,
LI, and APR of an IR for power flow increases in three cases: Case 1 (40%), Case 2 (70%),
and Case 3 (100%).
Example 2-50 Consider two identical lines that are connected in parallel as shown in Figure 2-68.
(BTB-SSSC) Using the electrical system data for each line as given in Table 2-1, use a BTB-SSSC with
a series-compensating voltage (V1s s) to make P1r = 2 × P1rn and Q1r = Q1rn. Calculate
V1s s, β1, P1se, and Q1se. For the second line with a given series-compensating voltage
(V2s s) when Plink = 0 and Q2se = 0, calculate V2s s and β2.
 647

Appendix C

Modeling of the Sen Transformer in PSS®E

SIEMENS Siemens Industry, Inc.,

Siemens Power Technologies International
400 State Street
Schenectady, New York 12305 USA
Tel: +1 (518)395-5000 • Fax: +1 (518) 346-2777
www.siemens.com/power-technotogies

Memorandum
Date: May 2. 2019
To: Bruce Fardanesh, NYPA
CC:
From: Daniel Feltes, Carlos Grande-Moran, Dinemayer Silva, and James Feltes
RE: Modeling of the Sen Transformer in PSS®E

The Sen single-core three-phase transformer is a power flow-regulating transformer that performs
independent active and reactive power flow control. The Sen transformer includes wye-grounded
shunt primary windings (exciter unit) electrically connected to secondary windings in series with
the transmission circuit where active and reactive flows will be controlled (by the compensating
voltage unit). Active and reactive flow control is carried out by changes in taps available on the
Sen transformer’s series windings. This change in tap position results in changes in both voltage
magnitude and phase angle across the compensating voltage unit.
Currently, there is no mathematical model for representing the Sen transformer for steady-state
analysis in commercial-grade software such as PSS®E. A series connection of a phase angle regu-
lator (PAR) transformer and a voltage regulating transformer (LTC) is proposed for the modeling of
the Sen transformer. This model was tested in the Chilean transmission grid to evaluate if it emu-
lates the expected performance of a Sen transformer.

C.1 Sen Transformer

The Sen transformer can be represented by the asymmetrical PAR transformer model shown in
Figure C-1. This transformer model has a complex voltage ratio tejψ , where t is associated to the
magnitudes of the voltage ratio and the angle ψ is associated with the voltage phase angle difference

Power Flow Control Solutions for a Modern Grid using SMART Power Flow Controllers, First Edition.
Kalyan K. Sen and Mey Ling Sen.
© 2022 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/sen/powerflowcontrol
648 Appendix C

Vss′ between phasors Vs and V s . An important component of the trans-

Source Sink
former is the series compensating voltage V ss ∠ β introduced by the
te jψ : 1 compensating voltage unit. The Q-component (i.e. quadrature) of
the compensating voltage is used to control the throughput reactive
power flow. Whereas the P-component (i.e. in-phase) is used to
adjust the phase shift angle. ψ, so that the throughput active flow
can be controlled. These parameters are mutually dependent as
shown in the phasor diagram in Figure C-2.
Vs Vs′

Figure C-1 Sen transformer

representation. This document was prepared by Siemens Industry. Inc.,
Siemens Power Technologies International (Siemens
β=0 PTI), solely for the benefit of the recipient named in
ψ=0 this memorandum. Siemens PTI nor any party acting
ψ>0 ψ<0 on its behalf (a) makes any warranty, expressed or
implied, with respect to the use of any information
or methods disclosed m this document; or (b) assumes
Vss′ β any liability with respect to the use of any information
or methods disclosed in this document.
Any party other than the named recipient of this
memorandum, by their acceptance or use of this doc-
ument, releases Siemens PTI from any liability for
direct, indirect, consequential or special loss or dam-
age whether arising in contract, warranty, express or
implied, tort or otherwise, and irrespective of fault neg-
Vs′ = 1.0 pu
ligence, and strict liability.
Vs
Vs = t
The phasor equation to represent the sending-end
voltage to the receiving-end voltage is shown below.
1
Vs = V s e − jψ C-1
ψmax ψmin t

C.2 Modeling with Two Transformers

in Series

Using the no-load complex voltage ratio shown in eqn.

C-1, a suggested representation for the Sen transformer
Figure C-2 Phasor diagram of the Sen in load flow analysis is one in which a symmetrical
transformer.
PAR on MW control mode is connected in series with
a load tap changer transformer (LTC) on voltage control mode, as shown in Figure C-3.
The PAR controls the MW flow and the LTC regulates the phasor Vs voltage, although it may also
regulate the receiving end phasor voltage V s or a remote bus voltage. The winding one of the sym-
metrical PAR transformer model is connected to the sending-end bus and the winding one of the
LTC transformer model is connected to the midpoint bus.
The active power-regulating transformer uses the continuous phase angle adjustment control
mode in PSS®E and the voltage-regulating transformer uses the discrete tap adjustment control
mode. It is also suggested that the PAR leakage impedance be set to a small value, for example,
 Appendix C 649

Vs 1∠ψ : 1 t:1 Vs′

Vx

Figure C-3 Proposed Sen transformer representation in PSS®E load flow.

5 to 10 times the default value for zero impedance in PSS®E (default value is 0+j0.0001 pu). The
LTC leakage impedance will be equal to the difference between the Sen transformer leakage imped-
ance and the PAR leakage impedance.
The per-unit positive sequence leakage impedance values can be specified on either winding
MVA base or system MVA base, and winding voltage base.
The following quantities need to be specified for the PAR and the LTC transformers:
PAR transformer:

•• Phase angle range (ψmax, ψmin)

Desired MW control band (MWmax, MWmin)

•• Control mode “3” (symmetrical PAR transformer)

MVA ratings (same as LTC transformer model)

LTC transformer:

•• Tap range (tmax, tmin)

Desired voltage control band (Vmax, Vmin) at the controlled bus voltage

•• Control mode “1” (LTC voltage-regulating transformer)

MVA ratings (same as PAR transformer model)

The desired MW flow would be adjusted by the PAR phase angle and MW control band settings
and the desired voltage would be adjusted by the LTC tap range and voltage control band settings.
Note that when solving the load flow in PSS®E, the options “Tap Adjustment” and “Adjust phase
shift” should be activated.
The phasor equation to solve is shown below. This is the same phasor equation that is used for the
Sen transformer above.
1
Vs = V s e − jψ C-2
t

C.3 Relating the Sen Transformer with the PSS®E Model

Because the Sen transformer model in PSS®E is not a one-to-one match to the original model of the
Sen transformer, a set of equations were derived to relate the two models. The equations below can
be used to compute the PSS®E quantities of off-nominal tap t and phase angle ψ from the given
magnitude voltage change ΔV(Vss ) and phase angle β from the Sen transformer.

t= ΔV2 + 2ΔVcosβ + 1 C-3

650 Appendix C

ΔV
ψ = sin − 1 ∗ sin β C-4
t
The inverse equations are given below. These equations would be used to compute ΔV( Vss’ ) and
β from the PSS®E quantities t and ψ.

ΔV = t2 − 2t cos ψ + 1 C-5
t
β = sin − 1 ∗ sin ψ C-6
ΔV
These equations are important for exchanging parameters between the two models and checking
the validity of the results.

C.4 Chilean Case Study

To test the performance of the two series transformer representation, a three-phase 300 MVA, 154/
154 kV Sen transformer was added to a PSS®E load flow base case of the Chilean grid, supplied by
for use in these investigations by Transelec of Chile. This transformer was placed in one of the par-
allel paths between the Southern and Central control areas of the system. The proposed PSS®E
model was added between the Punta de Cortes and the Tilcoco 154 kV substations. These buses
and the surrounding area are shown in Figure C-4.
The study area after adding the Sen transformer is shown in Figure C-5. The PAR component of
the two-transformer model is placed between buses 4074 TAP PUNTA DE and 10000 SEN. This
transformer has a small of impedance of 0.1% on a 300 MVA base. This transformer is also in control
mode 3 or MW flow control. The LTC portion of the two-transformer model is placed between bus
10000 SEN and 4130 TAP TILCOCO. This transformer has a leakage impedance of 6% on a 300 MVA
and 154 kV base. The control mode for the LTC transformer is control mode 1 or voltage control and is
controlling the voltage at bus 4074 TAP PUNTA DE. The base settings for the model are to control 90
MW (within a range of ±1 MW) from TAP PUNTA DE to TAP TILCOCO and to control the voltage at
TAP PUNTA DE to a desired magnitude of 1.0 pu (within a range of ± 0.005 pu).
Several steady-state simulations were performed with the model controlling different MW and
voltage setpoints. In these simulations, the MW flow was varied between 70 MW and 120 MW
and three different voltage setpoints of 0.95 pu, 1.0 pu, and 1.05 pu were tested. For all simulations
tested, the model was able to control to its desired control point. The equivalent voltage magnitude
ΔV and phase angle β were also calculated for easy comparison to actual Sen transformer values.
These results are shown in Table C-1.
Simulations were also performed to test the model under contingency conditions. For these tests,
the model was set to control the flow of 90 MW from TAP PUNTA DE to TAP TILCOCO and to
control voltage at TAP PUNTA DE at 1.0 pu. This was the base case pre-contingency conditions.
N-1 and N-2 outages of transmission lines in the study area were simulated with both PAR adjust-
ment and LTC adjustment solution options enabled. Table C-2 below shows the results of this anal-
ysis with the first two columns showing the results of the case without the Sen transformer model
and the other columns showing the results with the Sen transformer included in study area. This
comparison shows that without the Sen transformer model, the controlled voltage and power flow
are below the desired control points, but the desired control points are satisfied when the Sen trans-
former is included.
 4045 4135 4074 4130 4132 121
TAP PAINE 1 TAP TUNICHE TAP PUNTA DE TAP TILCOCO TAP TILCOCO TIL/A

34.12 34.61 89.29 89.59 89.59 90.09 0.00 0.00 0.00

1
58.01 57.97 31.49 30.72 30.72 29.39 0.23 0.00 0.00
1.034 1.005 1.003 0.999 0.999 0.999
159.20 154.75 154.50 153.91 153.91 153.91
54.68

29.63
26.48

90.09

142
S/E TINGU/A1
54.54
26.65

835
90.44
28.69

139 CHCV1
118 4020
MALLOA/A1
RAN/A 117 TAP MALLOA 1 58.02 58.28
0.17 P.CORT/A 7.39 7.77 156
1 0.997
0.03 128.40 153.53 129.39 S/E TINGU/A2
0.05 1.000
2 22.00 18.14
0.00 153.94
0.998 0.997
385 0.995 1743
153.76 153.53 140
FDO/B1 153.28 ESTRUCTURA N
1.0193

137
FDO/A1 64.19 64.27 LHIGUE/A1 0.998
* 7.28 112.71 113.77
9.93 9.92 153.74
1

1.61 * 7.28 4.15 0.75

7.28 7.28
1.48 0.998
1

1.48 1.60
153.74
11.53
56.91

1.019 0.997 0.997 1.006

0.00

67.26 154.99
0.00

748 1.000 153.51 153.51

FDO/C2 13.80

530 154
1.0454

FDO/B2 FDO/A2
0.01 * 44.07 56.89
1
0.00 6.29 711 * 44.19
1

11.54
1.0725

FDO/G1
14.14 0.00 9.60 * 12.70 1
2
2.06 0.00 1.94 777
1.025 0.996 C3
0.00
67.68 1.055 153.43 1.0454 1
0.00
14.55
* 12.64

0.990
1.43

13.07
421
FDO/B1(1)

1.032
68.10

Figure C-4 Chilean power system – study area.

 4045 4135 4074 4130 4132 121
TAP PAINE 1 TAP TUNICHE TAP PUNTA DE 10000 TAP TILCOCO TAP TILCOCO TIL/A
0.99844

SEN
–0.60

–34.20 34.69 –89.31 89.61 –89.61 89.61 –89.61 89.61 0.00 –0.00 0.00
1
1

1
57.95 –57.91 31.20 –30.44 30.44 –30.43 30.43 –28.65 –0.23 –0.00 0.00

1.034 1.005 1.003 0.999 0.999

1.003
54.62
26.71

159.21 154.77 154.52 153.84 153.84

154.50 0.999
89.96 –89.62
–27.98 28.89

153.84
142
S/E TINGU/A1
–54.48
–26.87

835
CHCV1
118 4020
RAN/A 139
117 TAP MALLOA 1 MALLOA/A1 –57.87 58.12
0.17 P.CORT/A 7.27 –7.66
0.997 156
1
0.03 –127.92 153.48 128.90 S/E TINGU/A2
0.05 1.000
2 21.28 –17.46
0.00 153.93
0.999 0.997 1743
153.77 0.995 385 153.48 140 ESTRUCTURA N 137
1.0193

153.28 FDO/B1 FDO/A1 LHIGUE/A1

–64.19 64.27
* –7.28 –112.71 113.77 0.998
–9.93 9.93 153.71
1

1.61 * 7.28 4.03 –0.62

–7.28 7.28
–1.48
1

1.48 –1.60 0.998

153.71
0.997
56.91
11.54

1.019 0.997 1.006

–0.00
–0.00

153.49
67.25 748 1.000 153.48 154.98
FDO/C2 13.80

530 154
1.0454

FDO/B2 FDO/A2
0.01 * –44.07 –56.89
1 711
1

0.00 –6.29 *44.19 –11.54

1.0725

FDO/G1
9.61
14.14 –0.00 * 12.70 1
2
2.06 0.00 1.94 777
1.025 0.996 –0.00 C3
67.67 1.054 153.41 1.0454 1 –0.00
14.55
* –12.64
–1.43

0.990
421 13.07
FDO/B1(1)

1.032
68.09

Figure C-5 Chilean system post Sen transformer.

 Appendix C 653

Table C-1 Chilean grid simulation results.

Voltage controlled to 0.95 pu

Pr (MW) Measured Vs Tap(t = t1/t2) PSA ψ(deg) ΔVssp WindingAng β(deg)

70 0.954 0.9000 −1.800 0.10 195.719

80 0.954 0.9000 −0.790 0.10 187.068

90 0.953 0.9000 0.220 0.10 178.021

100 0.953 0.9000 1.240 0.10 169.001

110 0.952 0.9000 2.260 0.11 160.585

120 0.952 0.9000 3.270 0.11 153.163

Voltage controlled to 1.0 pu

Pr (MW) Measured Vs Tap(t = t1/t2) PSA ψ(deg) ΔVssp WindingAng β(deg)

70 1.004 1.0000 −2.600 0.05 268.700

80 1.004 1.0000 −1.590 0.03 269.205

90 1.004 1.0000 −0.550 0.01 269.725

100 1.004 1.0000 0.450 0.01 90.225

110 1.003 1.0000 1.470 0.03 90.735

120 1.003 1.0000 2.500 0.04 91.250

Voltage controlled to 1.05 pu

Pr (MW) Measured Vs Tap(t = t1/t2) PSA ψ(deg) ΔVssp WindingAng β(deg)

70 1.048 1.1156 −3.330 0.13 209.677

80 1.048 1.1156 −2.290 0.12 201.236

90 1.048 1.1156 −1.250 0.12 191.915

100 1.048 1.1156 −0.210 0.12 182.026

110 1.047 1.1156 0.840 0.12 171.939

120 1.047 1.1156 1.890 0.12 162.257

The most constraining case of the tested contingencies was the loss of the154 kV lines S/E TIN-
GU/A to LHIGUE/A1 154 kV and the TAP PAINE1 to TAP TUNICHE. Without the Sen trans-
former model in the power flow case, the MW flow from TAP PUNTA DE to TAP TILCOCO
dropped to 77 MW and the voltage at TAP PUNTA DE dropped to 0.973 pu. With the Sen
654 Appendix C

Table C-2 Chilean contingency scenario results.

Base case with no Sen

transformer PAR set to control 90 MW and Voltage to 1.0 pu

Power Voltage at
flow 4074 TAP Pr Measured Tap PSA WindingAng
(MW) PUNTA DE (MW) Vs (t = t1/t2) ψ(deg) ΔVssp β(deg)

N-0 N-0

89 1.003 90 1.003 0.99844 −0.6 0.01 261.221

LOSS of 4045 TAP PAINE 1 LOSS of 4045 TAP PAINE 1 to 4135 TAP TUNICHE
to 4135 TAP TUNICHE

78 0.981 90 0.997 1.0297 0.68 0.03 157.585

LOSS of 4135 TAP LOSS of 4135 TAP TUNICHE to 118 RAN/A

TUNICHE to 118 RAN/A

66 1.017 90 1.001 0.97969 3.4 0.06 110.769

LOSS of 142 S/E TINGU/A LOSS of 142 S/E TINGU/A to 137 LHIGUE/A1
to 137 LHIGUE/A1

89 0.998 90 0.998 0.99844 −0.46 0.01 258.766

LOSS of 142 S/E TINGU/A LOSS of 142 S/E TINGU/A to 137 LHIGUE/A1
to 137 LHIGUE/A1 LOSS Of 4045 TAP PAINE 1 to 4135 TAP TUNICHE
and
LOSS of 4045 TAP PAINE 1
to 4135 TAP TUNICHE

77 0.973 90 0.997 1.0484 0.65 0.05 166.176

transformer model added in the power flow case, the MW flow from TAP PUNTA DE to TAP TIL-
COCO was controlled to 90 MW and the voltage at TAP PUNTA DE was also controlled to 1.0 pu.
Thus, the Sen transformer was able to control the MW flow and bus voltage to their pre-contingency
values under this contingent scenario.

C.5 Limitations – PSS®E Two-Transformer Model

In PSS®E, the phase angle limits of a PAR transformer are defined by ψ max and ψ min and similarly
for an LTC voltage-regulating transformer, its limits are defined by Rmax and Rmin. PSS®E then
controls the phase angle ψ continuously between the limits to maintain the desired MW flow
and adjusts the taps of the LTC discretely between the limits to control voltage. The Sen trans-
former, on the other hand, is controlled by adjusting its taps and thus the parameters: voltage
magnitude Vss’ and phase angle β. This control method is constrained by a hexagon that represents
the allowable operating area.
 Appendix C 655

The limits used in the PSS®E model and the Sen

transformer are shown in Figure C-6. The ψ max
and ψ min and Rmax and Rmin limits used in ψmax ψmin
PSS®E result in a control area having a trapezoi- Rmax
dal shape, rather than the hexagonal shape of the
control area of the Sen transformer. It is impor- β
tant to note that if the PSS®E limits (the blue trap-
ezoidal area) are set to the bottom edges of the Vssʹ
hexagonal operating range of the Sen transformer
Rmin
(shown in yellow), then the model in PSS®E may
reach an operating point where the Sen trans-
former cannot operate as shown by the blue
region of Figure C-6. A solution to this problem
is to limit the PSS®E model to only operate within
the region bound by the hexagon. This operating
range is shown by the green trapezoidal region in
Figure C-6. With this solution, the model is con-
servative and always operates within the equip-
ment capabilities, although the model will not
use the full capability available of the Sen
ψ
transformer.
Another solution to this problem is to develop a
python script that would adjust the PSS®E model
to perform additional checks. The script would
solve the load flow using the above limits of the
Sen transformer. If we are using the recom-
mended conservative approach (the green area Figure C-6 Operating limits of the two-
in Figure C-6), then the script would check to transformer model and the Sen transformer.
see if the Sen transformer was on limits. If the
Sen transformer was on limits, the script could then adjust the phase angle of the PAR and the
tap of the LTC to implement the full range of the Sen transformer. This would be an iterative
approach, likely requiring several load flow solutions to converge into either a .solution that meets
the flow and voltage settings or alternately is on the actual Sen transformer limits. But, we again
note that if the conservative green area limits are used and the script is not run, the Sen transformer
is operating within its limits in the load flow solution, although not necessarily optimally as some of
its limits are modeled as too limiting in the load flow model. The importance of this “lost area” in
modeling of the available control range is hard to quantify without analyzing an actual application
of the Sen transformer.

C.6 Conclusion

The two-transformer representation using standard PSS®E transformer models is a reasonable way
to represent the Sen transformer. Use of this representation in the steady-state simulations with the
Chilean transmission system showed that it was able to control to the desired MW and voltage con-
trol points. Also, under selected N-1 and N-2 contingency conditions, the proposed Sen transformer
656 Appendix C

model was able to control MW flow and bus voltage magnitude to the desired set points and provide
some voltage support in the study area.
When using the proposed PSS®E two-transformer representation, the phase angle and tap range
limits must be carefully considered as to not overestimate the operating range of the Sen trans-
former. This can be done either by setting the PSS®E model limits within the hexagonal operating
zone of the Sen transformer limits or by the use of a python script to perform more detailed calcula-
tions incorporating the Sen transformer’s full control range, which was also discussed.
 657

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Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/sen/powerflowcontrol
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176 J. Chen, T. T. Lie and D. M. Vilathgamuwa, “Basic control of interline power flow controller,” Proc.
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177 X.-P. Zhang, “Modelling of the interline power flow controller and the generalised unified power
flow controller in Newton power flow,” IEE Proc. Commun., vol. 150, no. 3, pp. 268–274, May 2003.
178 B. Fardanesh, “Optimal utilization, sizing, and steady-state performance comparison of
multiconverter VSC based FACTS controllers,” IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 1321–
1327, Jul. 2004.

ST
179 A. Krämer, “On-Load Tap-Changers for Power Transformers: Operation, Principles, Applications
and Selection,” Maschinenfabrik Reinhausen, 2000.
180 K. K. Sen and M. L. Sen, “Versatile power flow transformers for compensating power flow in a
transmission line,” U.S. Patents 6,335,613, 6,384,581, 6,396,248, and 6,420,856, 2002.
181 K. K. Sen and M. L. Sen, “Introducing the family of Sen transformers: a set of power flow controlling
transformers,” IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 149–157, Jan. 2003.
182 K. K. Sen and M. L. Sen, “Comparison of the Sen transformer with the unified power flow
controller,” IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 1523–1533, Oct. 2003.
183 K. K. Sen and M. L. Sen, “Multiline power flow transformer for compensating power flow among
transmission lines,” U.S. Patent 6,841,976, 2005.
184 B. Asghari, M. O. Faruque and V. Dinavahi, “Detailed real-time transient model of Sen
transformer,” IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 1513–1521, Jul. 2008.
185 D. Fentie, “Transient Modeling and Protection of Sen Transformer,” M.S. Thesis, University of
Saskatchewan, 2010.
186 M. L. Sen and K. K. Sen, “Introducing the SMART Power Flow Controller – An Integral Part of
Smart Grid,” Electrical Power and Energy Conference, Paper No. 103, London, Canada, Oct. 2012.
187 K. Ashwani and K. Jitendra, “Comparison of UPFC and SEN transformer for ATC enhancement in
restructured electricity markets,” Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst., vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 96–104,
Oct. 2012.
188 K. Ashwani and W. Gao, “Power flow model of Sen transformer for loadability enhancement and
comparison with UPFC in hybrid electricity markets,” Electric Power Compon. Syst., vol. 37, no. 2,
pp. 189–209, Feb. 2012.
189 G. Maddela, “Transmission Line Loss Minimization Using Power Flow Controllers,” M.Sc. Thesis,
University of Saskatchewan, Aug. 2013.
190 K. K. Sen, “Practical Power Flow Controller Brings Benefits of Power Electronics to the Grid,”
How2Power.com e-magazine, Mar. 2015. http://www.how2power.com/newsletters/1503/articles/
H2PToday1503_design_Sen.pdf?NOREDIR=1
668 References

191 D. Fentie, J. C. Garcia, R. Gokaraju and S. O. Faried, “EMT model of the ‘Sen Transformer’ for fault
analysis studies,” Int. Conf. Power Systems Transients (IPST 2015), Cavtat, Croatia, Jun. 2015
192 K. K. Sen and M. L. Sen, “SMART Power Flow Controller for Smarter Grid Applications,” IEEE
Power & Energy Society General Meeting, Paper No. 15PESGM1910, Denver, USA, Jul. 2015.
193 K. K. Sen and M. L. Sen, “Comparison of Operational Characteristics Between the Sen Transformer
and Phase Angle Regulator,” IEEE Power & Energy Society General Meeting, Paper No.
16PESGM0959, Boston, USA, Jul. 2016.
194 K. K. Sen and M. L. Sen, “Unique Capabilities of Sen Transformer: A Power Flow Regulating
Transformer,” IEEE Power & Energy Society General Meeting, Paper No. 16PESGM0961, Boston,
USA, Jul. 2016.
195 J. Liu and V. Dinavahi, “Nonlinear magnetic equivalent circuit-based real-time Sen transformer
electro-magnetic transient model on FPGA for HIL emulation,” IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 31,
no. 6, pp. 2483–2493, Dec. 2016.
196 K. K. Sen and M. L. Sen, “Phase Angle Regulation Versus Impedance Regulation: Which Offers
Greater Control of Power Flow on the Grid?,” How2Power.com e-magazine, Feb. 2017. http://www.
how2power.com/newsletters/1702/articles/H2PToday1702_design_Sen.pdf?NOREDIR=1
197 K. K. Sen and M. L. Sen, “Modeling of the Sen Transformer Using an Electromagnetic Transients
Program,” How2Power.com e-magazine, Mar. 2018. http://www.how2power.com/newsletters/1803/
articles/H2PToday1803_design_Sen.pdf?NOREDIR=1
198 B. Chen, W. Fei, C. Tian, L. Yang and J. Gu, “A high-voltage ‘Sen’ transformer: configuration,
principles, and applications,” Energies, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 1–18, 2018. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-
1073/11/4/918/htm
199 Modeling of the Sen Transformer in PSS®E, http://files.midphasesitebuilder.com/ad/33/ad335f60-
d07b-4b8b-a9a3-ef0b6ab450ee.pdf, Accessed on Aug. 12, 2020.
 669

Index

a shunt-connected voltage 64, 66

Active power line conditioner (APLC) 21, 22 VSC-based solutions 67
Adams-Bashforth numerical integration Compensators for utility applications 42–44
formula 569–570 Cost-effective solution, rough order magnitude
Advanced Static VAR Generator Development definition 22–24
Program 15 economic analysis 24–26
A-phase positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence payback time 24
components 538, 544
Apparent power rating (APR) 206, 242 d
Arc Furnace Transformer 16 DC-link concept 37
Autotransformer 36, 297, 298, 310, 312 Direct method
Available Transfer Capability (ATC) 3 PFCs 168–169
series reactance regulation 178
b d-q transformation 551–566
Back-to-back SSSC (BTB-SSSC) 37, 186–188 Dual-core phase angle regulation (PAR) 176–178
Back-To-Back STATic synchronous COMpensator Dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) control
(BTB-STATCOM) 26, 27, 192–194, 378 system 20, 21
Balanced three-phase currents 535, 536 30 fundamental frequency cycles 20–21
Balanced three-phase voltages 535, 536
Bulk Power System (BPS) 1 e
Bypass breaker (BYPBRK) 346, 348, 350 Electrical machine (EM) 38
Electrical network model 256
c Electric arc furnace 16, 17
Carbon-based generation 1, 4, 39 Electricity generation 1
Chilean power system 647, 650–655 Electric power, interconnected transmission
Commercial nuclear-powered generators 1 system 2
Compensated line Electromagnetic transient program
additional symbols 6, 20 (EMTP) 255–277
compensating units 64, 66 active and reactive power flows, controllable
electrical machine-based solutions 66 range of 286, 294
objective 63 balanced three-phase voltage 270
series-compensating voltage 63, 64, 80 electrical system data 259, 264, 285, 292
shunt-compensating voltage 64, 65, 67 exchanged active power 281, 291

Power Flow Control Solutions for a Modern Grid using SMART Power Flow Controllers, First Edition.
Kalyan K. Sen and Mey Ling Sen.
© 2022 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/sen/powerflowcontrol
670 Index

Electromagnetic transient program Fourier analysis 566–569

(EMTP) (cont’d) Free flow of electricity 2, 4, 5, 14, 39
line impedance 264
line resistance 280–281 g
modeling structure 257 Gate-turn-off (GTO) thyristors 14
node voltage variations, ST and UPFC GTO-based VSCs 15, 19, 25
operation 293 Generalized power flow controller 194–195
A-phase-to-ground fault 275, 277, 279 Generalized Sen Transformer (GST) 532–533
A-phase voltage 261, 269, 271, 275, 277–278 Global warming 4
PLL angle 269–270 Green-House Gas (GHG) emissions from
P-Q power flow control 289, 291 traditional carbon-based generation 1
receiving-end power flows 294
h
receiving-end voltages 275
Hanna-Juniper Line Loss on August 14 2003, 5
sending-end voltage 263, 264, 291–292
series-compensating voltage on power i
flows 291, 293 Impedance regulator (IR) 35, 45, 80, 204–206
single-generator/single-line model 259–264 building blocks 179
source impedance 259 series-connected virtual impedance 5, 39
source voltages 275 ST 183–185
template datafile 255–256 STATCOM and SSSC 172, 179, 180
test datafile 259–261 two-generator/one-line power system
three-phase voltage source with network 181
leakage impedance 282–287 UPFC 180
source impedance 259 Independent active and reactive PFCs 26–41
two-generator/single-line model 264–277, Independent power flow control by impedance
281–286 regulation 32
VS and BUS01 nodes 273 Indirect method
Equivalent impedance series reactance regulation 178–179
asymmetric PAR 80 voltage regulation 170–173
reactance regulator 129–145, 160–164 Instantaneous power 535, 537–538, 548
symmetric PAR 126–129, 157–160 Insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) 12, 19
VR 152–154 Interline power flow controller (IPFC) 37,
Error regulator 277 45, 186
Exchanged power BTB-SSSC 37, 186–188
active and reactive powers 109–113 MST 45, 186–188, 189, 192
compensating reactance 109 Inverter-based resources (IBRs) 1, 544
example 116–125
independent control 114–115 k
line reactance 109–110 Korea Electric Power Corporation (KEPCO) 21
magnitude 114–115
power transmission system 110 l
at Series Converter 286–287, 290 Load power 47–48, 50–52
Load resistance 46–48, 51
f Load tap changers (LTCs) 10, 297
Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Load voltage 46–52
Systems (FACTS) Controllers 14, 19, 21, Loss index (LI) 208
35, 44 Lossy line
 Index 671

control parameters 242, 243 asymmetric 173–174, 176–177, 198–201,

IR 249–253 322–332
natural active power flow 60, 62, 207, 226, equivalent impedance of 636–638
242–243, 250 dual-core 176–178
PAR (asym) 80, 87–88, 246–247 single-core 173–176
PAR (sym) 126, 175, 245–246 symmetric 126–129, 174–178, 196–198,
RR 248 332–340
equivalent impedance of 638–639
m Phase-locked loop (PLL) angle 269
Mechanically/electronically switched Phase-shifting transformer (PST) 10, 378
compensators, PFCs 37 Point of Connection (POC) 12
Mechanically-switched capacitor (MSC) Positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence
shunt compensation 341–352 components, timing diagram 545–547
with reactor, series compensation 363–369 Power electronics-based LTCs 12
Mechanically-switched reactor (MSR) Power electronics inverter-based technology 43
series compensation 354–363 Power electronics VSC-based shunt
shunt compensation 353–355 compensator 17
Mechanically-switched regulators Power flow controllers (PFCs) 3, 5, 28, 255
series compensation 354–374 capacitive load 50
shunt compensation 341–355 compensated line 63–67
Modeling principles 44, 255, 376 condition 47, 49
design-query 44 direct method 168–169
in EMTP 255–295 electrical system data 59
independent PFC simulation 281–295 example 51–53, 59
transmission line steady-state resistance high-voltage transmission line 46
calculator 280–281 indirect method 170–173
two-generator/single-line power system installation and operational costs 45
network 281–295 interconnected transmission system 54
in VPLL 277–280 leakage reactance of series-coupling
Multiline power flow concepts 37 transformer 281
Multiline Sen Transformer (MST) 45, 188–192, load
516, 519 power 47–48, 50
versus BTB-SSSC 519–520 resistance 46–48
with shunt-compensating voltages 531–532 voltage 46–50
modern concepts 14–22
n natural/uncompensated line 60–63
Natural/uncompensated line 60–63 phase angle of natural line current 57
New York Power Authority (NYPA) 21 sending- and receiving-end voltages 54–55
North American Electric Reliability Corporation series-compensating voltage 80–91
(NERC) Interconnections 31 shunt-compensating reactance 48–50
NOTEPAD, text editor 255 traditional concepts 5–14
voltage regulation 50, 168
p Power flow equations
PAR asymmetric (asym) 11, 13, 322–332 for compensated line 582–583
PAR symmetric (sym) 11, 13, 332–340 series-compensating voltage 591–643
Phase angle regulation (PAR) 3, 4, 10, 297, 375, shunt-compensating voltage 583–591
378, 385 in lossy line 571–575
672 Index

Power flow equations (cont’d) reactance 135, 136

for natural/uncompensated line 575–582 voltage 130
series-compensating voltage 591–596, 624 control method 136
exchanged power 615–624 effective reactance 131
at modified sending end 606–615 equivalent impedance of 640
PAR (sym) 624–627 normalized effective line reactance 131
reactance regulator 628–631 phase angle 134
at receiving end 600–605 reactance control method 130, 135
at sending end 596–600 reactive power flow 133
as series-compensating receiving-end voltage phasor 134
impedance 631–635 sending-end voltage 132
Power flow in lossless line with series- series-reactance regulation 132
compensating reactance 9 two-generator/one-line power system
Power system network network 132
harmonic injection 517 Reactive PFCs 26–37
model 264 Reactive power index (RPI)
PSS®E model 649–652 active power 206, 242
two-transformer model 654–655 additional costs 206
Pulse-width modulation (PWM) technique 8 electrical system data 208
operation of switching devices 544 example 209–221, 227–228
four-quadrant impedance 223
r independent control 224
Reactance control method line current 207
compensating reactance 137, 138 line resistance 224
positive value 139 lossy line 242–253
RR 137, 138 PAR (sym) 226
simple power transmission system 137 phasor diagram 209
Reactance emulation, Sen Transformer 396, 403 power flow characteristics 221, 222
closed-loop automatic power flow reactive power flow 206
control 397–398 uncompensated line 207
compensating-voltage unit 392 Restoration of voltage
exchanged active power 423 n points of the line 235–238
versus reactive power 423, 424 one-fourth, half, and three-fourth points of the
line current (I) in pu 424 line 233–234
modified sending-end voltage 416, 417, 418 one-third and two-third points of the
open-loop power flow control 398, 511 line 232–233
active turns-ratios, secondary, series- Rotating power flow transformer (RPFT) 45
compensating windings 382, 408 Rough order magnitude (ROM) 22–26
in voltage-injection mode 404
phase-shift angle 416, 417 s
series resistance emulation control block Sen index (SI), 253–254
diagram 396 Sen Transformer (ST) technology 33, 34, 42–44,
Reactance regulator (RR) 3, 202–203, 183–185
628–631 active and reactive power flows 379, 380, 383,
active power flow 131 386–389
capacitor/reactor 129 A-phase shunt-compensating winding 381,
compensating 382, 523
 Index 673

with autotransformer 36 voltage regulation 383–384

compensating voltage 387 Series compensation
control of 394–398 mechanically-switched reactor 354–363
desired series-compensating voltage 387 mechanically-switched capacitor with
using EMTP 376, 425–430, 443–444, 457–458, reactor 363–369
471–472 series reactance emulator 369–374
flexible operation 520–521 Series-compensating impedance
harmonic injection into power system active and reactive powers 145–147
network 515 example 149–153
impedance emulation 392–393, 395, 523 power flow characteristics 146
as independent PFC 392 Series-compensating reactance 239–242
limited-angle operation 485–497 active and reactive power flows 228
using LTCs with lower current magnitude of voltage 230
rating 498–501 two-generator/one-line power system
magnetic circuit design 513 network 228
with mechanical and TC types of LTC 34 voltage 229
modeling 376 Series-compensating voltage
MST with shunt-compensating active and reactive power flows 86
voltage 531–532 comparison 165–168
limited angle operation of 526–531 example 85–86, 91
natural/uncompensated power flow 377 exchanged power
as new voltage regulator 389–392 active and reactive powers 109–113
operation during line faults 515–516 compensating impedance 109
optimization of transformer rating 513–515 control magnitude 114–115
phase angle regulation 385–386 example 116–125
power flow enhancement 510 independent control 115–116
power loss in VSC 512 line impedance 109–110
power-regulating controlling power transmission system 110
transformers 375, 533 magnitude of voltage across the transmission
in PSS®E model 647–650, 654–656 line 88–90
reactance emulation 393, 396–397, 518, 526 phase angle 80, 90–91
resistance emulation 318, 326, 393, 396 power flow at
speed of operation 511–512 modified sending end 100–109
switch rating 512–513 receiving end 95–100
testing of 453–485 sending end 92–95
factory tests 453 power transmission system 80, 81
power flow tests 453 relative phase angle 83–85
types 453 sending-end voltage 80, 81
three-generator/four-line power system transmission system 85
network, simulation of 439–453 two-generator/one-line power system
two-generator/one-line power system network 80, 87, 88
network 377–378, 380, 386, 387, 425, variations of the magnitude 85
457, 471 Series reactance emulator, series
series-compensating voltage on power compensation 369
flow 387–388 Series reactance regulation 10
simulation of 425–439 direct method 178
with two-core design 501–510 indirect method 178–179
674 Index

Shunt breaker (SHNBRK) 172, 181, 344–346, Static synchronous compensator

348, 350, 353–354 (STATCOM) 10, 166, 171, 172, 179, 180,
Shunt capacitor (SC) 10, 378 182, 183
Shunt-compensating reactance for voltage regulation 378
comparison 228–242 Static Synchronous Series Compensator
function of 50 (SSSC) 10
restoration of voltage Static var compensator (SVC) 10, 378
midpoint of the line 230–232 Steady-state resistance calculator 280, 281
n points of the line 235–238
one-fourth, half, and three-fourth points of t
the line 233–234 Three-phase balanced impedance 535
one-third and two-third points of the Thyristor-based SVC 15, 19, 41
line 232–233 and transformer/LTCs-based ST 41
Shunt-compensating voltage 28, 63–65, 67–80 Thyristor-Controlled (TC) LTCs 12, 34, 43
comparison 165–168 Thyristor-Controlled Reactor (TCR) 11, 13,
exchanged power 64, 65, 79, 109 41, 42
power flow 70–78 Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor
shunt-compensating impedance 79–80 (TCSC) 10, 378
Shunt compensation 341–354 Thyristor-Switched Capacitor (TSC) 13
mechanically-switched capacitor 341–352 Transformer-based power flow controllers (PFCs)
mechanically-switched reactor 352–353 PAR 297, 322–340
Shunt-connected reactor 12–13 VRT 297–322
Shunt/parallel-connected switched reactor/ Transformer/Load Tap Changers (LTCs)-based
capacitor 10 solutions for PFCs 380
Shunt reactor (SR) 10, 353, 354 Transient Analysis of Control Systems
Shunt–Series configuration 12 (TACS) 257
Shunt–Shunt and Shunt–Series configuration 38 Transmission/distribution network, voltage/
Shunt–Shunt Compensator-based BTB- power flow compensation 1, 22
STATCOM 26–28 Transmission line control equipment 37
Shunt unit current computation Transmission line reactance
in A-B-C time domain 288 regulators 3, 11, 42
in d-q rotating frame 286–288, 551 Transmission lines 5
Single-core phase angle regulation electric grid 8
(PAR) 173–176 interconnected transmission system 2, 6, 40
Smart controllers 1 long lines 6
SMART power flow controller (SPFC) medium-length lines 6
1, 39–41, 43, 44 natural active and reactive power flows 6, 7
features of 41 natural or uncompensated power flow 10
functional requirements 41 natural power flow 6, 7
justification 41 resistances and inductive reactances 5
lowest cost 41 short lines 6
natural power flow 41 with four-quadrant emulated impedance 34
voltage regulation 40 with series-compensating voltage 9
Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant and Transmission line steady-state resistance
Time-bound (SMART) controller 1 calculator 280
STATCON (STATic CONdenser as discussed in the Transmission line voltage phase angle
literature) 14, 15, 17, 18 regulators 10, 11
 Index 675

Transmission Reliability Margin (TRM) 2, 3 Voltage regulator (VR) 3, 13, 14, 80–91, 152–154,
Transmission transfer capability (TTC) 2, 3 168, 196
Triple frequency, zero-sequence component 545 equivalent impedance of 635–636
Two-winding transformer 11, 12, 165, 166, 168, Voltage-regulating transformer (VRT) 10,
297, 298, 315, 316, 317, 319, 320 297–322, 383
TVA-STATCON project 14, 15, 19, 32, 40, 42 dynamic performance of 1, 10
electrical system data 302, 315
u Exciter Unit 310, 316
Unbalanced three-phase currents 547 in Shunt-Series configuration 298–315
Unbalanced three-phase power 547–551 leakage impedance 301
Unbalanced three-phase variables 538, 539, modified sending-end voltage magnitude 303,
545, 546 308, 310, 312, 314, 323, 330, 338, 340
Unbalanced three-phase voltage 547 phasor diagram 310
Unified power flow controller (UPFC) 14, 21, point of connection 303
24–27, 30–32, 34–36, 38, 375, 379, 383, sending-end voltage magnitude 303, 305,
510–515, 533–534 314, 321
at AEP Inez substation 25 series-compensating voltage 303
line power in transmission-level series-compensating voltage magnitude 303,
applications 21 304, 308, 309
versus ST, economic analysis of 27 three-phase primary windings 310, 316
Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) 26 three-phase, series-coupling
transformer 301–302
v TRANSFORMER model in EMTP 314–315
Vector phase-locked loop (VPLL) 276–279, 283 two-generator/single-line power system
Voltage control method network 302, 305, 311, 314, 317
compensating voltage 139, 141–144 electrical system data 313, 320
effective line reactance 141–144 voltage compensation 314
normalized power flow 131, 135, 137, 143 using TRANSFORMER model in EMTP 310
reactance compensator 110, 144, 232–233, 239 Voltage-Regulating Unit 310, 311, 316, 384
resonance 142–143 Voltage-Sourced Converter (VSC)-based
series-compensating technology 15, 34, 42–43, 382
reactance 131, 140, 147, 150, 152 VSC-based FACTS Controllers 19, 33–35,
voltage 63–66, 80, 92, 100, 109 38, 40
simple power transmission system 81, 110, 141
Voltage/power flow compensation, transmission/ z
distribution network 22 Zero-sequence phasors 545–547
 Books in the IEEE Press Series on Power
and Engineering
Series Editor: ME El-Hawary, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada

The mission of IEEE Press Series on Power Engineering is to publish leading-edge books that cover the broad spectrum
of current and forward-looking technologies in this fast-moving area. The series attracts highly acclaimed authors from
industry/academia to provide accessible coverage of current and emerging topics in power engineering and allied
fields. Our target audience includes the power engineering professional who is interested in enhancing their
knowledge and perspective in their areas of interest.

1. Electric Power Systems: Design and Analysis, Revised Printing

Mohamed E. El-Hawary
2. Power System Stability
Edward W. Kimbark
3. Analysis of Faulted Power Systems
Paul M. Anderson
4. Inspection of Large Synchronous Machines: Checklists, Failure Identification, and Troubleshooting
Isidor Kerszenbaum
5. Electric Power Applications of Fuzzy Systems
Mohamed E. El-Hawary
6. Power System Protection
Paul M. Anderson
7. Subsynchronous Resonance in Power Systems
Paul M. Anderson, B.L. Agrawal, J.E. Van Ness
8. Understanding Power Quality Problems: Voltage Sags and Interruptions
Math H. Bollen
9. Analysis of Electric Machinery
Paul C. Krause, Oleg Wasynczuk, and S.D. Sudhoff
10. Power System Control and Stability, Revised Printing
Paul M. Anderson, A.A. Fouad
11. Principles of Electric Machines with Power Electronic Applications, Second Edition
Mohamed E. El-Hawary
12. Pulse Width Modulation for Power Converters: Principles and Practice
D. Grahame Holmes and Thomas Lipo
13. Analysis of Electric Machinery and Drive Systems, Second Edition
Paul C. Krause, Oleg Wasynczuk, and S.D. Sudhoff
14. Risk Assessment for Power Systems: Models, Methods, and Applications
Wenyuan Li
15. Optimization Principles: Practical Applications to the Operations of Markets of the Electric Power Industry
Narayan S. Rau
16. Electric Economics: Regulation and Deregulation
Geoffrey Rothwell and Tomas Gomez
17. Electric Power Systems: Analysis and Control
Fabio Saccomanno
18. Electrical Insulation for Rotating Machines: Design, Evaluation, Aging, Testing, and Repair
Greg C. Stone, Edward A. Boulter, Ian Culbert, and Hussein Dhirani
19. Signal Processing of Power Quality Disturbances
Math H. J. Bollen and Irene Y. H. Gu
20. Instantaneous Power Theory and Applications to Power Conditioning
Hirofumi Akagi, Edson H. Watanabe and Mauricio Aredes
21. Maintaining Mission Critical Systems in a 24/7 Environment
Peter M. Curtis
22. Elements of Tidal-Electric Engineering
Robert H. Clark
23. Handbook of Large Turbo-Generator Operation and Maintenance, Second Edition
Geoff Klempner and Isidor Kerszenbaum
24. Introduction to Electrical Power Systems
Mohamed E. El-Hawary
25. Modeling and Control of Fuel Cells: Distributed Generation Applications
M. Hashem Nehrir and Caisheng Wang
26. Power Distribution System Reliability: Practical Methods and Applications
Ali A. Chowdhury and Don O. Koval
27. Introduction to FACTS Controllers: Theory, Modeling, and Applications
Kalyan K. Sen, Mey Ling Sen
28. Economic Market Design and Planning for Electric Power Systems
James Momoh and Lamine Mili
29. Operation and Control of Electric Energy Processing Systems
James Momoh and Lamine Mili
30. Restructured Electric Power Systems: Analysis of Electricity Markets with Equilibrium Models
Xiao-Ping Zhang
31. An Introduction to Wavelet Modulated Inverters
S.A. Saleh and M.A. Rahman
32. Control of Electric Machine Drive Systems
Seung-Ki Sul
33. Probabilistic Transmission System Planning
Wenyuan Li
34. Electricity Power Generation: The Changing Dimensions
Digambar M. Tagare
35. Electric Distribution Systems
Abdelhay A. Sallam and Om P. Malik
36. Practical Lighting Design with LEDs
Ron Lenk, Carol Lenk
37. High Voltage and Electrical Insulation Engineering
Ravindra Arora and Wolfgang Mosch
38. Maintaining Mission Critical Systems in a 24/7 Environment, Second Edition
Peter Curtis
39. Power Conversion and Control of Wind Energy Systems
Bin Wu, Yongqiang Lang, Navid Zargari, Samir Kouro
40. Integration of Distributed Generation in the Power System
Math H. Bollen, Fainan Hassan
41. Doubly Fed Induction Machine: Modeling and Control for Wind Energy Generation Applications
Gonzalo Abad, Jesús López, Miguel Rodrigues, Luis Marroyo, and Grzegorz Iwanski
42. High Voltage Protection for Telecommunications
Steven W. Blume
43. Smart Grid: Fundamentals of Design and Analysis
James Momoh
44. Electromechanical Motion Devices, Second Edition
Paul Krause, Oleg Wasynczuk, Steven Pekarek
45. Electrical Energy Conversion and Transport: An Interactive Computer-Based Approach, Second Edition
George G. Karady, Keith E. Holbert
46. ARC Flash Hazard and Analysis and Mitigation
J.C. Das
47. Handbook of Electrical Power System Dynamics: Modeling, Stability, and Control
Mircea Eremia, Mohammad Shahidehpour
48. Analysis of Electric Machinery and Drive Systems, Third Edition
Paul C. Krause, Oleg Wasynczuk, S.D. Sudhoff, Steven D. Pekarek
49. Extruded Cables for High-Voltage Direct-Current Transmission: Advances in Research and Development
Giovanni Mazzanti, Massimo Marzinotto
50. Power Magnetic Devices: A Multi-Objective Design Approach
S.D. Sudhoff
51. Risk Assessment of Power Systems: Models, Methods, and Applications, Second Edition
Wenyuan Li
52. Practical Power System Operation
Ebrahim Vaahedi
53. The Selection Process of Biomass Materials for the Production of Bio-Fuels and Co-Firing
Najib Altawell
54. Electrical Insulation for Rotating Machines: Design, Evaluation, Aging, Testing, and Repair, Second Edition
Greg C. Stone, Ian Culbert, Edward A. Boulter, and Hussein Dhirani
55. Principles of Electrical Safety
Peter E. Sutherland
56. Advanced Power Electronics Converters: PWM Converters Processing AC Voltages
Euzeli Cipriano dos Santos Jr., Edison Roberto Cabral da Silva
57. Optimization of Power System Operation, Second Edition
Jizhong Zhu
58. Power System Harmonics and Passive Filter Designs
J.C. Das
59. Digital Control of High-Frequency Switched-Mode Power Converters
Luca Corradini, Dragan Maksimoviæ, Paolo Mattavelli, Regan Zane
60. Industrial Power Distribution, Second Edition
Ralph E. Fehr, III
61. HVDC Grids: For Offshore and Supergrid of the Future
Dirk Van Hertem, Oriol Gomis-Bellmunt, Jun Liang
62. Advanced Solutions in Power Systems: HVDC, FACTS, and Artificial Intelligence
Mircea Eremia, Chen-Ching Liu, Abdel-Aty Edris
63. Operation and Maintenance of Large Turbo-Generators
Geoff Klempner, Isidor Kerszenbaum
64. Electrical Energy Conversion and Transport: An Interactive Computer-Based Approach
George G. Karady, Keith E. Holbert
65. Modeling and High-Performance Control of Electric Machines
John Chiasson
66. Rating of Electric Power Cables in Unfavorable Thermal Environment
George J. Anders
67. Electric Power System Basics for the Nonelectrical Professional
Steven W. Blume
68. Modern Heuristic Optimization Techniques: Theory and Applications to Power Systems
Kwang Y. Lee, Mohamed A. El-Sharkawi
69. Real-Time Stability Assessment in Modern Power System Control Centers
Savu C. Savulescu
70. Optimization of Power System Operation
Jizhong Zhu
71. Insulators for Icing and Polluted Environments
Masoud Farzaneh, William A. Chisholm
72. PID and Predictive Control of Electric Devices and Power Converters Using MATLAB®/Simulink®
Liuping Wang, Shan Chai, Dae Yoo, Lu Gan, Ki Ng
73. Power Grid Operation in a Market Environment: Economic Efficiency and Risk Mitigation
Hong Chen
74. Electric Power System Basics for Nonelectrical Professional, Second Edition
Steven W. Blume
75. Energy Production Systems Engineering
Thomas Howard Blair
76. Model Predictive Control of Wind Energy Conversion Systems
Venkata Yaramasu, Bin Wu
77. Understanding Symmetrical Components for Power System Modeling
J.C. Das
78. High-Power Converters and AC Drives, Second Edition
Bin Wu, Mehdi Narimani
79. Current Signature Analysis for Condition Monitoring of Cage Induction Motors: Industrial Application and
Case Histories
William T. Thomson, Ian Culbert
80. Introduction to Electric Power and Drive Systems
Paul Krause, Oleg Wasynczuk, Timothy O’Connell, Maher Hasan
81. Instantaneous Power Theory and Applications to Power Conditioning, Second Edition
Hirofumi, Edson Hirokazu Watanabe, Mauricio Aredes
82. Practical Lighting Design with LEDs, Second Edition
Ron Lenk, Carol Lenk
83. Introduction to AC Machine Design
Thomas A. Lipo
84. Advances in Electric Power and Energy Systems: Load and Price Forecasting
Mohamed E. El-Hawary
85. Electricity Markets: Theories and Applications
Jeremy Lin, Jernando H. Magnago
86. Multiphysics Simulation by Design for Electrical Machines, Power Electronics and Drives
Marius Rosu, Ping Zhou, Dingsheng Lin, Dan M. Ionel, Mircea Popescu, Frede Blaabjerg, Vandana Rallabandi,
David Staton
87. Modular Multilevel Converters: Analysis, Control, and Applications
Sixing Du, Apparao Dekka, Bin Wu, Navid Zargari
88. Electrical Railway Transportation Systems
Morris Brenna, Federica Foiadelli, Dario Zaninelli
89. Energy Processing and Smart Grid
James A. Momoh
90. Handbook of Large Turbo-Generator Operation and Maintenance, Third Edition
Geoff Klempner, Isidor Kerszenbaum
91. Advanced Control of Doubly Fed Induction Generator for Wind Power Systems
Dehong Xu, Dr. Frede Blaabjerg, Wenjie Chen, Nan Zhu
92. Electric Distribution Systems, 2nd Edition
Abdelhay A. Sallam, Om P. Malik
93. Power Electronics in Renewable Energy Systems and Smart Grid: Technology and Applications
Bimal K. Bose
94. Distributed Fiber Optic Sensing and Dynamic Rating of Power Cables
Sudhakar Cherukupalli, and George J Anders
95. Power System and Control and Stability, Third Edition
Vijay Vittal, James D. McCalley, Paul M. Anderson, and A. A. Fouad
96. Electromechanical Motion Devices: Rotating Magnetic Field-Based Analysis and Online Animations, Third Edition
Paul Krause, Oleg Wasynczuk, Steven D. Pekarek, and Timothy O’Connell
97. Applications of Modern Heuristic Optimization Methods in Power and Energy Systems
Kwang Y. Lee and Zita A. Vale
98. Handbook of Large Hydro Generators: Operation and Maintenance
Glenn Mottershead, Stefano Bomben, Isidor Kerszenbaum, and Geoff Klempner
99. Advances in Electric Power and Energy: Static State Estimation
Mohamed E. El-Hawary
100. Arc Flash Hazard Analysis and Mitigation, Second Edition
J.C. Das
101. Maintaining Mission Critical Systems in a 24/7 Environment, Third Edition
Peter M. Curtis
102. Real-Time Electromagnetic Transient Simulation of AC-DC Networks
Venkata Dinavahi and Ning Lin
103. Probabilistic Power System Expansion Planning with Renewable Energy Resources and Energy Storage Systems,
Jaeseok Choi and Kwang Y. Lee
104. Power Magnetic Devices: A Multi-Objective Design Approach, Second Edition.
Scott D. Sudhoff.
105. Optimal Coordination of Power Protective Devices with Illustrative Examples
Ali R. Al-Roomi
106. Alternative Liquid Dielectrics for High Voltage Transformer Insulation Systems: Performance Analysis and
Applications,
U. Mohan Rao, I. Fofana, and R. Sarathi
107. Power System Protection: Fundamentals and Applications.
John Ciufo and Aaron Cooperberg
108. Power Flow Control Solutions for a Modern Grid using SMART Power Flow Controllers
Kalyan K. Sen and Mey Ling Sen
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