Towards the center of the cell

Centrosome
◦ they attach to microtubules in preparation to split apart
◦ fibres from the metoticnspindle pulls the chromosomes andnthey line up along Mitotic spindles which
is attach to centromere
The middle of the cell on the duplicated
chromosome
◦

Anaphas 3 Mitotic
spindle fibers
 Chromaitds ◦ the Chromatids start to sepratenand move to the opposite ends of the cell
being pulled ◦ Ensures each cell contains identical chromosomes after the splitting
◦ chromosome are being phlled by the centromere which results to the a
distinctive patterning with ends of all chromosomes being trailed behind
◦ If mitosis is going as expected then all number and chromosome type willbe
Mitotic
spindles found equal at each pole
starts to ◦ Mitotic spindle start to pull apart
shorten

Telophase 4 ◦ last part of mitosis

Centromere and
spindle fibers ◦ Chromsomes reach the opposite
poles of the cell and starts to
Nuclear
Cell
membrane unwind ◦ Chromosomes start to decomdemse and
starts
to split
reforming ◦ Spindle fibers start to dissovle starts to become invisible
and nuclear membrane storms ◦ Bye the berynend, two diploid daugther
around chromsomes cells (2n) are formed
◦ Creates two daigther nuclei

Part of Cell Cycle

Interphase (before PMAT)

◦ cell starts to grow amd replicates the DNA to prepare for cell
division
◦ chromatin—> a tangled strand of DNA and protien with
eukaryptic nucleus
◦ Its not possible to see the chromsomes during interphase
◦ Before chromosome shapew is form, its is a long molecules of the
DNA that are all mixed together with a protien called histones

Interphase 3 stages
1. FIRST GROWTH PHASE (G1)
◦ the cell is beginnging tomgrow and it accumulates to the hilding blocks lf the chromosomal DNA as well as
thenassociated protien
◦ Working on the gaining sufficenr energy reserves in order to complete the task in replocating the
chromosomes within the nucleus
2. SYNTHESIS (S)
◦ The longest phase in where the genetic material is being duplicated
◦ Formation of duplicated chromatids are firmlu attached to centromeric reigon
◦ Centrosome is being duplicated during this phase
3.SECOND GROWTH PHASE (G2)
◦ Replwnisjes the energy stores
◦ Structures are buildm which is needed for mitosis
◦ Some organelles in the cell are duplicated and possible addtion to cell growth
◦ Cytoskeleton is dismamtled-gives additional energy
CYTOKINESIS(AFTER PMAT)
◦ cyptoplasm of parent cells spil into two identical daugther
cells
◦ Mitosis is followed by cytokenisis
◦ Seprattion occurs in the midpoint along the origmal spindle
finres
◦ They seperate two new nuclei and orhamelles equally
◦ cell divison happens into stages, mitosis, and cytokinesis
(though the nuclues is divided during mitosis, the divison of the cell
creats into two daugther cells during cytokines)

◦ in many protisis, fingi amd animal cells, a furrow

develops, pinching pff the cell into two parts

◦ within plant cells vesicles are produced by the glovi begin in order to gather
on both sides of cell equator
◦ Vesicles fuses forming cell plate between the daugther cell
◦ while the membrane of the glogi vesciles start to unite in order to form a new
cell membrane
◦ Membrane of the golgi vesicles united to for, new cell membrane

◦ plant and animal cytokinesis ar basically the same

Terms
◦ Heredity —> passing traits form parents to off spring
◦ Geentics—> branch pf biology with heredity and the variation of inhertited characteristics
◦ DNA—> molecule that carries genetic information oin cells
◦ Gene—>segmengt of DNA molecule that codes fpr a particular trait fpune km specific location pn the
chromsome
◦ Locism —> location pf a gene on chromosomes
◦ Polyploid —> having more than two sets of chromosomes; many plants of polyploids
◦ Asexual reproduction—> the production of an offspring or offsprings from a single parent; genetic that
makesup offspring os identical to the parent
◦ Sexual reproduction—> production of an offspring from two parents of two sex cells which usually from
differnet parents
◦ Fragmentation—> methord if asexual reproduction in which a piece of body fragment of parent orgnanism
develops into mature individual
◦ Sister chromatid —> the identical copy ofnsinfle chromosomes where the remains attached to orignal
chromosomes at the centromere
DNA, CHROMOSOMES,
& GENES
nuclei—> plural of nucleus
◦ ENTIRE DNA code is in bodys cell
◦ Nucleic acid —> bio molecule, made of buildimg blocks called nucleotide
◦ Nicleotides —>repating unit of DNA, has three parts to them
1. Sugar (deoxyribosw)
2. Phosphate
3. Nitrogenous base
◦ amount of adenine = Tyhmine
- base is most important
◦ Amount of Guanine = cytosine
part
-base codes for trait
◦ A-Adenine
-4 type of bases
◦ G-Guanine
A+T ◦ C-Cytosine
T+A ◦ T-Tymine (DNA)
C+G ◦ U-uracil (RNA:
G+C
Apples in tree —>Base A go with T
Cars in the garage —> Base C go with G
- DNA BASESin humans however it varys with
dofferent species and differenr imdividuals

- Dna has two stand, one runs up one runs down

-Bases are held within the middle
-the DNA is held together by hydrogen bonds
-Shape is called double helix
- Portions of dna makes up genes
-gener code for protien
-protien helps with not just eye colour but in transport, stricture, enzymes, protecting body etc.
-Not all genes make protien, not all DNA is coding
-body cells only use certian genes,portion, rhey can be turn off or on (gene regulation)
-compacted DNA is a unit called chromosomes
- Chromosomes in the body is DNA that is wrapped around
protien strucutre
- humans has 46 chromosomes
-reproducive has 23-23
-46 chromosomes—> genertic code

-
 Prokaryotic chromosomes
◦ Circular donule helix
◦ It is complexed with protien in the structured term with the nucleoid
◦ Attacjed toward the plasama membrane

Eukryotic Chromosomes
◦ Their locted in the nucleus
◦ Each chromosomes have a singlw moleculed of DNA which is associated protiens
◦ The Dna and then[rotien complex isnfound in eukaryotic chrosmosomes is called chromatin
◦ 1/3 dna and 2/3 proteins
◦ The complex interaction between protiens and nucleid acids in chromosomes regulates gene
nd chromosomal functiom

Compacts DNA -
10,000
(alberts et al Moleculat Biology of
the Cell, 1983)

Nuleic Acid
Two type
◦ DNA—> Deoxyribonucleic Acid which is inside the nucleus only
◦ RNA—> Ribonucleic Acid within the nucleus and in the cytoplasm

Both DNA and RNA are large molecules (macromolecules) made smaller repeating units called nucleotides bonded
togethern

Function:
◦ Stores amd expresses the hereditary information which directsnthe functions ofmall organelles
◦ Makes exact co-ies of self pior to cell replication

The nucleotide
Dna Rna
◦ Stores inherited ◦ Used in for expressing the
information inherited information in forms
◦ Double stranded of protein
◦ Uses nucleotide ◦ catalytic functions
“tyymine” ◦ Single stranded but had the
◦ Uses pentose sugar ability to fpldmfpr suort
“deoxyribose” streches
◦ Always restricted to ◦ Uses nucleotide “uracil”
mucleus (unless there ◦ Uses pentose sugar (ribose”
isn’t one) ◦ Found in both nucleus and the
cytoplasm

◦ James watson and francis crick

made forst dna model
◦ Nuclein was the original given
name of DNA when it was
discovered in the nucelus of
cells by friedrich misecher
◦ \
Karotypes
◦ The chromosomes of an individual have been sorted and arranages
accordingntomthe size and type
◦ humans have 46
chromosomes divided into
23
◦ 22 pairs pf autpsomes (non-
sex chromosomes)
◦ 1 pair of sex chromosomes
◦ XX=Female
◦ during the stage of cell division ◦ Xy=Male
the cells can be photgrphed.
Stained or viewed under a
microscope

How its prepared

◦ Cell collection—cells from areas such as blood, bone marrow, amniotic
fluid is collected
◦ Cell culture—cells are promoted to cell divison
◦ aressting divison- division is at halt when cells reach metaphase where the
chromosomes are more visible
◦ Chromosome statining—speical dyes such as g-banding are used to reveal a
distinctive banding patterns
◦ Chromosomes arrangement— chromsomes arrange from largest to cmallest,
with sex chromosomes being placed last
◦ Shape-classified based pn the centromere position
◦ Bending pattern - staining reveals darl and lightnbands in order to help
identify for chromosomes
◦ Detects abnormality such as downstndrome
◦
Sex Chromosomes
◦ humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes woth a total of 46
◦ 22 pairs are called autosomes
◦ 1 pair are sex chromosomes

Female Male
Different chromosomes
Homologous(identical) One X and one Y chromosome
chromosomes Y is smaller than X
Has 2 X chromosome

◦ combinition pfnthe chromosomes determines the sex of the

offspring
◦ During Meiois the games are form
female -X
Male - X lr Y
◦ Females always provide the X chromosome
◦ Male contributes X or Y chromosomes

X Chromosome
◦ the X chromosome is much more larger than the Y chromosome
◦ More genes are carroed on the X chromosome
Y Chromosome
◦ THE y chromosomes carries few genes because of it’s smaller size
Inheritance of sex linked
characteristics
◦ Since males only have one X chromosomes
◦ ,males will express any sort of gene on the X chromosome (gotten
from motern)

Doesn’t matter of allele is dominant of recessive

◦ Henes carried on the sex chromosomes are called sex-linked

characteristics
◦ Even if they differ in size, they contin matching regions that
allows then to undergo synapsis and behave as homogeneous pairs
during meiosis

◦ Father = X +Mother = X —> Daughter (XX)

◦ Father = Y + Mother = X —> Son (XY)

◦ 1/many ways of finding sex of offspring

◦ Example: reptiles offspring sex is determined by the temperature of
the egg during incubations; some fish born female and grow up male
and vice-versa

Blood Type
◦ three sorts of alleles
—>A,B, O
—>these can create 6 genotypes
—> I= immunoglobulin
Blood type - Show Co-Dominance
I & I are dominat to i
I & I qre both expressed if presemt —> Co-dominant
A+A—A,O
A+B—A, AB, B
A+AB—A,AB
A+O—A,O
B+B,—B,O
B+AB—B,AB]
B+O—B,O
AB+AB—A,AB,B
AB+O—A,B

Terminology
◦ Allele- a variant form, differne talleles can produce varitiaon
in traits
◦ Gene-A segment of DNA that contains onstructions for buidling
protien or RNA MOLECULES determining an organism trait
◦ Genotype-the genetic makeup of an organism, including both
visible and non-visible traits the combination of Allele, such as a
a a or a a)
◦ Phenotype-the observable traits or characteristics of an
organism which is influenced by its genotype and environmental
factors, for example, eye colour or height
Homozygous-an individual with two identical allele for a gene
Heterozygous-individual with two different allele for a gene
Dominnt Allele- Allele that expresses its phemotype when present un
a heterozygous or homozygous atten
Recessive Allele-an allele whose phenotype is expressed in a
homozygous state
Codomimance-a genetic scenario in which contributors alleles
contribute equally an independently to organisms phenotype
incomplete dominance-a genetic scenario in which neither alleles is
completely dominant, resulting into a blended phenotype and
heterozygous(for example, a pink flower from red and white parents)
Locus-the specific location of a gene on a chromosome
Chromosome-Long threaded light structure, composed of DNA and
proteins carrying genetic information. Humans have 46 chromosomes
23 in pairs
Homozygous Dominant-an organism who had two dominant alleles for
a gene
Homozygous recessive – an organism with two recessive alleles for a
gene
genetic cross– the process of meeting two organisms to study
inheritance pattern of specific trait
punnet Square – a diagram used to predict the possible genotypes of an
offspring from the genetic cross
Mono, hybrid cross – across between two organisms that are both
heterozygous for a single treat
dihybrid cross– across between two organisms that are both
heterozygous for two treat
◦ Dihybrid Cross- A cross between two organisms that are both heterozygous for two traits.
2 Mendelian Inheritance
Inheritance patterns based on Gregor Mendel's laws of heredity (Law of Segregation
and Law of Independent Assortment).
3 F1 Generation
The first generation of offspring produced from a cross.
4 F2 Generation
The second generation of offspring, typically from a cross between two F1 individuals.
5 Law of Segregation
The principle that each individual has two alleles for a gene, which segregate during the
formation of gametes so that each gamete carries only one allele.
1 Law of Independent Assortment
The principle that genes located on different chromosomes are inherited independently
of each other.
2 Carrier
An individual who carries one recessive allele for a genetic disorder but does not
express the disorder (heterozygous).
3 Mutation
A change in the DNA sequence, which can lead to variation in traits or result in
disease.
4 Gene Pool
The total collection of alleles in a population.
5 Genetic Drift
A random change in allele frequencies in a population over time, often more noticeable
in small populations.
6 Selection Pressure
The environmental factors that influence the survival and reproduction of individuals
with specific traits (e.g., natural selection).
7 Polygenic Inheritance
Inheritance of traits controlled by multiple genes, leading to continuous variation (e.g.,
skin color, height).
8 Epistasis
A situation where one gene affects or masks the expression of another gene.
9 Penetrance
The proportion of individuals with a specific genotype who actually express the
associated phenotype.
10 Expressivity
The degree or intensity with which a genotype is expressed in the phenotype.
11 Genomic Imprinting
When the expression of an allele depends on the parent from whom it is inherited.
12 X-linked Traits
Traits controlled by genes located on the X chromosome, often affecting males more
than females due to their single X chromosome.
13 Y-linked Traits
Traits controlled by genes located on the Y chromosome, affecting only males.

◦ Linkage
The tendency for genes located close together on the same chromosome to be inherited
together during meiosis.

2 Recombination
The exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during meiosis,
leading to new combinations of alleles.
3 Crossing Over
The exchange of genetic material between chromatids of homologous chromosomes
during meiosis, contributing to genetic variation.
4 Gene Therapy
A technique for treating or preventing diseases by altering the genetic material within a
person's cells.
5 Nondisjunction
The failure of chromosomes to separate properly during cell division, leading to an
 1 Autonomies
Chromosomes that are not involved in determining sex. Humans have 22 pairs
of autosomes.
2 Sex Chromosomes
Chromosomes that determine an individual's biological sex. In humans, females
have two X chromosomes (XX), and males have one X and one Y chromosome
(XY).
3 Karyotype
The complete set of chromosomes in a cell, arranged by size and shape,
typically shown as a visual representation to assess chromosomal abnormalities.
4 Haploid
A cell that contains a single set of chromosomes (e.g., gametes such as sperm
and eggs).
5 Diploid
A cell that contains two sets of chromosomes, one from each parent (e.g., most
somatic cells).
6 Gametes
Reproductive cells (sperm and eggs) that are haploid, carrying half the number
of chromosomes of the parent cell.
7 Zygote
The fertilized egg formed when two gametes (sperm and egg) combine.
8 Cloning
The process of producing genetically identical organisms or cells through
asexual reproduction or artificial methods.
9 Somatic Cells
All body cells that are not involved in reproduction, and are diploid in most
organisms.
10 Chromatid
A single strand of a chromosome, which becomes visible during cell division.
Two chromatids make up a chromosome.
11 Centromere
The region of a chromosome where the two sister chromatids are joined
together, crucial for chromosome movement during cell division.
12 Telomere
The protective caps at the ends of chromosomes that prevent them from
deteriorating or fusing with neighboring chromosomes.
13 Meiosis
A type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, producing
four genetically diverse haploid gametes.
14 Mitosis
A type of cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells,
maintaining the chromosome number of the original cell.
1 Crossing Over
The exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during
meiosis, leading to genetic variation.
2 Mendelian Inheritance
The patterns of inheritance of traits, first described by Gregor Mendel, which include
the laws of segregation and independent assortment.
3 Dominance
The relationship between alleles, where a dominant allele masks the expression of a
recessive allele in a heterozygous individual.
4 Test Cross
A cross between an organism of unknown genotype (but showing the dominant
phenotype) and a homozygous recessive individual, to determine the unknown
genotype.
5 Monohybrid Cross
A cross between individuals that differ in a single trait.
6 Dihybrid Cross
A cross between individuals that differ in two traits.
7 Back Cross
A cross between an offspring and one of its parents to investigate the inheritance of
specific traits.
8 P Generation
The parental generation in a genetic cross, from which the F1 generation is derived.
9 F1 Generation
The first generation of offspring resulting from a cross between two parental
organisms.
10 F2 Generation
The second generation of offspring resulting from a cross between two F1
individuals.
11 Polyploidy
A condition where an organism has more than two complete sets of chromosomes,
often resulting from errors in meiosis.
12 Gene Flow
The transfer of genetic material between populations, typically through migration.
13 Natural Selection
The process by which traits that are beneficial for survival and reproduction become
more common in a population over time.
14 Artificial Selection
The intentional breeding of organisms with desirable traits by humans.
15 Symbiosis
A close relationship between two different species, which may involve mutual
benefit (mutualism), one species benefiting at the other's expense (parasitism), or
both benefiting (commensalism).
16 Genetic Engineering
The direct manipulation of an organism's genes using biotechnology, often to create
genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
17 Transgenic Organism
An organism that has been genetically modified by inserting foreign DNA into its
genome.
 Punnet squares + Pedigree chart
Pedigree—>diagram which shows an individual
andwsroery with human genetics to analyze mendelien
inheritance of certian traits