Module 1

• Introduction to Metrology: Definition, objectives of metrology, Material Standards,

Wavelength Standards, Classification of standards, Line and End standards, Calibration
of End bars. Numerical examples.

• Liner measurement and angular measurements: Slip gauges-Indian standards on slip

gauges, Adjustable slip gauges, Wringing of slip gauges, Problems on building of slip
gauges (M87, M112), Measurement of angle-sine bar, Sine centre, Angle gauges, Optical
instruments for angular measurements. Autocollimator-Applications for measuring
straightness and squareness.

We routinely read the temperature of an outdoor thermometer to choose appropriate clothing for
the day. We expect to have exactly 10 liters of fuel added to our tank when that volume is
indicated on a fuel pump. We expect measuring cups to yield correct quantities of ingredients in
cooking. These measurements are not important enough to merit much attention to features like
improved accuracy or alternative methods. But when the stakes become greater, the selection of
measurement equipment and techniques and the interpretation of the measured data can demand
considerable attention. Just think of how you might verify that a new engine is built as designed
and meets the power and emissions performance specifications required.

Introduction to Metrology

Definition
Metrology is a science of measurement. Metrology may be divided depending upon the quantity
under consideration into: metrology of length, metrology of time etc. Depending upon the field
of application it is divided into industrial metrology, medical metrology, engineering metrology
etc… Engineering metrology is restricted to the measurement of length, angles and other
quantities which are expressed in linear or angular terms.

For every kind of quantity measured, there must be a unit to measure it. This will enable the
quantity to be measured in number of that unit. Further, in order that this unit is followed by all;
there must be a universal standard and the various units for various parameters of importance
must be standardized. It is also necessary to see whether the result is given with sufficient
correctness and accuracy for a particular need or not. This will depend on the method of
measurement, measuring devices used etc.

Thus, in a broader sense Metrology includes all theoretical and practical aspects of measurement.
Metrology is concerned with the establishment, reproduction, conservation and transfer of units
of measurement & their standards.

Objectives of Metrology
While the basic objective of a measurement is to provide the required accuracy at minimum cost,
metrology would have further objective in a modern engineering plant with different shops like
Tool Room, Machine Shop, Press Shop, Plastic Shop, Pressure Die Casting Shop, Electroplating

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and Painting Shop, and Assembly Shop; as also Research, Development and Engineering
Department. In such an engineering organization, the further objectives would be as follows:
1. To provide accuracy at minimum cost.
2. Thorough evaluation of newly developed products, and to ensure that components are within
the specified dimensions.
3. To determine the process capabilities and ensure that these are better than relevant component
tolerances
4. To assess the measuring instrument capabilities and ensure that they are adequate for their
specific measurements.
5. To reduce the cost of inspection & rejections and rework.
6. To standardize measuring methods.
7. To maintain the accuracy of measurements through periodical calibration of the instruments.
8. To prepare designs for gauges and special inspection fixtures.

Definition of Standards:
A standard is defined as “something that is set up and established by an authority as rule of the
measure of quantity, weight, extent, value or quality”. For example, a meter is a standard
established by an international organization for measurement of length. Industry, commerce,
international trade in modern civilization would be impossible without a good system of
standards.

Role of Standards:
The role of standards is to achieve uniform, consistent and repeatable measurements throughout
the world. Today our entire industrial economy is based on the interchangeability of parts the
method of manufacture. To achieve this, a measuring system adequate to define the features to
the accuracy required & the standards of sufficient accuracy to support the measuring system are
necessary.

Material Standard
The need for establishing standard of length was raised primarily for determining agricultural
land areas and for the erection of buildings and monuments. The earliest standard of length was
established in terms of parts of human body. The Egyptian unit was called a cubit. It was equal to
the length of the forearm (from the elbow to the tip of the middle figure).

Rapid advancement made in engineering during nineteenth century was due to improved
materials available and more accurate measuring techniques developed. It was not until 1855 that
first accurate standard was made in England. It was known as imperial standard yard. This was
followed by International Prototype meter made in France in the year 1872.

In practice, the accurate measurement must be made by comparison with a standard of known
dimension and such a standard is called “Primary Standard”. The first accurate standard was
made in England and was known as “Imperial Standard yard” which was followed International
Prototype meter” made in France. Since these two standards of length were made of metal alloys
they are called ‘material length standards’. The various standards known for linear measurement
are, line standard, end standard and wavelength standard.

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Line standard
When the length being measured is expressed as the distance between two lines, then it is called
“Line Standard”. Examples: Measuring scales, Imperial standard yard, International prototype
meter, etc.
Characteristics of Line Standards:
1. Scales can be accurately engraved but it is difficult to take the full advantage of this
accuracy. Ex: A steel rule can be read to about ± 0.2 mm of true dimension.
2. A scale is quick and easy to use over a wide range of measurements.
3. The wear on the leading ends results in ‘under sizing’
4. A scale does not possess a ‘built in’ datum which would allow easy scale alignment with
the axis of measurement, this again results in ‘under sizing’.
5. Scales are subjected to parallax effect, which is a source of both positive & negative
reading errors’
6. Scales are not convenient for close tolerance length measurements except in conjunction
with microscopes.

End Standards
When the length being measured is expressed as the distance between two parallel faces, then it
is called ‘End standard’. End standards can be made to a very high degree of accuracy. Ex: Slip
gauges, Gap gauges, Ends of micrometer anvils, etc.
Characteristics of End Standards:
1. End standards are highly accurate and are well suited for measurements of close tolerances
as small as 0.0005 mm.
2. They are time consuming in use and prove only one dimension at a time.
3. End standards are subjected to wear on their measuring faces.
4. End standards have a ‘built in’ datum, because their measuring faces are flat & parallel and
can be positively located on a datum surface.
5. They are not subjected to the parallax effect since their use depends on “feel”.
6. Groups of blocks may be “wrung” together to build up any length. But faulty wringing
leads to damage.
7. The accuracy of both end & line standards are affected by temperature change.

Comparison between Line and End

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Imperial Standard yard:
An imperial standard yard, shown in fig, is a bronze (82% Cu, 13% tin, 5% Zinc) bar of 1 inch
square section and 38 inches long. A round recess, 1 inch away from the two ends is cut at both
ends upto the central or ‘neutral plane’ of the bar.

Further, a small round recess of (1/10) inch in diameter is made below the center. Two gold
plugs of (1/10) inch diameter having engravings are inserted into these holes so that the lines
(engravings) are in neutral plane.

Yard is defined as the distance between the two central transverse lines of the gold plug at 620F.
The purpose of keeping the gold plugs in line with the neutral axis is to ensure that the neutral
axis remains unaffected due to bending, and to protect the gold plugs from accidental damage.

International Prototype meter:

It is defined as the straight line distance, at 0oC, between the engraved lines of pure platinum-
iridium alloy (90% platinum & 10% iridium) of 1020 mm total length and having a ‘tresca’ cross
section as shown in fig. The graduations are on the upper surface of the web which coincides
with the neutral axis of the section.

The tresca cross section gives greater rigidity for the amount of material involved and is
therefore economic in the use of an expensive metal. The platinum-iridium alloy is used because
it is non oxidizable and retains good polished surface required for engraving good quality lines.

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Disadvantages of Material length standards:
1. Material length standards vary in length over the years owing to molecular changes in the
alloy.
2. The exact replicas of material length standards were not available for use somewhere else.
3. If these standards are accidentally damaged or destroyed then exact copies could not be
made.
4. Conversion factors have to be used for changing over to metric system.

Light (Optical) wave Length Standard:

Because of the problems of variation in length of material length standards, the possibility of
using light as a basic unit to define primary standard has been considered. The wavelength of a
selected radiation of light and is used as the basic unit of length. Since the wavelength is not a
physical one, it need not be preserved & can be easily reproducible without considerable error.

Eleventh General Conference of Weights and Measures held in Paris in 1960 defined the metre as
equal to 1 650 763.73 wavelengths of the red-orange radiation of krypton isotope 86 gas as
shown in fig below:

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Meter as on Today
In 1983, the 17th general conference on weights & measures proposed the use of speed of light
as a technically feasible & practicable definition of meter. Meter is now defined as the length of
path of travelled by light in vacuum in (1/ 299792458) second. The light used is iodine stabilized
helium-neon laser.

Advantages of using wave length standards:

1. Length does not change.
2. It can be easily reproduced easily if destroyed.
3. This primary unit is easily accessible to any physical laboratories.
4. It can be used for making measurements with much higher accuracy than material standards.
5. Wavelength standard can be reproduced consistently at any time and at any place.

Classification of Standards
The accuracy in a vast industrial complex can be maintained only if its standards are traceable to
a single source, usually the National Standard of the country, which is further linked up with
International Standards. Figure below explains how the accuracy of measurement is transferred
from National Standards to the working shop floor standards. Since frequent use may impair the
accuracy of any standard, direct comparisons with National Standards are less frequently
performed. In such a case, a slightly lower order of standards, known as National Reference
standards are used. Working standards are ordinarily used in calibration work. These are
compared as frequently as necessary with National Reference Standards.

Clearly, there is degradation of accuracy in passing from the defining standards to the standards
in use. The accuracy of a particular standard depends on a combination of the number of times it
has been compared with a standard in a higher echelon, the recentness of such comparisons, the
care with which it was done, and the stability of the particular standard itself.

Subdivision of standards:
The imperial standard yard and the international prototype meter are master standards & cannot
be used for ordinary purposes. Thus based upon the accuracy required, the standards are
subdivided into four grades namely:
1. Primary Standards
2. Secondary standards
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 3. Tertiary standards
4. Working standards

Primary standards:
They are material standard preserved under most careful conditions. These are not used for
directly for measurements but are used once in 10 or 20 years for calibrating secondary
standards. Ex: International Prototype meter, Imperial Standard yard.
Secondary standards:
These are close copies of primary standards w.r.t design, material & length. Any error existing in
these standards is recorded by comparison with primary standards after long intervals. They are
kept at a number of places under great supervision and serve as reference for tertiary standards.
This also acts as safeguard against the loss or destruction of primary standards.
Tertiary standards:
The primary or secondary standards exist as the ultimate controls for reference at rare intervals.
Tertiary standards are the reference standards employed by National Physical laboratory (N.P.L)
and are the first standards to be used for reference in laboratories & workshops. They are made
as close copies of secondary standards & are kept as reference for comparison with working
standards.
Working standards:
These standards are similar in design to primary, secondary & tertiary standards. But being less
in cost and are made of low grade materials, they are used for general applications in metrology
laboratories.

Calibration of End Bars

The procedure of calibrating two bars each having a basic length of 500 mm with the help of
one piece meter and bar is as follows.

The calibrated meter bar is wrung to a surface plate and the two 500 mm bars arc wrung together
to form a basic length of one meter, after which they are wrung to the surface plate alongside the
meter bar. The difference in height, is obtained, Fig. (a). A comparison is now made to
determine the difference in length between the two 500 mm bars, Fig. (b).

Let, LA = the length of one of the 500 mm bars

LB = the length of the other 500 mm bar
X1 = the difference between the calibrated meter bar and the combined lengths of A and B.
X2 = the difference in length between A and B
L = the actual length of the meter bar.

Then from the first measurement, fig (a)

(Depending on whether LA + LB is longer or shorter than L)

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 From the second measurement, fig (b)

LA ± x2 = LB

(Depending on whether A is longer or shorter than B)

Then,

The same producer can be used for calibrating three, four or any other number of length
standards of the same basic size. When comparing the individual bars one of them is used as a
reference and the difference in length of the others is obtained relative to this bar.
Numerical problem-1:
Three 100 mm end bars are measured on a level comparator by first wringing them together and
comparing with a calibrated 300 mm bar which has a known error of +40μm. The three end bars
together measure 64μm less than the 300μm bar. Bar A is 18μm longer than bar B and 23μm longer
than bar C. Find the actual length of each bar.

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Numerical problem-2:
Four end bars of basic length 100 mm are to be calibrated using a standard bar of 400 mm whose
actual length is 399.9992 mm. It was also found that lengths of bars B,C & D in comparison with A
are +0.0002 mm, +0.0004 mm and -0.0001 mm respectively and the length of all the four bars put
together in comparison with the standard bar is +0.0003 mm longer. Determine the actual lengths of
each end bars.

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