Scribd
Upload
15 views3 pages

Lecture 5

The document covers the fundamentals of Predicate Logic (First-Order Logic), including basic elements such as constants, functions, variables, connectives, and quantifiers. It explains predicates, quantification, satisfaction, validity, and the negation of quantifiers, as well as the degree of predicates, singular terms, compound formulas, propositional functions, and the domain of predicates. Additionally, it discusses free and bound variables, substitution, and the concept of uniqueness in predicates.

Uploaded by

imabdullahajmal
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
15 views3 pages

Lecture 5

The document covers the fundamentals of Predicate Logic (First-Order Logic), including basic elements such as constants, functions, variables, connectives, and quantifiers. It explains predicates, quantification, satisfaction, validity, and the negation of quantifiers, as well as the degree of predicates, singular terms, compound formulas, propositional functions, and the domain of predicates. Additionally, it discusses free and bound variables, substitution, and the concept of uniqueness in predicates.

Uploaded by

imabdullahajmal
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 3

Lecture 5: Predicate Logic (First-

Order Logic - FOL)


1. Basic Elements of FOL

 Constants: Specific values or names (e.g., "KingJohn", "2").

 Functions: Operations or relations (e.g., "Sqrt", "Likes").

 Variables: Symbols that can take different values (e.g., "x", "y", "a", "b").

 Connectives: Logical operators like NOT (¬), AND (∧), OR (∨), IMPLIES (→), and EQUIVALENCE
(↔).

 Equality: Used to compare values (e.g., x = y).

 Quantifiers: Symbols that express generalization:

o Universal Quantifier (∀): "For all" (e.g., ∀n∈N, n≥0 means "every natural number is
greater than or equal to zero").

o Existential Quantifier (∃): "There exists" (e.g., ∃x, x > 3 means "some x exists such that x
is greater than 3").

2. Predicates

 A predicate is like a statement that depends on a variable.

 Example: "n is a perfect square" can be written as P(n).

o P(4) is true (since 4 is a perfect square).

o P(5) is false (since 5 is not a perfect square).

3. Quantification

 Universal Quantification (∀): Used when a statement is true for all values.

o Example: ∀x, x > 0 means "every x is greater than 0."

 Existential Quantification (∃): Used when a statement is true for at least one value.

o Example: ∃x, x > 10 means "there exists at least one x greater than 10."

4. Satisfaction and Validity

 A predicate is valid if it is always true.

 A predicate is satisfiable if it is true for at least some values.

 A predicate is unsatisfiable if it is always false.


5. Negation of Quantifiers

 If a statement says "somebody likes Brian" (∃x Likes(x, Brian)), the negation is "nobody likes
Brian" (¬∃x Likes(x, Brian)), which is the same as saying "everybody does not like Brian" (∀x
¬Likes(x, Brian)).

 Negation Rule: When negating, universal quantifiers (∀) become existential quantifiers (∃),
and vice versa.

Lecture 6 & 7: More on Predicate Logic

1. Degree of a Predicate

 One-place predicate: A statement with one subject (e.g., "Jay is clever" → P(Jay)).

 Two-place predicate: A statement with two subjects (e.g., "Jay admires Kay" → Admire(Jay,
Kay)).

 N-place predicate: Statements with multiple subjects (e.g., "x is the brother of y" → Brother(x,
y)).

2. Singular Terms

 A singular term refers to one specific thing (e.g., "The Eiffel Tower", "New York").

 In logic, all subjects are singular terms.

3. Compound Formulas

 Statements can be combined using logical operators:

o Implication (→): If one thing happens, another follows (e.g., "If Jay is a freshman, then
Kay is a freshman" → Fj → Fk).

o Negation (¬): Expresses "not" (e.g., "Kay is not a freshman" → ¬Fk).

respect Jay" → Rjk ∧ ¬Rkj).


o AND (∧): Combines two true statements (e.g., "Jay respects Kay, but Kay does not

4. Propositional Functions

 A propositional function is a statement with variables that becomes true or false when specific
values are given.

o Example: "x is greater than 3" → P(x) means P(4) is true, but P(2) is false.

 Example predicates:

o Father(x) → "x is a father" (unary predicate).

o Brother(x, y) → "x is a brother of y" (binary predicate).


o Sum(x, y, z) → "x + y = z" (ternary predicate).

5. Domain of a Predicate

 Domain: The set of values a variable can take.

 Example:

o If Q(n) means "n is a factor of 8", then:

 If n belongs to positive numbers → Truth set = {1, 2, 4, 8}.

 If n belongs to all integers → Truth set = {1, 2, 4, 8, -1, -2, -4, -8}.

6. Free and Bound Variables

 Free variable: Not restricted by quantifiers (e.g., "n > 5" where n is free).

 Bound variable: Defined using quantifiers (e.g., "∀n, n > 5" where n is bound).

7. Substitution

 Replacing a variable with a value or expression.

 Example:

o If P(n) = "n > 5", substituting n = 3 gives P(3) = "3 > 5", which is false.

o If P(n) = "n > 5", substituting n = (3 + 4) gives P(3+4) = "7 > 5", which is true.

8. Uniqueness (∃!)

 Sometimes, we need to say "exactly one" value satisfies a condition.

 Example:

o "There is exactly one number x such that x + 1 = 1".

o This means x = 0 is the only solution.

You might also like