IoT Sensing and Actuation

The fundamental concept of transduction where a signal is transformed from one form to another
multiple times before it reaches the end-user.

In the realm of IoT, sensing and actuation play crucial roles.

Sensors act as the eyes and ears of an IoT system, collecting data from the environment. They can
monitor various parameters such as temperature, humidity, motion, light levels, and gas
concentrations by converting physical phenomena into electrical signals.
e.g., temperature sensor measures temperature changes and converts that into an electrical
signal that can be interpreted by a microcontroller.

Actuators are responsible for taking action based on the processed data. They convert electrical
signals back into physical actions.
e.g., motors, servos, and relays

The interaction between sensors and actuators often forms a feedback loop that enhances the system's
responsiveness and efficiency.
e.g., in an industrial IoT setup, sensors can continuously monitor machinery health and
performance, and based on this data, actuators can make real-time adjustments to improve
operation, quality, and reduce downtime.

Basic outline of the differences between transducers, sensors, and actuators

Sensors
Sensors are devices that can measure, or quantify, or respond to the ambient changes in their
environment or within the intended zone of their deployment.
They generate responses to external stimuli or physical phenomenon through characterization of the
input functions (which are these external stimuli) and their conversion into typically electrical signals.
e.g., Heat is converted to electrical signals in a temperature sensor, or atmospheric pressure is
converted to electrical signals in a barometer.

A sensor is only sensitive to the measured property

e.g., a temperature sensor only senses the ambient temperature of a room).

Sensor is insensitive to any other property besides what it is designed to detect

e.g., a temperature sensor does not bother about light or pressure while sensing the temperature

A sensor does not influence the measured property

e.g., measuring the temperature does not reduce or increase the temperature.

The outline of a simple sensing operation

Figure shows the simple outline of a sensing task. Here, a temperature sensor keeps on checking an
environment for changes. In the event of a fire, the temperature of the environment goes up. The
temperature sensor notices this change in the temperature of the room and promptly communicates
this information to a remote monitor via the processor.
The various sensors can be classified based on:
1) power requirements,
2) sensor output,
3) Property to be measured.
Power Requirements: Depending on their power requirements, sensors can be categorized into
two main types:
Active Sensor: Active sensors are devices that generate their own signal in response to an external
stimulus, eliminating the need for additional power sources or external circuitry to facilitate their
operation. These sensors interact directly with their environment and convert physical phenomena
into detectable output signals.

e.g., A photodiode is an active sensor that detects light. When exposed to light, it generates an
electrical current or voltage that corresponds to the intensity of the light received.

Passive Sensors: Passive sensors differ from active sensors in that they do not generate their own
electrical signal. Instead, they require an external power source or mechanism to function. These
sensors operate by modifying the properties of the physical stimulus they are sensing, which in turn
influences the output based on the inherent characteristics of the sensor itself.

e.g., A thermistor is a type of passive sensor that responds to changes in temperature by varying its
resistance. To measure the temperature, a voltage is applied across the thermistor. As the temperature
changes, the resistance of the thermistor alters accordingly, creating a corresponding change in
voltage output, which can then be measured and interpreted as a temperature reading.
Sensor Output: Depending on the type of output generated, sensors are broadly divided into
two types

Digital Sensors: Digital sensors produce output in a discrete format, typically in binary form (0s
and 1s). They directly communicate with digital processors without the need for additional
conversion.
e.g.,
Temperature Sensors: Such as digital thermometers that provide temperature readings in a
digital format.
Pressure Sensors: Digital pressure sensors that offer precise readings via digital
communication protocols.
Proximity Sensors: Typically used in applications where the presence or absence of an
object is detected, outputting a binary signal.

Analog Sensors: Analog sensors generate an output signal or voltage, which is proportional
(linearly or non-linearly) to the quantity being measured and is continuous in time and amplitude.

To integrate these sensors with digital processors, additional components are necessary for
conversion.
e.g.,
Temperature Sensors: Analog thermocouples or thermistors, which produce voltage or
current changes in response to temperature variations.
Light Sensors: Photo resistors or photodiodes that vary their resistance or output current
based on light intensity.
Pressure Sensors: Piezoelectric or capacitive sensors generating a voltage output that
corresponds to applied pressure.

To facilitate the integration of analog sensors into digital systems, various interfacing components
may be employed, such as:

Analog to Digital Converters (ADC): This component converts the analog signals generated by
the sensor into a digital format that the digital processor can understand.

Voltage Level Converters: Used to match the voltage levels between the analog sensor outputs
and the digital processor inputs, ensuring compatible communication.

Signal Conditioning Circuits: Filters or amplifiers may be necessary to enhance the quality of the
sensor signals before they are converted to digital form.
Measured Property: In an IoT implementation, the choice and number of sensors often
depend on the properties being measured.

Some properties to be measured do not show high spatial variations and can be quantified
only based on temporal variations in the measured property.
e.g., Ambient temperature, Atmospheric pressure.

Some properties to be measured show high spatial as well as temporal variations

e.g., sound, image, and others.

The sensors can generally be classified into two types based on their measurement
characteristics:
Scalar sensor: Scalar sensors produce an output proportional to the magnitude of the
quantity being measured.
e.g., temperature sensor, color sensor, pressure sensor, strain sensor, etc.

Factors such as changes in sensor orientation or direction do not affect these sensors.

Vector sensor: The sensor which produces an output signal/voltage which is proportional to
the magnitude, direction, as well as orientation of the quantity being measured, is known as
a vector sensor.
e.g., Sound sensor, image sensor, velocity sensor, acceleration sensor, etc

Factors such as change in sensor orientation and direction affect these sensors.
The functional blocks of a typical sensor node in IoT:
A sensor node is made up of a combination of

(a) Sensor/sensors
(b) Processor Unit
(c) Radio Unit (d) Power Unit.
(e) Actuator Unit (optional)

The functional blocks of a typical sensor node in IoT

 The nodes are capable of sensing the environment they are set to measure and
communicate the information to other sensor nodes or a remote host.
 Typically, a sensor node should have low-power requirements and be wireless.
 The low-power requirement and wireless nature enable them to be deployed in vast
range of scenarios and environments without the constant need for changing their
power source or managing wires
 The wireless nature of sensor nodes would also allow them to be freely relocatable
and deployed in large numbers without bothering about managing wires.
Sensor Characteristics: Sensors can be characterized by their ability to sense the
phenomenon based on the following three fundamental properties
 Sensor Resolution: The smallest possible change that a sensor can detect is referred
to as the resolution of a sensor.
e.g., Sensor A can detect 0.5 degree Celsius changes in temperature; whereas another
sensor B can detect up to 0.25 degree Celsius in temperature. Therefore, the
resolution of sensor B is higher than the resolution of sensor A. The more the
resolution of a sensor, the more accurate the precision. A sensor’s accuracy does not
depend upon its resolution.

 Sensor Accuracy: The accuracy of a sensor is the ability of that sensor to measure
the value of a system as close to its true measure as possible.
e.g., A weight sensor detects the weight of a 100 kg mass as 99.98 kg. We can say
this sensor is 99:98% accurate, with an error rate of 0.02%.

 Sensor Precision: The principle of repeatability of a measurement defines the

precision of a sensor. A sensor is considered precise if it produces very similar results
when measuring the same quantity multiple times
e.g., The temperature sensor measures 25.8°C in repetitive measurements (10 times),
and the actual value is 25°C the sensor is precise but not accurate. On the other hand,
each time, if the sensor measures different values (25.1, 24.9, 25.2, 24.8, etc.). The
sensor is accurate but not precise.

Sensorial Deviations
Various sensorial deviations are considered errors in sensors. These deviation factors are
important for critical IoT applications, such as healthcare, industrial process monitoring, etc.

Following are the important for the parameter to define the quality of measurement.

Sensor’s limits: It is the sensor output truncated to its maximum or minimum value.
The sensor's physical capabilities are unable to measure values beyond a certain range.
Full scale range of sensor: It is the measurement range between a sensor’s characterized
minimum and maximum values.

Sensitivity error: sensitivity of a sensor may differ from the value specified for that sensor
leading to sensitivity error.
Sensitivity error refers to the difference between the actual sensitivity of a sensor and the
value specified by the manufacturer

Sensor offset error or bias: If the output of a sensor differs from the actual value to be
measured by a constant.
e.g., while measuring an actual temperature of 0°C, a temperature sensor outputs 1.1 °C
every time. In this case, the sensor is said to have an offset error or bias of 1.1°C.

Non-linearity of sensor: If a sensor’s transfer function (TF) deviates from a straight-line

transfer function, it is referred to as its non-linearity.

The drift of the Sensor: If the output signal of a sensor changes slowly and independently
of the measured property, this behavior of the sensor’s output is termed as drift.

Noise in a sensor: It is a temporally varying random deviation of signals.

Hysteresis error: if a sensor’s output varies/deviates due to deviations in the sensor’s

previous input values. It is referred to as a hysteresis error. The present output of the sensor
depends on the past input values provided to the sensor.

Quantization error: In digital sensors, this error can be defined as the difference between
the actual analog signal and its closest digital approximation during analog-to-digital
conversion.

The measured value by a sensor is different from the specified value refers to sensorial
deviation.

The environment itself plays a crucial role in inducing sensorial deviations. Some sensors
may be prone to external influences.
e.g., As most sensors are semiconductor-based, they are influenced by the temperature of
their environment.
Sensing Types:
Sensing can be broadly divided into FOUR different categories based on the nature of the
environment being sensed and the physical sensors being used
1.Scalar sensing
2.Multimedia sensing
3.Hybrid sensing
4.Virtual sensing
 The different sensing types commonly encountered in IoT

1.Scalar sensing:
 Scalar sensing encompasses the sensing of features that can be quantified simply by
measuring changes in the amplitude of the measured values with respect to time.
 The sensors used for measuring scalar quantities such as temperature, current,
atmospheric pressure, rainfall, light, humidity, etc. are referred to as scalar sensors.
 Scalar values do not have a directional or spatial property, simply by measuring changes
in the amplitude of the measured values over time.
 A simple scalar temperature sensing of a fire detection event is shown in Fig (a)
2.Multimedia sensing:
 Multimedia sensing encompasses the sensing of features that have a spatial variance
property associated with the property of temporal variance.
 Multimedia sensors are used for capturing the changes in amplitude of the quantifiable
property concerning space (spatial) as well as time (temporal.
 The sensors used for measuring quantities such as images, direction, flow, speed,
acceleration, sound, force, mass, and energy are known as multimedia sensors.
 These quantities have both magnitude as well as a direction, hence these sensors are also
called “vector sensors”.
 A simple camera-based multimedia sensing using surveillance as an example is shown
in Figure (b).
3.Hybrid sensing:
 The sensors are used to measure both scalars as well as multimedia quantities at the same
time and are referred to as hybrid sensors.
e.g., In an agricultural field, measure collectively the soil moisture, soil temperature, and
the color of the leaves to decide a plant’s health by a camera sensor.
 Figure (c) shows an example of hybrid sensing, where a camera and a temperature sensor
are collectively used to detect and confirm forest fires during wildlife monitoring.

4.Virtual sensing
 Virtual sensing techniques are also called soft sensing or proxy sensing.

 A virtual sensing system uses information available from other measurements and
process parameters to calculate an estimate of the quantity of interest.

 It is used to provide feasible and economical alternatives to costly or impractical

physical measurement instrument.

e.g., Field A’s sensors are being used for the actual measurement of parameters; whereas
virtual data is being used for advising Field B. This is the virtual sensing paradigm.

Sensing Considerations:
The following major factors influence the choice of sensors in IoT-based sensing solutions:
a) Sensing range
b) Accuracy and Precision
c) Energy
d) Device size.
Sensing range:
The sensing range of a sensor node is a crucial factor determining its effectiveness in a given
application.

It represents the area within which the sensor can detect or measure environmental
parameters effectively.

Fixed k-Coverage vs. Dynamic k-Coverage:

1. Fixed k-Coverage:
o This approach involves deploying a predetermined number of sensor nodes
in a given area to ensure that every point of interest is covered by at least "k"
sensors at all times.
o While this guarantees a certain level of redundancy and reliability, it also
leads to increased resource usage, as many nodes might cover overlapping
areas. This can result in unnecessary costs and energy consumption,
especially if the environment changes or certain areas are underutilized.
2. Dynamic k-Coverage:
o In contrast to fixed coverage, dynamic k-coverage adjusts the position of
mobile sensor nodes according to the event detection.
o This approach allows for a more efficient use of resources since nodes can
move to more critical areas as events occur. However, mobility introduces
complexity, as it requires real-time coordination and communication between
nodes. Moreover, operating costs and technical challenges, including the need
for advanced algorithms and navigation systems, can limit the applicability
of dynamic coverage in various terrains.
Measurement Range: The term "sensing range" is also applicable to the measurement range
of sensors, defining the minimum and maximum distances from which a sensor can
effectively gather data:
 Proximity Sensors: These typically have a short sensing range, often just a few
meters, making them suitable for detecting nearby objects or obstacles.
 Cameras: With a more extensive sensing range, cameras can monitor areas ranging
from tens to hundreds of meters, allowing them to capture images or video over
greater distances.
Accuracy and Precision: Accuracy refers to how close a measured value is to the true value
or the accepted standard. Precision sensor will produce similar results when measuring the
same value multiple times.
Regular temperature sensors have a very low-temperature sensing range, as well as relatively
low accuracy and precision, not suitable for industrial processes. Industrial sensors are
typically very sophisticated, and as a result, very costly. However, these industrial sensors
have very high accuracy and precision score, even under harsh operating conditions.
Energy: The energy consumed by a sensing solution is crucial to determine the lifespan of
the network. Hence the sensor node is so energy efficient in its operation. If the energy
requirements of the sensor nodes are too high, such a deployment will not last long, and the
solution will be highly infeasible as charging or changing the energy sources of these sensor
nodes is not an option.
Device Size: Most of the applications of IoT require sensing solutions that are so small.
Larger the size of a sensor node, the larger the obstruction caused by it, and the higher the
cost and energy requirements. The wearable sensors are highly energy- efficient, small in
size, and almost part of the wearer’s regular wardrobe

Actuators
 An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and controlling
a mechanism or system
e.g., opening a valve.
 The system activates the actuator through a control signal, which may be digital or
analog.
 An actuator can be a mechanical or electronic system, a software-based system
 Figure shows the outline of a simple actuation system. A remote user sends commands
to a processor. The processor instructs a motor-controlled robotic arm to perform the
commanded tasks accordingly, the robotic arm finally moves the designated boxes,
which was its assigned task.

The outline of a simple actuation mechanism

Actuator Types:
Actuators can be divided into seven classes:
1. Hydraulic actuator
2. Pneumatic actuator
3. Electrical actuator
4. Thermal/magnetic actuator
5. Mechanical actuator
6. Soft actuator
7. Shape memory polymers actuator
Hydraulic actuators: A device that is used to change the fluid's pressure energy into
mechanical linear, rotary, or oscillatory motion. It works on the principle of compression and
decompression of fluids.
e.g., Hydraulic car jack.
Pneumatic actuators: This is a device that converts the energy of compressed air into
mechanical motion. It works on the principle of compression and decompression of air.
Pneumatic actuators are responsible for converting pressure into force.
e.g., Pneumatic rack and pinion actuators are commonly used for valve controls of water
pipes.
Electric actuators: It is a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical motion.
This class of actuators is considered one of the cheapest, cleanest, and most speedy actuators.
e.g., Electric motors relay switches, or solenoid valves.
Thermal or magnetic actuators: These actuators convert heat or magnetic energy into
mechanical motion. These actuators have a very high power density and are typically
compact, lightweight, and economical.
e.g., thermal actuators is shape memory alloys (SMAs). Magnetic shape memory alloys
(MSMEs) are a type of magnetic actuator.
Mechanical actuators: These actuators convert the rotary motion of the actuator is
converted into linear motion to execute some movement. The use of gears, rails, pulleys,
chains, and other devices is necessary for these actuators to operate. These actuators can be
easily used in conjunction with pneumatic, hydraulic, or electrical actuators.
e.g., Mechanical actuator is a rack and pinion mechanism.
Soft actuators: Soft actuators are a distinct class of actuators that utilize soft materials,
often elastomeric polymers, to produce controlled macroscopic motions from microscopic
changes. These actuators have gained significant attention in recent years, particularly in the
fields of robotics and automation, due to their ability to operate in delicate environments and
handle fragile objects.
Shape memory polymers (SMP): SMP is considered smart materials that respond to some
external stimulus by changing their shape, and then revert to their original shape once the
affecting stimulus is removed. Features such as high strain recovery, biocompatibility, low
density, and biodegradability characterize these materials. SMP-based actuators function
similarly to our muscles.

Actuator Characteristics: The correct choice of actuators is necessary for the long-
term sustenance and continuity of operations, as well as for increasing the lifetime of the
actuators themselves. A set of FOUR characteristics can define all actuators:
Weight: The physical weight of actuators limits their application scope. Heavier actuators
are generally preferred for industrial applications and applications requiring no mobility of
the IoT deployment. In contrast, lightweight actuators are typically used in portable systems
in vehicles, drones, and home IoT applications.
Power Rating: It defines the minimum and maximum operating power an actuator can safely
withstand without damage to itself. Generally, it is indicated as the power-to-weight ratio for
actuators. For example, smaller servo motors used in hobby projects typically have a
maximum rating of 5 VDC, 500 mA. In contrast to this, servo motors in larger applications
have a rating of 460 VAC, 2A.
Torque to Weight Ratio: The ratio of torque to the weight of the moving part of an
instrument/device is referred to as its torque/weight ratio. This indicates the sensitivity of the
actuator. The higher the weight of the moving part; the lower will be its torque-to-weight
ratio for a given power.
Stiffness and Compliance: The resistance of a material against deformation is known as its
stiffness, whereas compliance of a material is the opposite of stiffness. Stiff systems are
considered more accurate than compliant systems as they have a faster response to the change
in load applied to it.