Introduction to Combinational circuits

Combinational Logic Circuits are made from the basic and universal gates. The
output is defined by the logic and it is depending only the present input states not
the previous states.
Inputs and output(s) : logic 0 (low) or logic 1 (high).

Analysis and design procedures

The following are the basic steps to design a combinational circuit
1. Define the problem.
2. Determine the number of input and output variables.
3. Fix a letter symbol to the input and the outputs. (e.g. A, B, C, w, x, y, F, etc)
4. Get the relationship between input and output from the truth table.
5. By using K-map obtain the simplified Boolean expression for the outputs.
6. Draw the logic diagram using gates.
Example: Design a combinational logic circuit with three inputs , the output is at
logic 1
when more than one inputs are at logic 1.
Solution: Assume A, B, C are inputs and Y is output.
Adder
The Basic operation in digital computer is binary addition. The circuit which
perform the addition of binary bits are called as Adder.
The logic circuit which performs the addition of two bit is called Half adder and
three bit is called Full adder.
Rules for two-bit addition
Half Adder
The two inputs of the half adders are augend and addend, the outputs are sum and
carry.

Full Adder
The three inputs of the full adders are augend, addend and the carry input from
the previous addition, the outputs are sum and carry
Block diagram of Full adder
The expression for sum is
The Expression for carry is

Logic Diagram (Full Adder Using Half adders)

Subtractor
Subtractor is a logic circuit which is used to subtract two binary number (digit) and
provides Difference and Borrow as an output. In digital electronics we have two
types of subtractor, Half Subtractor and Full Subtractor.
Rules for one bit Subtraction
Half Subtractor
Half Subtractor is used for subtracting one single bit binary digit from another single
bit binary digit. The truth table of Half Subtractor is shown below.

Full Subtractor
A logic Circuit Which is used for Subtracting Three Single bit Binary digit is
known as Full Subtractor. The inputs are A, B, Bin and the outputs are D and Bout.
We can further simplify the function of the Difference (D)
Decoder
Decoder is a combinational circuit. It has N inputs and 2N outputs.
2 to 4 Decoder
It has 2 inputs and 22= 4 outputs.

Block Diagram

Truth Table
Logic Diagram

2 to 4 Decoder with Enable input

Truth Table
Logic Diagram

3 to 8 Decoder
It has 3 inputs and 23 = 8 outputs.
Truth table and block diagram
Logic Diagram
Encoders
An Encoder is a combinational circuit that performs the reverse operation of
Decoder. It has maximum of 2n input lines and ‘n’ output lines. It will produce a
binary code equivalent to the input, which is active High. Therefore, the encoder
encodes 2n input lines with ‘n’ bits. It is optional to represent the enable signal in
encoders.
4 to 2 Encoder
Let 4 to 2 Encoder has four inputs Y3, Y2, Y1 & Y0 and two outputs A & B.
Block diagram

Truth Table

Logic Diagram
8-to-3-line Encoder:
The 8-to-3-line Encoder is also known as Octal to Binary Encoder. In 8-to-3-line
encoder, there is a total of eight inputs, i.e., Y0, Y1, Y2, Y3, Y4, Y5, Y6, and Y7 and three
outputs, i.e., A0, A1, and A2. In 8-input lines, one input-line is set to true at a time to
get the respective binary code in the output side. Below are the block diagram and
the truth table of the 8-to-3-line encoder.
Truth Table

Circuit diagram
Multiplexer (Mux)
• Multiplexer is a combinational circuit that selects binary information from
one of many inputs and directs it into single output.
• The selection of particular input is controlled by a set of selection line
• Multiplexer has 2n inputs, n select line (control input) and one output line.
• It also called as Data selector
2 to 1 Multiplexer
It has 21 inputs, 1 select line and one output

Circuit diagram

4 to 1 MUX
4 to 1 MUX has 22= 4 inputs, 2 select line and one output
Truth table

Introduction to sequential circuits

Sequential circuits are digital circuits that store and use the previous state
information to determine their next state. Unlike combinational circuits, which only
depend on the current input values to produce outputs, sequential circuits depend
on both the current inputs and the previous state stored in memory elements.

Types of Sequential Circuits:

There are two types of sequential circuits:
Type 1: Asynchronous sequential circuit: These circuits do not use a clock
signal but uses the pulses of the inputs. These circuits are faster than
synchronous sequential circuits because there is clock pulse and change their
state immediately when there is a change in the input signal. We use
asynchronous sequential circuits when speed of operation is important
and independent of internal clock pulse.

But these circuits are more difficult to design and their output is uncertain.

Type2: Synchronous sequential circuit: These circuits use clock signal and level
inputs (or pulsed) (with restrictions on pulse width and circuit propagation). The
output pulse is the same duration as the clock pulse for the clocked sequential
circuits. Since they wait for the next clock pulse to arrive to perform the next
operation, so these circuits are bit slower compared to asynchronous. Level
output changes state at the start of an input pulse and remains in that until the
next input or clock pulse.

Latches
Latches are digital circuits that store a single bit of information and hold its value
until it is updated by new input signals. They are used in digital systems as
temporary storage elements to store binary information. Latches can be
implemented using various digital logic gates, such as AND, OR, NOT, NAND, and
NOR gates.
SR Latch

S-R latches i.e., Set-Reset latches are the simplest form of latches and are
implemented using two inputs: S (Set) and R (Reset). The S input sets the output
to 1, while the R input resets the output to 0. When both S and R inputs are at 1,
the latch is said to be in an “undefined” state. They are also known as preset and
clear states. The SR latch forms the basic building blocks of all other types of flip-
flops.

Truth Table of SR Latch

Flip-Flop
The flip-flop is a circuit that maintains a state until directed by input to change the
state. A basic flip-flop can be constructed using four-NAND or four-NOR gates.
Flip-flop is popularly known as the basic digital memory circuit. It has its two states
as logic 1(High) and logic 0(low) states.

Types of Flip-Flops
Given Below are the Types of Flip-flops
• SR Flip Flop
• JK Flip Flop
• D Flip Flop
• T Flip Flop
S-R Flip Flop

It is a Flip Flop with two inputs, one is S and the other is R. S here stands for Set
and R here stands for Reset. Set basically indicates set the flip flop which means
output 1 and reset indicates resetting the flip flop which means output 0. Here, a
clock pulse is supplied to operate this flip-flop, hence it is a clocked flip-flop.

Circuit Diagram and Truth Table of S-R Flip Flop

JK flip flop
The JK flip flop is one of the most used flip flops in digital circuits. The JK flip flop is
a universal flip flop having two inputs 'J' and 'K'. The JK flip flop work in the same
way as the SR flip flop work. The JK flip flop has 'J' and 'K' flip flop instead of 'S' and
'R'. The only difference between JK flip flop and SR flip flop is that when both inputs
of SR flip flop is set to 1, the circuit produces the invalid states as outputs, but in
case of JK flip flop, there are no invalid states even if both 'J' and 'K' flip flops are set
to 1.

D Flip Flop
D flip flop is known as “delay flip flop” or “data flip flop” which is used to store single
bit of data. The D flip flop has two inputs, data and clock input which controls the
flip flop. when clock input is high, the data is transferred to the output of the flip
flop and when the clock input is low, the output of the flip flop is held in its previous
state.

Working of D Flip Flop

D flip flop consist of a single input D and two outputs (Q and Q’). The basic working
of D Flip Flop is as follows:
• When the clock signal is low, the flip flop holds its current state and ignores
the D input.
• When the clock signal is high, the flip flop samples and stores D input.
• The value that was previously fed into the D input is reflected at the flip flop’s
Q output.
o If D = 0 then Q will be 0.
o If D = 1 then Q will be 1.
• The Q’ output of the flip flop is complemented by the Q output.
o If Q = 0 then Q’ will be 1.
o If Q = 1 then Q’ will be 0
T Flip Flop

In T flip flop, "T" defines the term "Toggle". In SR Flip Flop, we provide only a single
input called "Toggle" or "Trigger" input to avoid an intermediate state occurrence.
Now, this flip-flop work as a Toggle switch. The next output state is changed with
the complement of the present state output. This process is known as "Toggling"'.

We can construct the "T Flip Flop" by making changes in the "JK Flip Flop". The "T
Flip Flop" has only one input, which is constructed by connecting the input of JK flip
flop. This single input is called T. In simple words, we can construct the "T Flip Flop"
by converting a "JK Flip Flop". Sometimes the "T Flip Flop" is referred to as single
input "JK Flip Flop".

Block diagram of the "T-Flip Flop" is given where T defines the "Toggle input", and
CLK defines the clock signal input.
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