Dual Program (Mathematics) Level 1 Chapter 1 Functions

Fall 2024 – Spring 2025

Chapter 1 Functions

The following are topics from school or from the Pre-stage course that we’ll need to use frequently:
 Factorization and solving polynomial equations
 Laws of indices and laws of logarithms
 Inequalities in one unknown
 Mensuration, areas and volumes of simple geometric objects
 The coordinate plane, slopes and equations of lines
 Trigonometry
Make sure you don’t forget what you have learnt about these important tools. Also refer to
Supplementary Note A for some other preliminary topics from the Pre-stage course.

1. Basic set theory

In the subject of calculus, the fundamental objects that we study are functions. We need some
basic language in set theory before we can define what a function is.

Definition 1.1 A set is a collection of objects. These objects are called elements of the set.
 Each element of a set 𝐴 is said to belong to 𝐴. In symbols we write 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 if 𝑥 belongs to
𝐴, and we write 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 if 𝑥 does not belong to 𝐴.
 Two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 are said to be equal, written 𝐴 = 𝐵, if they contain the same elements.

Example 1.2 There are various ways to denote the same set, for example:
 List all its elements (in any order),
𝐴 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.
 Write down conditions that its elements satisfy,
𝐴 = {𝑥: 0 < 𝑥 < 10 and 𝑥 is an odd number}.
In this example, we have 1 ∈ 𝐴, 3 ∈ 𝐴, 7 ∈ 𝐴, but 2 ∉ 𝐴, 6 ∉ 𝐴, √2 ∉ 𝐴 and 𝜋 ∉ 𝐴.

Example 1.3 Rewrite each of the following sets by listing all its elements.
(a) 𝐴 = {𝑥: 0 < 𝑥 < 5 and 𝑥 is an integer}
(b) 𝐵 = {𝑥: (0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 10 or 20 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 30) and 𝑥 is divisible by 3}
(c) 𝐶 = {𝑥: 𝑥 is a vowel in the English alphabet}

Solution:
(a) 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4}
(b) 𝐵 = {0, 3, 6, 9, 21, 24, 27, 30}
(c) 𝐶 = {a, e, i, o, u}

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Dual Program (Mathematics) Level 1 Chapter 1 Functions
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Definition 1.4 The following are some commonly used sets in mathematics that have universal
notations.
 The empty set contains nothing and is denoted as ∅ ≔ { }.
 ℕ denotes the set of all natural numbers.
 ℤ denotes the set of all integers. When we introduce a new notation, we write
the notation on the left-hand side of “≔”, and
 ℚ denotes the set of all rational numbers. its meaning on the right-hand side of “≔”.
 ℝ denotes the set of all real numbers.
 ℂ denotes the set of all complex numbers.

In calculus, we often deal with “continuous” sets which are called intervals.

Definition 1.5 Let 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 be two real numbers. Then the following sets are called intervals:
Open intervals Closed intervals Half-open intervals
(𝑎, 𝑏) ≔ {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏} [𝑎, 𝑏] ≔ {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏}
(𝑎, 𝑏] ≔ {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑎 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏}
(𝑎, +∞) ≔ {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 > 𝑎} [𝑎, +∞) ≔ {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎}
[𝑎, 𝑏) ≔ {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑏}
(−∞, 𝑏) ≔ {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 < 𝑏} (−∞, 𝑏] ≔ {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏}
 The real numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏 are called the left end-point and Here “+∞” and “−∞” are just symbols.
They are NOT real numbers!
the right end-point of the corresponding intervals.
 Every other number in each interval is said to be in the interior of that interval.

Definition 1.6 Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. 𝐴 is said to be a subset of 𝐵 if every element of 𝐴 also
belongs to 𝐵, i.e. 𝐴 is “a part of” 𝐵.

Remark 1.7 Venn diagram is a simple and effective pictorial way to ℚ

2
0 √−1
illustrate the relationship between sets. In a Venn diagram, 𝜋 3
9
−
4
 a set is represented by a region bounded by a closed curve, and −
1
−1 5 √2
𝜋2
 the elements of the set are listed inside the region.
A Venn diagram of ℚ, the set of all rational numbers, is shown in the
𝐴 𝐵
top diagram on the right. The Venn diagram at the bottom illustrates
two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 such that 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵; pictorially, 𝐴 is “a part of” 𝐵.

Example 1.8 ℕ ⊆ ℤ ⊆ ℚ ⊆ ℝ ⊆ ℂ.

Example 1.9 Let 𝑎 < 𝑏 be two real numbers. Then (𝑎, 𝑏) ⊆ (𝑎, 𝑏] ⊆ [𝑎, 𝑏].

Example 1.10 The empty set ∅ is a subset of every set.

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Dual Program (Mathematics) Level 1 Chapter 1 Functions
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We can do operations on two sets to produce a new set.

Definition 1.11 Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets.

 The intersection of 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the set
𝐴 𝐵
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ≔ {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}.
 The union of 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the set
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ≔ {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 or 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}. 𝐴 𝐵

We say that 𝐴 and 𝐵 are disjoint if their intersection is empty, i.e. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = ∅.

Example 1.12 Let

𝐴 = {2𝑛: 𝑛 ∈ ℕ} and 𝐵 = {3𝑛: 𝑛 ∈ ℕ},
i.e. 𝐴 is the set of all positive integer multiples of 2 and 𝐵 is the set of all positive integer multiples
of 3. Then
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {6𝑛: 𝑛 ∈ ℕ} = {6, 12, 18, 24, … }
and
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, … }
= {𝑚 ∈ ℕ: 𝑚 leaves a remainder of 0, 2, 3 or 4 when divided by 6}.

Definition 1.13 Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. The complement of 𝐵 in 𝐴 is the set

𝐴 ∖ 𝐵 ≔ {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵}. 𝐴 𝐵

Example 1.14 Let 𝐴 = {2𝑛: 𝑛 ∈ ℕ} be the set of all positive integer multiples of 2. Then
ℕ ∖ 𝐴 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, … } = {𝑚 ∈ ℕ: 𝑚 is an odd number}
and
𝐴 ∖ ℕ = ∅.

Example 1.15 ℝ ∖ ℚ is the set of all irrational (real) numbers.

Example 1.16 Express each of the following sets as a union of disjoint intervals.
(a) (−3, 5) ∪ [4, 7]
(b) ℝ ∖ ([0, 2] ∩ (1, 3))

Solution:
(a) For each real number 𝑥 , we have (−3 < 𝑥 < 5 or 4 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 7) if and only if −3 < 𝑥 ≤ 7 .
Therefore (−3, 5) ∪ [4, 7] = (−3, 7].
(b) For each real number 𝑥 , we have (0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2 and 1 < 𝑥 < 3) if and only if 1 < 𝑥 ≤ 2 , so
[0, 2] ∩ (1, 3) = (1, 2] . Now for each real number 𝑥 , 1 < 𝑥 ≤ 2 is not true if and only if
either 𝑥 ≤ 1 or 𝑥 > 2. Therefore ℝ ∖ ([0, 2] ∩ (1, 3)) = ℝ ∖ (1, 2] = (−∞, 1] ∪ (2, +∞).

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Dual Program (Mathematics) Level 1 Chapter 1 Functions
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2. Functions and their Graphs

Before formally defining what a function is, let’s start with an informal understanding of the concept.

Remark 1.17 A function can be understood as a “machine”. Every time if we give it an input, the
machine processes the input according to some rules, and then gives us a definite output. As an
example, we consider the following “machine”.

0 0
−5 𝑥↦ 𝑥2 25
√2 2
−𝜋 𝜋2

Whenever we give it a real number 𝑥 as an input, it returns us the output 𝑥 2 . Such a machine is
going to be represented by a formula
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 .
Here the symbol 𝑓 is the name of the machine, the symbol 𝑥 denotes an input, and the symbol
𝑓(𝑥) denotes the corresponding output. There are also certain characteristics of the machine as in
 what kinds of inputs are allowable (as an example, you cannot input a “fruit” into the above
machine; the “square of an apple” is not a well-defined idea),
 what kinds of outputs are expected (if you input a real number 𝑥, then you expect that the
output 𝑥 2 is also a real number), and
 what kinds of outputs are actually achievable (if you input a real number 𝑥, then you expect
that the output 𝑥 2 can only be non-negative; negative real numbers are not achievable).

Definition 1.18 Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. A function (or a map, or a mapping, or a transformation)
𝑓 from 𝑨 to 𝑩, denoted by
𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵,
is a relation that connects the elements of 𝐴 and the elements of 𝐵. Given each element 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴,
this relation assigns to it a unique element 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵. In case 𝑦 is assigned to 𝑥 by the function 𝑓,
we may say that “𝑓 sends 𝑥 to 𝑦”, and we write
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
 The set 𝐴 is called the domain of 𝑓 and the set 𝐵 is called the codomain of 𝑓.
 The range of a function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is the set that contains precisely all those elements in 𝐵 that
are actually assigned to some element in 𝐴. In symbols, the range of 𝑓 is the set
{𝑦 ∈ 𝐵: 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) for some 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴}.
In particular, the range of 𝑓 is a subset of the codomain of 𝑓.

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Dual Program (Mathematics) Level 1 Chapter 1 Functions
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Remark 1.19 In the “machine analogy” of functions, each input can only be processed by the
machine to give one unique output.
 The domain is the set of all “allowable inputs”;
 The codomain describes what kind of objects the “outputs” are; and
 The range is the set of all “achievable outputs”.

Remark 1.20 A function may be illustrated by a diagram as follows.

Domain 𝑓 Codomain

1 2
3
2 4
3 6
7
4 8
Range

Consider the relations illustrated by the following two diagrams.

𝐴 𝑔 𝐵 𝐴 ℎ 𝐵

2
1 2 1
3
2 2
4 4
3 3
5
4 6 4
6

 In the diagram on the left, nothing is assigned to the element 4 in the domain, i.e. 𝑔(4) is
undefined. Under this situation, 𝒈 is not a function.
 In the diagram on the right, both 4 and 6 are assigned to the element 3 in the domain, i.e.
ℎ(3) = 4 and ℎ(3) = 6. Under this situation, 𝒉 is not a function either.

𝐴 𝑓 𝐵

1 2
2 4
3 6
4 8

However, in the last diagram, although the same element 2 in the codomain is assigned to both 1
and 2 in the domain, i.e. 𝑓(1) = 2 and 𝑓(2) = 2, it still follows that exactly one element in the
codomain is assigned to each element in the domain. So 𝒇 is a function. Note that the element
8 in the codomain is not in the range, as it is not assigned to any element in the domain.

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Dual Program (Mathematics) Level 1 Chapter 1 Functions
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Example 1.21 The area 𝐴 of a circular disk is a function of the radius 𝑟 of the disk. This function
is 𝐴: (0, +∞) → ℝ defined by
𝐴(𝑟) = 𝜋𝑟 2 .
Note that it is perfectly fine to input a non-positive number into the formula 𝐴(𝑟) = 𝜋𝑟 2, but it does
not make sense to have a disk with zero or negative radius; so instead of ℝ, we take (0, +∞) to be
the domain of 𝐴.

Example 1.22 Suppose that you are taking Dual Program Level 1 (Mathematics). Then the letter
grade 𝑔 you finally obtain is a function of the total score 𝑥 you get. This function is
𝑔: [0, 100] → {A+, A, B, C, D, F}
whose defining formula is currently unknown. (Of course 𝑔(0) = F and 𝑔(100) = A+. , ss)

Example 1.23 Let 𝐴 be the set of all people in the world, and let 𝐵 be the set of all women in the
world.
 The assignment 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 defined by
𝑓(𝑥) = the biological mother of 𝑥
is a well-defined function because everyone has one and only one biological mother. The range
of 𝑓 is the set of all mothers in the world.
 On the other hand, the assignment 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐴 defined by
𝑔(𝑥) = the child of 𝑥
is not a function because a woman may have no child or more than one children.

In this course we usually deal with real-valued functions in a real variable, so domains, codomains
and ranges are usually subsets of ℝ. “real-valued”: Codomain is a subset of ℝ
“in a real variable”: Domain is a subset of ℝ

Example 1.24 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be the function defined by

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 .
Although the codomain ℝ consists of all the real numbers, it can be easily seen that
 Each real number “input” 𝑥 can only give a non-negative number “output” 𝑥 2 , and
 Each non-negative “output” 𝑦 is indeed “achievable” by some real “input”, namely √𝑦 and
−√𝑦, because
𝑓(√𝑦) = 𝑦 and 𝑓(−√𝑦) = 𝑦.
So the range of 𝑓 is [0, +∞), the set of all non-negative real numbers (which is indeed a subset of
the codomain of 𝑓).

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Dual Program (Mathematics) Level 1 Chapter 1 Functions
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Example 1.25 Find the range of the function 𝑓: (2, 3] → ℝ defined by

12
𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑥

Solution:
 Given each 𝑥 ∈ (2, 3], we have 2 < 𝑥 ≤ 3. This implies that
12 12 12
≤ < ,
3 𝑥 2
i.e. 4 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) < 6. So 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ [4, 6).
12
 Conversely, for each 𝑦 ∈ [4, 6), the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) has a solution 𝑥 = ; and since
𝑦

12 12 12
< ≤ ,
6 𝑦 4
such a solution 𝑥 indeed belongs to (2, 3].
Therefore the range of 𝑓 is the interval [4, 6) (which is a subset of the codomain ℝ).

Remark 1.26 In the previous two examples, the domains of the given functions are specified. In
case we are given just a defining formula 𝑓(𝑥) without specifying the domain of 𝑓, we usually take
the domain of 𝑓 to be its natural domain, which is largest possible subset of ℝ on which the
formula 𝑓(𝑥) is “valid” (i.e. the formula is “well-defined as a real number”).
(i) To find the natural domain of a function 𝑓 with the formula 𝑓(𝑥) given, it is often useful to
recall arithmetic facts for real numbers that you have already learnt in the Pre-stage course:
 Any real number divided by zero is undefined.
 The product of two negative numbers is positive.
 The 𝑛th root of a positive number is always positive.
 The 𝑛th root of a negative number is negative if 𝑛 is odd, and is not a real number if 𝑛 is
even.
(ii) To find the range of a function 𝑓, we basically try to answer the question
“for what values of 𝑦 does the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) have solution in the domain of 𝑓?”.
There is no general method to obtain an answer to this question, and it depends very much on
the defining formula.

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Dual Program (Mathematics) Level 1 Chapter 1 Functions
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Example 1.27 Find the (natural) domains and the ranges of each of the following functions:
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 2
(b) 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 + 5
𝑥2 + 5
(c) ℎ(𝑥) =
𝑥+2

Solution:
(a) The expression √𝑥 + 2 is well-defined if and only if 𝑥 + 2 ≥ 0, i.e. 𝑥 ≥ −2. So the natural
domain of 𝑓 is [−2, +∞).
On the other hand, since 𝑥 + 2 can possibly take every value in [0, +∞), so its square root
√𝑥 + 2 can also take every value in [0, +∞). Therefore the range of 𝑓 is [0, +∞).

(b) The expression √𝑥 2 + 5 is well-defined if and only if 𝑥 2 + 5 ≥ 0, which holds for every real
number 𝑥; so the natural domain of 𝑔 is ℝ.
On the other hand, since 𝑥 2 + 5 can possibly take every value in [5, +∞), so its square root
√𝑥 2 + 5 can take every value in [√5, +∞). Therefore the range of 𝑔 is [√5, +∞).

(c) The expression (𝑥 2 + 5)/(𝑥 + 2) is well-defined if and only if 𝑥 + 2 ≠ 0, i.e. 𝑥 ≠ −2; so the
natural domain of ℎ is ℝ ∖ {−2} (or one may also write (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, +∞)).
To find the range of ℎ, the question is
𝑥 2 +5
“for what values of 𝑦 does the equation 𝑦 = have solution in ℝ ∖ {−2}?”.
𝑥+2

The equation can be rewritten as (𝑥 + 2)𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 5, i.e.

𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑥 + (5 − 2𝑦) = 0.
This quadratic equation has solutions in ℝ ∖ {−2} if and only if its discriminant is non-negative,
(−𝑦)2 − 4(1)(5 − 2𝑦) ≥ 0
⇔ 𝑦 2 + 8𝑦 − 20 ≥ 0
⇔ (𝑦 − 2)(𝑦 + 10) ≥ 0.
This holds if and only if 𝑦 ≤ −10 or 𝑦 ≥ 2, so the range of ℎ is (−∞, −10] ∪ [2, +∞).

A function from a subset of ℝ to ℝ can be visually presented using its graph in the Cartesian
coordinate plane.

Definition 1.28 Let 𝐴 be a subset of ℝ and 𝑓: 𝐴 → ℝ be a function. The graph of 𝑓 is the set
of points in the coordinate plane defined by
{(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)}.

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Dual Program (Mathematics) Level 1 Chapter 1 Functions
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Remark 1.29 Here are some facts about the graph of a function 𝑓:
(i) (“Vertical line test”) Any vertical line in the coordinate plane must intersect the graph of 𝑓 at
one point at most.
(ii) The domain of 𝑓 consists of all those real numbers 𝑎 such that the vertical line 𝑥 = 𝑎
intersects the graph of 𝑓 at exactly one point.
(iii) The range of 𝑓 consists of all those real numbers 𝑏 such that the horizontal line 𝑦 = 𝑏
intersects the graph of 𝑓 at one point at least.

Example 1.30 Determine whether each of the following is the graph of a function. If the answer
is yes, then also identify the domain and the range of the function that it represents:

(4, 3) (3, 3)
(−3, 1) (−4, 2)

0 1
(5, −2)
(−3, −3)

Graph of a function, whose domain Graph of a function, whose domain Not the graph of a function
is ℝ ∖ {0} and range is ℝ is [−4, 5) and range is [−3, 3]

The first and perhaps the easiest kind of functions that we will study are polynomials. Their natural
domain is ℝ.

Definition 1.31 Let 𝑛 be a non-negative integer. A polynomial (in a variable 𝑥) is an algebraic

expression of the form
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 ,
where 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑛 are numbers.
 For each 𝑘 ∈ {0, 1, … , 𝑛}, the number 𝑎𝑘 is called the coefficient of 𝒙𝒌 in the polynomial 𝑓.
 The degree of the polynomial 𝑓 is deg 𝑓 = 𝑛, if the leading coefficient 𝑎𝑛 is non-zero.
 A polynomial of degree 1 (resp. 2, 3) is called a linear (resp. quadratic, cubic) polynomial.
A polynomial 𝑓 can be regarded as a function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ if all its coefficients are real numbers.

Please recall all the facts about graphs of polynomials that you have learnt in school or in the Pre-
stage course. These include the following:
 Slope, inclination angle and intercepts of the graph of a linear polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
 Slopes of parallel lines and perpendicular lines
 Axis of symmetry, intercepts, vertex coordinates and extremum values of a quadratic polynomial
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
 Ranges of polynomials of odd degree and even degree

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Dual Program (Mathematics) Level 1 Chapter 1 Functions
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Example 1.32 Determine the signs of 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 in the following graphs of the function
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐,
i.e. whether 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are positive or negative or zero.
(a) (b) (c) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

Solution:
Recall that from the graph of the quadratic function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐,
 𝑎 is positive if the parabola opens upward and is negative if the parabola opens downward,
 𝑏 = −2𝑎ℎ where ℎ is the 𝑥-coordinate of the vertex of the parabola, and
 𝑐 is the 𝑦-intercept of the parabola.
So according to the above graphs, we have
(a) 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑏 < 0 and 𝑐 < 0
(b) 𝑎 < 0 and 𝑏 < 0 and 𝑐 < 0
(c) 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑏 > 0 and 𝑐 > 0

Example 1.33 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be defined as

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 6.
Find the natural domains and the ranges of the following functions.
1
(a) 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑓(𝑥) (b) ℎ(𝑥) =
𝑓(𝑥)

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
Solution:
We first rewrite the quadratic function 𝑓 into various different forms:
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 6
= 2(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3) 1 3
= 2(𝑥 − 2)2 − 2, −2

(a)  The expression √𝑓(𝑥) is well-defined if and only if 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0, i.e.

2(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3) ≥ 0.
This holds if and only if 𝑥 ≤ 1 or 𝑥 ≥ 3. So 𝑔 has natural domain (−∞, 1] ∪ [3, +∞).
 According to the graph of 𝑓 , we see that on the domain of 𝑔 , 𝑓 takes every value in
[0, +∞). Since the square root of every non-negative number is non-negative, and since
each non-negative number is the square root of a non-negative number, it follows that the
range of 𝑔 = √𝑓 is also [0, +∞).

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1
(b)  The expression is well defined if and only if 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 0, i.e.
𝑓(𝑥)

2(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3) ≠ 0.
This holds if and only if 𝑥 ≠ 1 and 𝑥 ≠ 3 . So ℎ has natural domain ℝ ∖ {1, 3} , or
equivalently (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, 3) ∪ (3, +∞).

 Noting that the minimum value of 𝑓 is −2, we see that on the domain of ℎ, 𝑓 takes
1 1
every value in [−2, 0) ∪ (0, +∞). So the range of ℎ = 𝑓 is (−∞, − 2] ∪ (0, +∞).

The following is an important theorem in algebra regarding the roots of a polynomial.

Theorem 1.34 Let 𝑓 be a polynomial of degree 𝑛. Then 𝑓 has at most 𝑛 real roots.

Example 1.35 Since 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 − 1 is a polynomial of degree 3, it has at most 3 real roots.

3. Operations on functions and graphs

We try to build new functions from old ones that we already know, e.g. polynomials.

Definition 1.36 Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be two real-valued functions. Then the sum 𝑓 + 𝑔, the difference
𝑓
𝑓 − 𝑔, the product 𝑓𝑔 and the quotient are defined as follows:
𝑔

 (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) ≔ 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) for every 𝑥,

Think: How are the domains
 (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) ≔ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) for every 𝑥, of these new functions related
 (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥) ≔ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) for every 𝑥, and to those of 𝑓 and 𝑔?

𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
 (𝑥) ≔ for every 𝑥 which satisfies 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0.
𝑔 𝑔(𝑥)

Applying the quotient operation to polynomials, we obtain a new kind of functions called rational
functions. Because dividing by the number zero is “illegal”, the natural domain of a rational function
is the set of all real numbers except the roots of the polynomial in the denominator.

Definition 1.37 A rational function is a quotient of polynomials, i.e. a function 𝑓 of the form
𝑝(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑞(𝑥)
where 𝑝 and 𝑞 are polynomials and 𝑞 is not the zero polynomial.

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Apart from the four usual arithmetic operations, there is a “fifth arithmetic operation” on functions.

Definition 1.38 Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be two functions. Then the composition 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is the function
defined by
Think: How is the domain
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) ≔ 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) for every 𝑥. of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 related to those
of 𝑓 and 𝑔?

Example 1.39 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ and 𝑔: ℝ → ℝ be the functions defined by

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1.
What are the functions 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 and 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓? Are they the same as each other?

Solution:
For every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, we have
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑥 + 1) = (𝑥 + 1)2 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1,
and
(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔(𝑥 2 ) = 𝑥 2 + 1.
It is clear that 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 ≠ 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓.

We may also define a function by giving different rules of assignment to different parts of the domain.
Functions defined in this way are called piecewise defined functions.

Example 1.40 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be the function defined by

1−𝑥 if 𝑥 ≤ −1
𝑓(𝑥) = { 2 .
𝑥 if 𝑥 > −1
Evaluate 𝑓(−2), 𝑓(−1) and 𝑓(0), and sketch the graph of 𝑓.

Solution:
Since −2 ≤ −1, we have 𝑓(−2) = 1 − (−2) = 3.
Since −1 ≤ −1, we have 𝑓(−1) = 1 − (−1) = 2.
Since 0 > −1, we have 𝑓(0) = 02 = 0.
The graph of 𝑓 is sketched below.

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

Note that in this graph, a solid dot means an end-point that belongs to the graph, while a hollow dot
means an end-point that does not belong to the graph.

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Example 1.41 Piecewise defined functions are also common in our daily life. Suppose that we are
taking an urban taxi (“red taxi”) in Hong Kong. For the first 2 km traveled, the taxi fare is $29; and
for every subsequent 0.2 km, the fare is $2.1 until the total amount reaches $102.5, and is $1.4
after the total amount has reached $102.5. Let’s try to express the total fare $𝑃 as a function of
the total distance 𝑥 km traveled. (The following fare model has been simplified.)

 If 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 2, then the total fare is just $29.

 If 𝑥 > 2, then the total fare is $29 plus the fare for the extra distance (𝑥 − 2) km traveled,
𝑥−2
which is $2.1 ⋅ until the total amount reaches $102.5. We observe that the total amount
0.2

𝑥−2
$29 + $2.1 ⋅ reaches $102.5 when 𝑥 = 9, so this formula holds for 2 < 𝑥 ≤ 9.
0.2

 If 𝑥 > 9, i.e. after the total amount has reached $102.5, then the total fare is $102.5 plus the
𝑥−9
fare for the extra distance (𝑥 − 9) km traveled, which is $1.4 ⋅ .
0.2

Therefore the function 𝑃: (0, +∞) → ℝ is defined piecewise by

29 if 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 2
29 if 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 2
𝑥−2
𝑃(𝑥) = 29 + 2.1 ⋅ 0.2 if 2 < 𝑥 ≤ 9 = {10.5𝑥 + 8 if 2 < 𝑥 ≤ 9.
𝑥−9 7𝑥 + 39.5 if 𝑥 > 9
{102.5 + 1.4 ⋅ if 𝑥 > 9
0.2

A frequently used piecewise defined function is the absolute value function.

Definition 1.42 The absolute value function is the function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by

−𝑥 if 𝑥 < 0
𝑓(𝑥) = { .
𝑥 if 𝑥 ≥ 0
It is commonly denoted as 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥|. Note that |𝑥| = √𝑥 2 .

𝑦 = |𝑥|

2
Notice how √𝑥 2 and (√𝑥)
Corollary 1.43 Let 𝑥 be a real number. Then are different from each other.
√𝑥 2 = |𝑥|.

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The following are some properties of the absolute value function.

Theorem 1.44 Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be real numbers. Then

(i) |𝑎𝑏| = |𝑎||𝑏|
(ii) |𝑎2 | = |𝑎|2 = 𝑎2
(iii) |−𝑎| = |𝑎|
𝑎 |𝑎|
(iv) |𝑏| = |𝑏| if 𝑏 ≠ 0.

Remark 1.45 In order to remove the absolute value sign from an expression |𝑔(𝑥)|, we first check
whether the expression 𝑔(𝑥) inside the absolute value sign is negative or not.
 If 𝑔(𝑥) < 0, then we write an extra negative sign after removing the absolute value sign, i.e.
|𝑔(𝑥)| = −𝑔(𝑥);
 if 𝑔(𝑥) ≥ 0, then we do nothing after removing the absolute value sign, i.e.
|𝑔(𝑥)| = 𝑔(𝑥).

Example 1.46 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be the function

𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥 + 1| + |𝑥 − 2|.
Rewrite the formula for 𝑓 into the piecewise form.

Solution:
Note that |𝑥 + 1| and |𝑥 − 2| changes their form near −1 and
(−∞, −1) [−1, 2) [2, +∞)
near 2, so we divide ℝ into the three intervals
−1 2
(−∞, −1), [−1, 2) and [2, +∞).
 If 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, −1), then 𝑥 + 1 < 0 and 𝑥 − 2 < 0, so
|𝑥 + 1| + |𝑥 − 2| = −(𝑥 + 1) − (𝑥 − 2) = −2𝑥 + 1.
 If 𝑥 ∈ [−1, 2), then 𝑥 + 1 ≥ 0 but 𝑥 − 2 < 0, so
|𝑥 + 1| + |𝑥 − 2| = (𝑥 + 1) − (𝑥 − 2) = 3.
 If 𝑥 ∈ [2, +∞), then 𝑥 + 1 ≥ 0 and 𝑥 − 2 ≥ 0, so
|𝑥 + 1| + |𝑥 − 2| = (𝑥 + 1) + (𝑥 − 2) = 2𝑥 − 1.
So in summary, we have
−2𝑥 + 1 if 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, −1)
𝑓(𝑥) = { 3 if 𝑥 ∈ [−1, 2) .
2𝑥 − 1 if 𝑥 ∈ [2, +∞)

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Example 1.47 For each of the following inequalities, find all the real numbers 𝑥 which satisfy the
inequality:
(a) |2𝑥 − 5| > 7 (b) |𝑥 − 2| + |2𝑥 + 1| ≤ 4

Solution:
5
(a)  If 2𝑥 − 5 ≥ 0 , i.e. if 𝑥 ≥ 2 , then the inequality becomes 2𝑥 − 5 > 7 , and so 𝑥 > 6 .

Combining 𝑥 ≥ 5/2 and 𝑥 > 6, we see that every 𝑥 > 6 is a solution to the inequality.
5
 If 2𝑥 − 5 < 0, i.e. if 𝑥 < 2, then the inequality becomes −(2𝑥 − 5) > 7, and so 𝑥 < −1.

Combining 𝑥 < 5/2 and 𝑥 < −1, we see that every 𝑥 < −1 is also a solution.
Therefore the solutions to the inequality consists of all those 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (6, +∞).
1
(b)  If 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, − 2), then both 𝑥 − 2 < 0 and 2𝑥 + 1 < 0, and the inequality becomes

−(𝑥 − 2) − (2𝑥 + 1) ≤ 4,
1 1
so 𝑥 ≥ −1. Combining with 𝑥 < − 2, we see that every 𝑥 ∈ [−1, − 2) is a solution.

1
 If 𝑥 ∈ [− 2 , 2), then 𝑥 − 2 < 0 but 2𝑥 + 1 ≥ 0, and the inequality becomes

−(𝑥 − 2) + (2𝑥 + 1) ≤ 4,
1 1
so 𝑥 ≤ 1. Combining with − 2 ≤ 𝑥 < 2, we see that every 𝑥 ∈ [− 2 , 1] is a solution.

 If 𝑥 ∈ [2, +∞), then both 𝑥 − 2 ≥ 0 and 2𝑥 + 1 ≥ 0, and the inequality becomes

(𝑥 − 2) + (2𝑥 + 1) ≤ 4,
so 𝑥 ≤ 5/3. But there is no 𝑥 which satisfies both 𝑥 ≥ 2 and 𝑥 ≤ 5/3, so this case
does not give any solutions.
Therefore the solutions to the inequality consists of all those 𝑥 ∈ [−1, 1].

We can apply transformations on the graph of a function to obtain graphs of related functions. The
following are the six basic transformations on the graph of a function {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)} , which
correspond to actions on the variables 𝑥 and 𝑦.

Theorem 1.48 Let 𝑘 > 0, 𝑐 > 1, and the graph of a function 𝑓 be given. Then we can obtain
the graph of each of the following functions by doing the corresponding action on the graph of 𝑓:
 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑘 Shift the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) downward by 𝑘 units
 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑘) Shift the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) to the left by 𝑘 units
1
 𝑦 = 𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) Compress the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) vertically by a factor of 𝑐

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 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑐𝑥) Compress the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) horizontally by a factor of 𝑐

 𝑦 = −𝑓(𝑥) Reflect the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) across the 𝒙-axis
 𝑦 = 𝑓(−𝑥) Reflect the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) across the 𝒚-axis

These basic transformations can be further composed with each other to produce other more
complicated transformations.

Remark 1.49 Let 𝑘 > 0 and 𝑐 > 1 . To come up with Theorem 1.4 without much hard
memorization, one can think of
 replacing 𝑦 by 𝑦 + 𝑘 as shifting the coordinate plane (NOT the graph) upward by 𝑘 units,
 replacing 𝑥 by 𝑥 + 𝑘 as shifting the coordinate plane to the right by 𝑘 units,
 replacing 𝑦 by 𝑐𝑦 as stretching the coordinate plane vertically by a factor of 𝑐, and so on.

Example 1.50 Given the graph of 𝑦 = |𝑥| on the right, sketch the
graph of
𝑦 = 4 − |3𝑥 + 3| 𝑦 = |𝑥|
on the same coordinate plane.

Solution:
We start with the graph of 𝑦 = |𝑥|. A horizontal compression by a factor of 3 gives the graph of
𝑦 = |3𝑥|, and a left translation of 1 unit gives the graph of 𝑦 = |3(𝑥 + 1)| = |3𝑥 + 3|.

𝑦 = |3𝑥| 𝑦 = |3𝑥 + 3|

𝑦 = |𝑥| 𝑦 = |𝑥|

−1

Next, a reflection across the 𝑥-axis gives the graph of 𝑦 = −|3𝑥 + 3|, and an upward translation of
4 units gives the graph of 𝑦 = 4 − |3𝑥 + 3|, which is the graph we want.
(−1, 4)

𝑦 = |𝑥| 𝑦 = |𝑥|
−1
𝑦 = 4 − |3𝑥 + 3|

𝑦 = −|3𝑥 + 3|

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4. Properties of functions

Some functions have special “symmetry” properties.

Definition 1.51 A function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is called

(i) an odd function if 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥) for every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ;
(ii) an even function if 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) for every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ;
(iii) a periodic function if there exists 𝑐 > 0 such that 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑐) = 𝑓(𝑥) for every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ. 𝑐 is
called a period of 𝑓 . If there is a smallest such positive number 𝑐 , then it is called the
fundamental period of 𝑓.

Remark 1.52 The graph of an odd function is rotationally symmetric about the origin by half a
revolution. The graph of an even function is symmetric across the 𝒚-axis. The graph of a periodic
function is translationally symmetric along the 𝒙-axis.
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is odd 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is even 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is periodic

Example 1.53 The simplest examples of odd and even functions are given by the monomials
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛
where 𝑛 is a non-negative integer. 𝑓 is an odd function if 𝑛 is an odd integer, while 𝑓 is an even
function if 𝑛 is an even integer.

Example 1.54 Let 𝑓, 𝑔: ℝ → ℝ be the functions defined by

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥|𝑥| and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 |𝑥|.
Determine whether each of them is odd, and whether each of them is even.

Solution:
For every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, we have
𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥)|−𝑥| = −𝑥|𝑥| = −𝑓(𝑥)
and
𝑔(−𝑥) = (−𝑥)2 |−𝑥| = 𝑥 2 |𝑥| = 𝑔(𝑥).
So we conclude that 𝑓 is an odd function and 𝑔 is an even function.

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Remark 1.55 Odd functions and even functions are not opposite concepts, unlike the same pair of
terminology for integers. Some functions are both odd and even, while some are neither odd nor
even. Can you construct examples for these situations?

Example 1.56 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be a function and suppose that there exists a positive constant 𝑎
such that
𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑓(𝑦) − 𝑓(𝑎 − 𝑥)𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑦)
for every pair of real numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦. If 𝑓(0) = 1,
(a) find the value of 𝑓(𝑎), and
(b) hence show that 𝑓 is even.

Solution:
The given equality holds for every 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ, so we may replace 𝑥, 𝑦 by any real number we like.

(a) In order to find the value of 𝑓(𝑎), we just put 𝑥 = 𝑦 = 0. This gives
𝑓(0 − 0) = 𝑓(0)𝑓(0) − 𝑓(𝑎 − 0)𝑓(𝑎 + 0)
⇒ 1 = 12 − [𝑓(𝑎)]2
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) = 0.

(b) Now to prove that 𝑓 is even, we want to show that 𝑓(−𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑦) for every real number 𝑦.
So putting 𝑥 = 0 into the given equality, we see that for every 𝑦 ∈ ℝ,
𝑓(−𝑦) = 𝑓(0 − 𝑦)
= 𝑓(0)𝑓(𝑦) − 𝑓(𝑎 − 0)𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑦)
= 1 ⋅ 𝑓(𝑦) − 0 ⋅ 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑦)
= 𝑓(𝑦).
Therefore 𝑓 is an even function. ∎

Example 1.57 We will see in the next section of this chapter that the cosine and sine functions
cos, sin: ℝ → ℝ are periodic functions. We have
cos(𝑥 + 2𝜋) = cos 𝑥 and sin(𝑥 + 2𝜋) = sin 𝑥 for every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ,
so 2𝜋 is a period of these two functions. It turns out that 2𝜋 is also their fundamental period.

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Some functions have special “trend” properties.

Definition 1.58 Let 𝐴 be a non-empty subset of ℝ . A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → ℝ is said to be

(monotonic) increasing 𝑓(𝑎) ≥ 𝑓(𝑏)
(monotonic) decreasing 𝑓(𝑎) ≤ 𝑓(𝑏)
{ } on 𝑨 if for every pair of numbers 𝑎 > 𝑏 in 𝐴.
strictly increasing 𝑓(𝑎) > 𝑓(𝑏)
strictly decreasing {𝑓(𝑎) < 𝑓(𝑏)}

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 )

𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is monotonic increasing 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is strictly decreasing 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is not monotone

Example 1.59 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be the monomial

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 .
Then 𝑓 is strictly increasing on [0, +∞).

Example 1.60 In general, let 𝑛 be a positive integer and let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be the monomial
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 .
 If 𝑛 is odd, then 𝑓 is strictly increasing on ℝ.
 If 𝑛 is even, then 𝑓 is strictly decreasing on (−∞, 0] and strictly increasing on [0, +∞).

Example 1.61 Let 𝑓: ℝ ∖ {0} → ℝ be the function

1
𝑓(𝑥) =.
𝑥
Then 𝑓 is strictly decreasing on (0, +∞) and strictly decreasing on (−∞, 0) as well.

Example 1.62 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be the absolute value function

𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥|.
Then 𝑓 is strictly decreasing on (−∞, 0] and strictly increasing on [0, +∞).

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Some functions have special “boundedness” properties.

Definition 1.63 Let 𝐴 be a set and 𝑓: 𝐴 → ℝ be a function.

(i) If there exists a real number 𝑀 such that
𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑀 for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴,
then 𝑓 is said to be bounded from above on 𝑨 and 𝑀 is called an upper bound of 𝑓 on 𝐴.
(ii) If there exists a real number 𝑚 such that
𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑚 for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴,
then 𝑓 is said to be bounded from below on 𝑨 and 𝑚 is called a lower bound of 𝑓 on 𝐴.
(iii) If 𝑓 is both bounded from above and bounded from below on 𝐴, then 𝑓 is said to be bounded
on 𝑨.

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑀 𝑀

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑚
𝑚

𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is bounded from above 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is bounded from below 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is bounded

Example 1.64 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be the function

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 .
Then 𝑓 is not bounded from above, but is bounded from below by 0 . Note that 𝑓 is also
bounded from below by every negative number. We say that 0 is the greatest lower bound of 𝑓.

Example 1.65 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be the function

1
𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2
Note that we can rewrite the denominator to obtain
1
𝑓(𝑥) = .
(𝑥 + 1)2 + 1
Since (𝑥 + 1)2 + 1 ≥ 1 for every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, it follows that
0 < 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 1 for every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.
So 𝑓 is bounded from above by 1 and bounded from below by 0 . In other words, 𝑓 is a
bounded function. Note that in this example, 1 is the least upper bound of 𝑓 and 0 is the
greatest lower bound of 𝑓.

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Some functions have special “mapping” properties. In this course we just introduce one property
of this type.

Definition 1.66 Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets and 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 be a function. 𝑓 is said to be one-to-one

(or injective) if for every 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴,
𝑎≠𝑏 implies 𝑓(𝑎) ≠ 𝑓(𝑏),
i.e. different elements in 𝐴 take different values in 𝐵.
[This is the same as requiring that for every 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴,
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) implies 𝑎 = 𝑏.]

Example 1.67 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be the function

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1.
For every 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ, if we assume that 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏), then
⇒ 2𝑎 + 1 = 2𝑏 + 1
⇒ 2𝑎 = 2𝑏
⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑏.
This shows that 𝑓 is one-to-one.

Remark 1.68 (“Horizontal line test”) A function 𝑓 is one-to-one if and only if every horizontal line
in the coordinate plane intersects the graph of 𝑓 at one point at most.
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is one-to-one 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is not one-to-one 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is one-to-one

Example 1.69 Every strictly increasing function is one-to-one. Every strictly decreasing function is
also one-to-one.

Example 1.70 Determine whether each of the following functions is one-to-one.

(a) 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
(b) 𝑔: [0, +∞) → ℝ defined by 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2

Solution:
(a) Since 1 and −1 are two different real numbers with
𝑓(1) = 1 = 𝑓(−1),
we see that 𝑓 is not one-to-one.

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(b) Suppose that 𝑎 and 𝑏 are non-negative real numbers such that 𝑔(𝑎) = 𝑔(𝑏). Then
𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 .
Taking positive square roots on both sides, we get 𝑎 = 𝑏; so 𝑔 is one-to-one.
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)
Why does the same reasoning
(taking positive square roots)
fail for the function 𝑓 in (a)?

Remark 1.71 From Example 1.70, we can see that whether a function is one-to-one or not depends
very much on its domain. If a function is not one-to-one, it is sometimes possible to make it one-
to-one by modifying its domain to a smaller subset.

One-to-one functions are important because they have inverses. An inverse can be understood as
a “reverse machine” which undoes everything the given function does.

Theorem 1.72 Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets, let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 be a one-to-one function and let 𝐶 ⊆ 𝐵 be the
range of 𝑓. Then there exists a function 𝑔: 𝐶 → 𝐴 such that
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑦) = 𝑦 for every 𝑦 ∈ 𝐶 and (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴.

Proof. We define 𝑔: 𝐶 → 𝐴 as follows. For each 𝑦 ∈ 𝐶,

 since 𝐶 is the range of 𝑓, there exists 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 such that 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥);
 there is only one such 𝑥 because 𝑓 is one-to-one.
So we can define If there were no such 𝑥 or more than one such 𝑥,
𝑔(𝑦) ≔ 𝑥. then we cannot define a function this way!

Now we can check that this function 𝑔 indeed satisfies

(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑦)) = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 for every 𝑦 ∈ 𝐶, and
(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴.
∎

Definition 1.73 Let 𝑓 be a one-to-one function. Then the function 𝑔 constructed as in Theorem
1.72 is called the inverse of 𝑓, and we denote it as 𝑓 −1 .

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Example 1.67 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be the function

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1.
We have already seen that 𝑓 is one-to-one. Now let 𝑔: ℝ → ℝ be the function
𝑥−1
𝑔(𝑥) = .
2
Then for every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, we have
𝑥−1 𝑥−1
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓 ( ) = 2( )+1= 𝑥
2 2
and
(2𝑥 + 1) − 1
(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(2𝑥 + 1) = = 𝑥.
2
So 𝑔 is the inverse of 𝑓, i.e. 𝑓 −1 : ℝ → ℝ is given by
𝑥−1
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = .
2

Remark 1.74 Given a one-to-one function 𝑓, Theorem 1.72 implies that

 the domain of 𝑓 −1 is (defined to be) the range of 𝑓, and
 the range of 𝑓 −1 is the domain of 𝑓.

Example 1.75 Which of the following shows the graph of a function that has an inverse throughout
its domain?

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Solution:
We look for the graph of a one-to-one function. Such a graph must intersect each vertical line and
each horizontal line in the coordinate plane at one point at most. Only (d) satisfies this requirement.

Remark 1.76 To find the inverse of a given one-to-one function 𝑓, we do the following three steps:
(i) For each 𝑦 in the range of 𝑓, we write 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
(ii) Find a solution 𝑥 (in the domain of 𝑓) to this equation in terms of 𝑦. This is 𝑓 −1 (𝑦).
(iii) Rename the independent variable as 𝑥 instead of 𝑦.

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Example 1.77 Let 𝑓: (−∞, 0] → ℝ be the function defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 . Find the inverse of 𝑓
and sketch the graphs of 𝑓 and of 𝑓 −1 on the same coordinate plane.

Solution:
The range of 𝑓 is [0, +∞). Writing 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) with 𝑦 ∈ [0, +∞), our aim is to find a solution for
𝑥 in the domain (−∞, 𝟎] of 𝒇:
𝑦 = 𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑥 = −√𝑦.
Therefore we get
𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = −√𝑦.
We usually prefer to use the symbol 𝑥 (instead of 𝑦 ) to denote the independent variable of a
function, so the inverse 𝑓 −1 : [0, +∞) → ℝ is given by
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = −√𝑥.
The graphs of 𝑓 and 𝑓 −1 are shown below.

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑦=𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)

Remark 1.78 Given the graph of a one-to-one function 𝑓 , we can obtain the graph of 𝑓 −1 by
reflecting the graph of 𝑓 across the line with slope 1 that passes through the origin.

Theorem 1.79 Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be one-to-one functions. Then 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is also one-to-one and
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)−1 = 𝑔−1 ∘ 𝑓 −1 .

Proof. To show that 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is one-to-one, we assume that (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑎) = (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑏) and want to
show that 𝑎 = 𝑏. Now we have 𝑓(𝑔(𝑎)) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑏)). Since 𝑓 is one-to-one, we have
𝑔(𝑎) = 𝑔(𝑏).
Since 𝑔 is one-to-one, we have 𝑎 = 𝑏 as required. Therefore 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is one-to-one.
To show the second statement, we note that for every 𝑥 in the range of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔, we have
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)−1 (𝑥) = 𝑥,

i.e. 𝑓 (𝑔((𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)−1 (𝑥))) = 𝑥. Since 𝑓 −1 is the inverse of 𝑓, we have

𝑔((𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)−1 (𝑥)) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥),

and since 𝑔−1 is the inverse of 𝑔, we have
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)−1 (𝑥) = 𝑔−1 (𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = (𝑔−1 ∘ 𝑓 −1 )(𝑥).
Therefore (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)−1 = 𝑔−1 ∘ 𝑓 −1 . ∎

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Dual Program (Mathematics) Level 1 Chapter 1 Functions
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5. Elementary functions

Apart from polynomials and rational functions which have been introduced in the previous sections,
there are still many other types of elementary functions which are useful in our daily lives.

𝑦 = 𝑥2 𝑦 = 𝑥1
1
Definition 1.80 Let 𝑎 be a real number. Then the function 𝑦 = 𝑥2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑎 is called a power function. 1

Some important special cases of power functions include

1
 monomials (when 𝑎 is a non-negative integer),
 the 𝑛 th root function (when 𝑎 = 1/𝑛 and 𝑛 is a positive 𝑦 = 𝑥 −2
integer), and
 the reciprocal (when 𝑎 = −1). 1
1 𝑦 = 𝑥 −2
𝑦 = 𝑥 −1
Think: What are the domain and the range of a power function? 1

Definition 1.81 Let 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1 . The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 is called the exponential
function with base 𝒂. (When 𝑎 = 1 this is just a boring constant function.)

Let’s compare the graphs of the various exponential functions for 0 < 𝑎 < 1 and for 𝑎 > 1:
1 𝑥
𝑦 = 5𝑥 𝑦=( )
1 𝑥 5
𝑦 = 3𝑥 𝑦=( )
3

Horizontal 1 𝑥
Horizontal
asymptote 𝑦 = 2𝑥 𝑦=( )
2 asymptote

1 1
Function values are
always positive:
Range is (0, +∞)

Lemma 1.82 For each 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1 , the exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 is a one-to-one
function with domain ℝ and range (0, +∞).

Remark 1.83 Do not mix up the power functions and the exponential functions! The
𝑎
independent variable 𝑥 in a power function 𝑥 is located at the base, while in an exponential
function 𝑎 𝑥 it is located at the index.

Definition 1.84 In calculus we will often encounter a special base 𝑒 ≈ 2.71828 , which is an
irrational number. The particular exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 with base 𝑒 is called the
natural exponential function and is sometimes denoted also as 𝑓(𝑥) = exp 𝑥.

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Example 1.85 Find the natural domain and the range of the function
1
𝑓(𝑥) = .
√1 − 𝑒 𝑥

Solution:
1
 The expression is well-defined if and only if 1 − 𝑒 𝑥 > 0,
√1−𝑒 𝑥

which happens if and only if 𝑥 < 0 . Therefore the natural 1

𝑦=
domain of 𝑓 is (−∞, 0). √1 − 𝑒 𝑥

 On the other hand, for 𝑥 < 0 , 1 − 𝑒 𝑥 can possibly take every

value in (0, 1), so √1 − 𝑒 𝑥 can also take every value in (0, 1). 1

1
Thus 𝑓(𝑥) = can take every value in (1, +∞). Therefore
√1−𝑒 𝑥

the range of 𝑓 is (1, +∞).

Definition 1.86 Let 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1. The inverse of the exponential function with base 𝑎 is
called the logarithmic function with base 𝒂 and is denoted by 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥.

As expected, we can obtain the graph of the logarithmic function 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 by reflecting the graph
of the corresponding exponential function 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 across the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.

𝑦 = log 2 𝑥
𝑦 = log 3 𝑥 Vertical
asymptote
𝑦 = log 5 𝑥
1

Defined for positive 𝑦 = log 1 𝑥

Vertical 1 5
asymptote numbers only:
Domain is (0, +∞) 𝑦 = log 1 𝑥
3
𝑦 = log 1 𝑥
2

Lemma 1.87 For each 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1, the logarithmic function 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥 is a one-to-one
function with domain (0, +∞) and range ℝ.

Definition 1.88 The logarithmic function 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑒 𝑥 with the special base 𝑒 ≈ 2.71828 is
called the natural logarithmic function and is commonly denoted by 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥.

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Since there is an inverse relation between the exponential and logarithmic functions (with the same
base), we obtain the following relations from Theorem 1.72.

Proposition 1.89 Let 𝑎 be a positive number with 𝑎 ≠ 1. Then

log𝑎 𝑥
(i) 𝑎 = 𝑥 and in particular 𝑒 ln 𝑥 = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 > 0,
(ii) log 𝑎 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥 and in particular ln 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.

Remark 1.90 Do remember the laws of indices and the laws of logarithms in your computations.
Laws of indices Laws of logarithms
𝑎0 = 1 log 𝑎 1 = 0
𝑎1 = 𝑎 log 𝑎 𝑎 = 1
𝑎 𝑥+𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎 𝑦 log 𝑎 𝑥 + log 𝑎 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥𝑦
𝑎𝑥 𝑥
𝑎 𝑥−𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 − log 𝑎 𝑦 = log 𝑎
𝑎𝑦 𝑦
𝑎 𝑥𝑦 = (𝑎 𝑥 )𝑦 log 𝑎 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑦 log 𝑎 𝑥
𝑎 𝑥 𝑏 𝑥 = (𝑎𝑏)𝑥 log 𝑐 𝑏
These formulas hold log 𝑎 𝑏 =
𝑎𝑥 𝑎 𝑥 whenever both sides log 𝑐 𝑎
= ( ) are well-defined.
𝑏𝑥 𝑏

Example 1.91 Find all the real numbers 𝑥 which satisfies the equation
log 2𝑥 (2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 12) = 2.

Solution:
Our first aim is to equate the bases of logarithm on both sides, so we rewrite the right-hand side as
2 = 2 log 2𝑥 2𝑥 = log 2𝑥 (2𝑥)2 .
Then the given equation becomes
log 2𝑥 (2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 12) = log 2𝑥 (2𝑥)2
2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 12 = (2𝑥)2
−2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 12 = 0
−2(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 2) = 0
So 𝑥 = 3 or 𝑥 = −2.
But since 2𝑥 was the base of a logarithm, we must require 2𝑥 > 0 . Therefore 𝑥 = −2 is
rejected, and the only valid solution is
𝑥 = 3.

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Now we define the six trigonometric functions.

Definition 1.92 The cosine function 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 and the sine
function 𝑔(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 are defined on ℝ as follows. For each real
(cos 𝑥 , sin 𝑥)
number 𝑥 , we let 𝑃 be the point of intersection of the unit circle 1
centered at the origin and the ray emanating from the origin making 𝑥

an angle of 𝑥 radians from the positive horizontal axis measured

counterclockwise. Then cos 𝑥 is defined to be the first coordinate
of 𝑃 and sin 𝑥 is defined to be the second coordinate of 𝑃.

Remark 1.93 Always use “radians” and never use “degrees” as the unit of the size of an angle in
this course. This will help avoid troubles in calculus computations. Bearing in mind that the unit
circle has circumference 2𝜋, we can convert between the degree measure and the radian measure
of an angle using the formulas
2𝜋 𝜋𝑥 360° 180𝑥
𝑥° = 𝑥° = and 𝑥= 𝑥=( ) °.
360° 180 2𝜋 𝜋

Definition 1.94 The tangent function 𝑓(𝑥) = tan 𝑥 is defined to be the quotient of the sine by the
sin 𝑥
cosine, i.e. tan 𝑥 ≔ cos 𝑥 . We also define the cotangent function, the secant function and the

cos 𝑥 1 1
cosecant function by cot 𝑥 ≔ , sec 𝑥 ≔ cos 𝑥 and csc 𝑥 ≔ sin 𝑥 respectively.
sin 𝑥

Remark 1.95 The following are the graphs of the three basic trigonometric functions and some
important facts. Try to sketch the graphs of cot, sec and csc on your own.

𝑦 = sin 𝑥 1 𝑦 = cos 𝑥
1

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋

−1 −1 𝑦 = tan 𝑥

1
Domain: ℝ Domain: ℝ Domain: ℝ ∖ {(𝑛 + ) 𝜋: 𝑛 ∈ ℤቅ
2

Range: [−𝟏, 𝟏] Range: [−𝟏, 𝟏] Range: ℝ

Fundamental period: 2𝜋 Fundamental period: 2𝜋 Fundamental period: 𝜋

Parity: Odd Parity: Even Parity: Odd

Special values: Special values: Special values:

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 0 6 4 3 2
𝑥 0 6 4 3 2
𝑥 0 6 4 3 2
1 1 √3 √3 1 1 1
sin 𝑥 0 2 √2
1 cos 𝑥 1 √2 2
0 tan 𝑥 0 √3
1 √3 undef.
2 2
√0 √1 √2 √3 √4 √4 √3 √2 √1 √0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

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Remark 1.96 The following are some important formulas in trigonometry. Please make yourself
familiar with all these results which you should have learnt either from school or from the Pre-stage
course already.

Right-angled triangle
𝑎 𝑜 ℎ
cos 𝑥 = tan 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 =
ℎ 𝑎 𝑎 ℎ
𝑜
𝑜 𝑎 ℎ 𝑥
sin 𝑥 = cot 𝑥 = csc 𝑥 =
ℎ 𝑜 𝑜 𝑎

Pythagorean identities
cos2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 = 1
Divide both sides by cos2 𝑥 Divide both sides by sin2 𝑥

1 + tan2 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥 cot 2 𝑥 + 1 = csc 2 𝑥

Phase-shift identities Use the A-S-T-C diagram, for example: Switch the “co-”

sin(𝜋 − 𝑥) = sin 𝑥 sec(−𝑥) = sec 𝑥

Sine +ve All +ve
Don’t switch
3𝜋 5𝜋 the “co-”
cos ( − 𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 csc ( − 𝑥) = sec 𝑥
2 2
Tangent +ve Cosine +ve
𝜋 3𝜋
tan ( + 𝑥) = − cot 𝑥 cot ( + 𝑥) = − tan 𝑥
2 2
“All Students Take Calculus”
and so on…

Addition of angles (a.k.a. Compound angle formulae)

sin(𝑥 ± 𝑦) = sin 𝑥 cos 𝑦 ± cos 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝑎 𝑏
cos(𝑥 ± 𝑦) = cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦 ∓ sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝑥 𝑦
sin 2𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
cos 2𝑥 = cos2 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥 = 1 − 2 sin2 𝑥 = 2 cos 2 𝑥 − 1 1
Total area = 𝑎𝑏 sin(𝜋 − 𝑥 − 𝑦)
2

Addition of sinusoids (a.k.a. Subsidiary angle form)

Any sum of constant multiples of sin 𝑥 and cos 𝑥 can be written in the form 𝑟 sin(𝑥 + 𝜃) or
𝑟 cos(𝑥 + 𝜃): If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are not both zero, then

𝑎 𝑏
𝑎 sin 𝑥 + 𝑏 cos 𝑥 = √
⏟𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 (sin 𝑥 ⋅ + cos 𝑥 ⋅ )
𝑟 √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
⏟ √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
⏟
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
= 𝑟 sin(𝑥 + 𝜃) ,
𝑎
where 𝑟 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 and cos 𝜃 = √𝑎2 .
+𝑏 2

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Dual Program (Mathematics) Level 1 Chapter 1 Functions
Fall 2024 – Spring 2025

Sum-to-product / Product-to-sum formulae

𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦 1
sin 𝑥 + sin 𝑦 = 2 sin cos sin 𝑥 cos 𝑦 = [sin(𝑥 + 𝑦) + sin(𝑥 − 𝑦)]
2 2 2
𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦 1
sin 𝑥 − sin 𝑦 = 2 cos sin cos 𝑥 sin 𝑦 = [sin(𝑥 + 𝑦) − sin(𝑥 − 𝑦)]
2 2 2
𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦 1
cos 𝑥 + cos 𝑦 = 2 cos cos cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦 = [cos(𝑥 + 𝑦) + cos(𝑥 − 𝑦)]
2 2 2
𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦 1
cos 𝑥 − cos 𝑦 = −2 sin sin sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦 = [cos(𝑥 − 𝑦) − cos(𝑥 + 𝑦)]
2 2 2

Example 1.97 Prove the following identities:

1
(a) cos 𝑥 cos 2𝑥 cos 3𝑥 = (1 + cos 2𝑥 + cos 4𝑥 + cos 6𝑥)
4
3𝜋 𝜋
(b) sin2 (𝑥 − ) + cos2 ( + 𝑥) + tan2 (𝑥 − 2𝜋) = sec 2 𝑥
2 2

Proof:
(a) For every real number 𝑥, we have
1
cos 𝑥 cos 2𝑥 cos 3𝑥 = (cos 3𝑥 + cos 𝑥) cos 3𝑥
2
1 1
= cos2 3𝑥 + cos 𝑥 cos 3𝑥
2 2
1 1 + cos 6𝑥 1
= ( ) + (cos 4𝑥 + cos 2𝑥)
2 2 4
1 1 1 1
= + cos 2𝑥 + cos 4𝑥 + cos 6𝑥
4 4 4 4
1
= (1 + cos 2𝑥 + cos 4𝑥 + cos 6𝑥).
4
∎

(b) Whenever each term is well-defined, we have

3𝜋 𝜋
sin2 (𝑥 − ) + cos2 ( + 𝑥) + tan2 (𝑥 − 2𝜋) = cos2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 + tan2 𝑥
2 2
= 1 + tan2 𝑥
= sec 2 𝑥 .
∎

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Dual Program (Mathematics) Level 1 Chapter 1 Functions
Fall 2024 – Spring 2025

Example 1.98 Find all the real numbers 𝑥 which satisfy the equation
cos 𝑥 − √3 sin 𝑥 = 1.

Solution:
cos 𝑥 − √3 sin 𝑥 = 1
𝜋 𝜋
⇒ 2 (cos 𝑥 cos − sin 𝑥 sin ) = 1
3 3
𝜋 1
⇒ cos (𝑥 + ) =
3 2
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
This gives 𝑥 + 3 = 2𝑛𝜋 + 3 or 𝑥 + 3 = 2𝑛𝜋 − 3 , where 𝑛 is an integer. Thus the solutions are

2𝜋
𝑥 = 2𝑛𝜋 or 𝑥 = 2𝑛𝜋 − ,
3
where 𝑛 is an integer.

5𝜋
Example 1.99 Find the exact value of sin 12 .

Solution:
5𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
sin = sin ( + ) = sin cos + cos sin
12 4 6 4 6 4 6
1 √3 1 1 √6 + √2
= ( )( ) + ( )( ) = .
√2 2 √2 2 4

The trigonometric functions are not one-to-one functions on their natural domains, so in order to
define their inverses, we need to restrict their domains so that they become one-to-one. We want
to choose domains that are large enough so that the ranges of these functions are not affected.
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Conventionally we choose the domains [− 2 , 2 ] for sin, [0, 𝜋] for cos, and (− 2 , 2 ) for tan.

Definition 1.100 The cosine function is one-to-one when its domain is restricted to [0, 𝜋], and its
inverse is denoted by arccos: [−1, 1] → [0, 𝜋]. The sine function is one-to-one when its domain is
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
restricted to [− 2 , 2 ] , and its inverse is denoted by arcsin: [−1, 1] → [− 2 , 2 ] . The tangent

𝜋 𝜋
function is one-to-one when its domain is restricted to (− 2 , 2 ) , and its inverse is denoted by

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
arctan: ℝ → (− 2 , 2 ) . We also define functions arcsec: (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞) → ( 2 , 𝜋] ∪ [0, 2 ) ,

𝜋 𝜋
arccsc: (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞) → [− 2 , 0) ∪ (0, 2 ] and arccot: ℝ → (0, 𝜋) in a similar manner.

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Dual Program (Mathematics) Level 1 Chapter 1 Functions
Fall 2024 – Spring 2025

Remark 1.101 In some textbooks, the inverse trigonometric functions are denoted as sin−1, cos −1 ,
tan−1 and so on. Although these notations are also used commonly, they may lead to confusions.
For instance we have sin2 𝑥 ≡ (sin 𝑥)2, sin3 𝑥 ≡ (sin 𝑥)3 but
sin−1 𝑥 ≢ (sin 𝑥)−1
because the left-hand side means arcsin 𝑥 but the right-hand side means csc 𝑥.

The graphs of the inverse trigonometric functions can be obtained by reflecting the chosen portion
of the graph of the corresponding trigonometric function across the line 𝑦 = 𝑥:

𝜋 𝑦 = arcsin 𝑥 𝜋 𝜋 𝑦 = arctan 𝑥
2 2
−1
1 −1 1
𝜋 𝜋
− −
2 2
𝑦 = arccos 𝑥

Domain: [−1, 1] Domain: [−1, 1] Domain: ℝ

𝝅 𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
Range: [− , ] Range: [𝟎, 𝝅] Range: (− , )
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

Try to sketch the graphs of arccot, arcsec and arccsc on your own.

Proposition 1.102 We have the following inverse relations:

𝜋 𝜋
(i) arcsin(sin 𝑥) = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 ∈ [− 2 , 2 ], and sin(arcsin 𝑥) = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 ∈ [−1, 1].

(ii) arccos(cos 𝑥) = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 ∈ [0, 𝜋], and cos(arccos 𝑥) = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 ∈ [−1, 1].
𝜋 𝜋
(iii) arctan(tan 𝑥) = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 ∈ (− 2 , 2 ), and tan(arctan 𝑥) = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.

Similar relations also exist for the functions arccot, arcsec and arccsc.

Example 1.103 Without using calculators, find the value of

5𝜋
arcsin (sin ).
4

Solution:
5𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
arcsin (sin ) = arcsin [sin (𝜋 − )] = arcsin [sin (− )] = − .
4 4 4 4

All the functions that we are going to study in this course will basically come from this catalog of
elementary functions in Section 1.5, as well as all those functions that we can construct from them
using the methods introduced in Section 1.3.

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Dual Program (Mathematics) Level 1 Chapter 1 Functions
Fall 2024 – Spring 2025

Summary of Chapter 1

The following are what we have learnt in this chapter:

 Basic set theory

 Converting the set of numbers satisfying an inequality to the interval notation

 Basic notions about functions: Domain, codomain, range

 The graph of a function, “vertical line test”

 Arithmetic operations on functions

 +, −, ×, ÷
 Composition ∘
 Piecewise defined functions, the absolute value function
 Transformations of graphs of functions
 Vertical and horizontal translation
 Vertical and horizontal compression / stretch
 Reflection across the 𝑥- / 𝑦-axis

 Properties of functions
 Odd functions / Even functions
 Periodic functions
 (Strictly) increasing functions / (Strictly) decreasing functions
 Bounded functions
 One-to-one functions, “horizontal line test”
 The inverse of a one-to-one function and its graph

 Graphs and properties of elementary functions:

 Polynomials: 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
 Rational functions: Quotients of polynomials
 Power functions: 𝑥 𝑎
 Exponential functions: 𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑒 𝑥
 Logarithmic functions: log 𝑎 𝑥, ln 𝑥
 Trigonometric functions: sin 𝑥, cos 𝑥, tan 𝑥, cot 𝑥, sec 𝑥, csc 𝑥
 Inverse trigonometric functions: arcsin 𝑥, arccos 𝑥, arctan 𝑥, etc.

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Dual Program (Mathematics) Level 1 Chapter 1 Functions
Fall 2024 – Spring 2025

Glossary of Chinese translations of mathematical terms

1 Set, element 集合,元素

Empty set 空集
Natural numbers 自然數
Integers 整數
Rational numbers 有理數
Real numbers 實數
Open intervals / closed intervals 開區間/閉區間
End-point 端點
Interior 內部
Subset 子集
Intersection / union / complement 交集/聯集/補集
2 Function 函數
Domain / Codomain / Range 定義域/陪域/值域
Graph (of a function) 圖像
Polynomial 多項式
Coefficient 係數
Degree (of a polynomial) 階
3 Rational function 有理函數
Composition (of two functions) 複合
Piecewise-defined functions 分段函數
Absolute value 絕對值
4 Odd function / even function 奇函數/偶函數
Periodic function 周期函數
Fundamental period 基本周期
Monotonic increasing / decreasing 單調上升/下降
Strictly increasing / decreasing 嚴格上升/下降
Bounded function 有界函數
One-to-one function 單射函數
Inverse (of a function) 逆函數
5 Elementary functions 初等函數
Power function 冪函數
(Natural) exponential function (自然)指數函數
(Natural) logarithmic function (自然)對數函數
Trigonometric functions 三角函數
Inverse trigonometric functions 反三角函數

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