Dbms Complete Lab Manual
Dbms Complete Lab Manual
3). Upon successful login you will get SQL prompt (SQL>).
In two ways you can write your programs:
a) directly at SQL prompt (or)
b) in sql editor.
If you type your programs at sql prompt then screen will look
like follow:
SQL> SELECT ename,empno,
2 sal from
3 emp;
where 2 and 3 are the line numbers and rest is the command
/program……
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
This how we can write, edit and execute the sql command and
programs.
Background Theory
DDL commands:
Syntax:
Ex:
create table emp(empno number(4) primary key, ename char(10));
Syntax:
Ex:
alter table emp add(sal number(7,2));
Syntax:
Alter table <tablename> drop column <col>;
Ex:
alter table emp drop column sal;
Syntax:
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
Ex:
alter table emp modify(ename varchar2(15));
Syntax:
Ex:
rename emp to emp1;
Syntax:
Ex:
7. Destroying tables.
Syntax:
Ex:
DML commands:
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
Syntax 1:
Syntax 2:
Syntax 3:
Ex 1:
Ex 2:
Ex 3:
9. Delete operations.
Syntax:
Syntax:
Syntax:
Update <tablename> set <col>=<exp>,<col>=<exp>;
Syntax:
Update <tablename> set <col>=<exp>,<col>=<exp>
where <condition>;
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
Syntax:
<col><datatype>(size)not null
b) unique constraint
Syntax:
Syntax:
Create table
tablename(col=format,col=format,unique(<col1>,<col2>);
Syntax:
<col><datatype>(size)primary key;
Syntax:
Syntax:
Syntax:
h) check constraint
DQL Commands:
12. Viewing data in the tables: - once data has been inserted into a
table, the next most logical operation would be to view what has been
inserted.
Syntax:
Select <col> to <col n> from tablename;
Select * from tablename;
13. Filtering table data: - while viewing data from a table, it is rare
that all the data from table will be required each time. Hence, sql must
give us a method of filtering out data that is not required data.
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
Syntax:
select * from <tablename> where <condition>;
Syntax:
Select * from <tablename> order by <col1>,<col2> <[sortorder]>;
DCL commands:
Syntax:
GRANT <object privileges>
ON <objectname>
TO<username>
[WITH GRANT OPTION];
Syntax:
REVOKE<object privilege>
ON
FROM<user name>;
Practical 1:
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
Table created.
METHOD 1:
SQL>Insert into
Student252(sid,sname,sbranch,dob,spercent) values(104,‘sri’,,’cse’,’27-
feb-05’,70);
1 row created.
METHOD 2:
SQL>Insert into
Student252 values(104,‘sri’,,’cse’,’27-feb-05’,70);
1 row created.
METHOD 3:
SQL>Insert into
Student252(sid,sname,sbranch,dob,spercent)
values(&sid, &sname,&sbranch,&dob,&spercent);
1 row created.
METHOD 4:
SQL>Insert into
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
Student252(sid,sname,sbranch,dob,spercent)
values(&sid, ‘&sname’,’&sbranch’,’&dob’,&spercent);
1 row created.
Practical 2
MODIFYING THE STRUCTURE OF TABLE
Table altered.
Table altered.
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
DROPING A COLUMN
Table altered.
10 rows selected.
10 rows updated.
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----- -------------------- ---------- ---------- ----------
30 ravi 51000 3 18
31 teja 31000 2 18
29 kiran 31200 1 18
45 allen 41000 3 18
33 sajith 51000 4 18
46 geetha 11000 4 18
90 veena 16000 3 18
85 pragna 61000 1 18
84 harsha 91000 3 18
40 sanjeev 1500 13 18
10 rows selected.
Table renamed.
practical 3
Table created.
Table dropped.
Practical 4
Table created.
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for eid: 2
Enter value for ename: 'teja'
Enter value for age: 18
Enter value for esal: 20000
old 1: INSERT INTO emp252 VALUES (&eid, &ename, &age, &esal)
new 1: INSERT INTO emp252 VALUES (2, 'teja', 18, 20000)
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for eid: 3
Enter value for ename: 'kiran'
Enter value for age: 19
Enter value for esal: 25000
old 1: INSERT INTO emp252 VALUES (&eid, &ename, &age, &esal)
new 1: INSERT INTO emp252 VALUES (3, 'kiran', 19, 25000)
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for eid: 4
Enter value for ename: 'srinivas'
Enter value for age: 19
Enter value for esal: 30000
old 1: INSERT INTO emp252 VALUES (&eid, &ename, &age, &esal)
new 1: INSERT INTO emp252 VALUES (4, 'srinivas', 19, 30000)
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for eid: 1
Enter value for ename: 'alan'
Enter value for age: 19
Enter value for esal: 29000
old 1: INSERT INTO emp252 VALUES (&eid, &ename, &age, &esal)
new 1: INSERT INTO emp252 VALUES (1, 'alan', 19, 29000)
SQL> /
Enter value for eid: 7
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
SQL> /
Enter value for eid: 8
Enter value for ename: 'sachin'
Enter value for age: 35
Enter value for esal: 100
old 1: INSERT INTO emp252 VALUES (&eid, &ename, &age, &esal)
new 1: INSERT INTO emp252 VALUES (8, 'sachin', 35, 100)
INSERT INTO emp252 VALUES (8, 'sachin', 35, 100)
*
[NOT ALLOWING AS IT VOILATES CHECK CONSTRAINT FOR esal >
1000 VALUE]
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02290: check constraint (SYSTEM.SYS_C003874) violated
Practical 5 :-
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
(dno NUMBER(5),
dname CHAR(10),
dloc VARCHAR(10),
PRIMARY KEY (dno));
Table created.
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for dno: 1
Enter value for dname: 'teja'
Enter value for dloc: 'sec'
old 1: INSERT INTO mdept252 VALUES (&dno, &dname, &dloc)
new 1: INSERT INTO mdept252 VALUES (1, 'teja', 'sec')
INSERT INTO mdept252 VALUES (1, 'teja', 'sec')
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00001: unique constraint (SYSTEM.SYS_C003876) violated
SQL> /
Enter value for dno: null
Enter value for dname: 'sajithulhuq'
Enter value for dloc: 'kmm'
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
Table altered.
Practical 6 :-
Table created.
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1 row created.
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Practical 7 :-
Table created.
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for cnum: 2
Enter value for cname: 'teja'
Enter value for state: 'up'
Enter value for phno: 007
old 2: (&cnum, &cname, &state, &phno)
new 2: (2, 'teja', 'up', 007)
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for cnum: 2
Enter value for cname: 'yama'
Enter value for state: 'ap'
Enter value for phno: 006
old 2: (&cnum, &cname, &state, &phno)
new 2: (2, 'yama', 'ap', 006)
INSERT INTO cust252 VALUES
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*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00001: unique constraint (SYSTEM.CNUM_PKKEY) violated
SQL> /
Enter value for cnum: 4
Enter value for cname: 'huu'
Enter value for state: 'ap'
Enter value for phno: 101
old 2: (&cnum, &cname, &state, &phno)
new 2: (4, 'huu', 'ap', 101)
1 row created.
Table created.
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for ino: 1
Enter value for iname: 'pencil'
Enter value for iprice: 1.00
Enter value for qtyonhand: 3
old 1: INSERT INTO itm252 VALUES (&ino, &iname, &iprice,
&qtyonhand)
new 1: INSERT INTO itm252 VALUES (1, 'pencil', 1.00, 3)
INSERT INTO itm252 VALUES (1, 'pencil', 1.00, 3)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00001: unique constraint (SYSTEM.ITM230_INO_PKKEY) violated
SQL> /
Enter value for ino: 2
Enter value for iname: 'powder'
Enter value for iprice: 3.00
Enter value for qtyonhand: 0
old 1: INSERT INTO itm252 VALUES (&ino, &iname, &iprice,
&qtyonhand)
new 1: INSERT INTO itm252 VALUES (2, 'powder', 3.00, 0)
INSERT INTO itm252 VALUES (2, 'powder', 3.00, 0)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02290: check constraint (SYSTEM.ITM230_QTYOH_CHK) violated
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
Table created.
Table created.
Practical 9 :-
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
Queries (along with subqueries) using ANY, ALL, IN, EXISTS, NOT
EXISTS, UNIQUE, INTERSECT, Constraints.
Example: select the rollno and name of the student who secured 4th rank
in the class
TABLE DEFINITIONS
Table created.
1 row created.
CUST LAST FIRST ADDRESS1 ADDRESS2 CITY STATE PIN BIRTH STATUS
NO NAME NAME DATE
1001 UDUPI RAJ UPENDRABAUG NEAR UDPP KARNARATA 576101 12- A
KALPANA DEC-62
1002 KUMAR RAJ A
1003 BAHADUR RAJ SHANTHI VILLA NEAR UDP KARNATAKA 576101 1-AUG- V
MALLIKA 70
1004 SIMON FELIX M-J-56 ALTOBETIM PJM GOA 403002 12-FEB- A
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1005 KUTTY RAJAN A1 TRADERS NEAR RLY KNR KERALA 67001 9-JUN- A
STATION 71
1006 PAI SHILPA 12/4B POLICE MNG KARNATAKA 574154 11- I
QUARTERS DEC-70
1007 JAIN RAKSHIT BOSCO R.K PLAZA BNG KARNATAKA 576201 1-JAN- A
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QUERIES
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
FROM Customer;
7) To select records where the pin code has not been entered.
SELECT *
FROM Customer
WHERE pin IS NULL;
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
11) To sort the customer data in the alphabetic order of state.
SELECT state, first_name, last_name, pin
FROM Customer
ORDER BY state;
13) To sort the customer data, state wise and within state by the last name.
SELECT state, first_name, last_name, pin
FROM Customer
ORDER BY state, last_name;
18) To retrieve rows where the state name begins with K and followed by any other char-
acter.
SELECT first_name, last_name, state
FROM Customer
WHERE state LIKE ‘K%’;
19) To retrieve rows where the first name contains the word RAJ embedded in it.
SELECT first_name, last_name, state
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
FROM Customer
WHERE first_name LIKE ‘%RAJ%’;
20) To retrieve rows where the address2 contains the word UDUPI or UDIPI in which
the 3rd character may be anything.
SELECT first_name, last_name, state
FROM Customer
WHERE address2 LIKE ‘UD_PI’;
21) To retrieve rows where the cust_no has data representing any value between 1003
and 1005, both numbers included.
SELECT *
FROM Customer
WHERE cust_no BETWEEN 1003 AND 1005;
22) To retrieve rows of persons born after 9-JAN-70 and before 1-AUG-96.
SELECT *
FROM Customer
WHERE birth_date BETWEEN ’10-JAN-70’ AND ’31-JUL-96’;
23) To retrieve rows where the city has data which is equal to UDP or MNG or BNG or
PJM or MAR.
SELECT *
FROM Customer
WHERE city IN (‘UDP’, ‘MNG’, ‘BNG’, ‘PJM’, ‘MAR’);
TABLE DEFINITIONS
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
SQL> CREATE TABLE Salary (
emp_no NUMBER,
basic NUMBER(7, 2),
commission NUMBER(7, 2),
deduction NUMBER(7, 2),
salary_date DATE,
FOREIGN KEY (emp_no) REFERENCES Emp
);
Table created.
QUERIES
2) To sum the salary of each employee and sort it on the sum of basic.
SELECT emp_no, SUM(basic)
FROM salary
GROUP BY emp_no
ORDER BY SUM(basic);
3) To sum the salary of each employee and sort it in descending order on the sum of ba-
sic.
SELECT emp_no, SUM(basic)
FROM salary
GROUP BY emp_no
ORDER BY SUM(basic) DESC;
4) To sum the salary of each employee and sort it in descending order on the sum of ba-
sic. Display name also
SELECT s.emp_no, e.emp_name, SUM(s.basic)
FROM salary s, emp e
WHERE s.emp_no = e.emp_no
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
GROUP BY s.emp_no, e.emp_no
ORDER BY SUM(s.basic) DESC;
7) To group the data by average salary of each employee and display where average ba-
sic is more than 2000..
SELECT s.emp_no, INITCAP(e.emp_name), AVG(s.basic)
FROM salary s, emp e
WHERE s.emp_no = e.emp_no
GROUP BY s.emp_no, e.emp_no
HAVING AVG(s.basic) >= 2000
ORDER BY AVG(s.basic);
SUBQUERIES
8) To list the employees who earn less than the average salary.
SELECT *
FROM salary
WHERE basic < (SELECT AVG(basic)
FROM salary);
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
WEEK 5
2) Queries (along with subqueries) using ANY, ALL, IN, EXISTS, NOT
EXISTS, UNIQUE, INTERSECT, Constraints. Example: select the
rollno and name of the student who secured 4th rank in the class.
TABLE DEFINITIONS
Table created.
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
FOREIGN KEY (emp_no) REFERENCES Emp
);
Table created.
QUERIES
12) To sum the salary of each employee and sort it on the sum of basic.
SELECT emp_no, SUM(basic)
FROM salary
GROUP BY emp_no
ORDER BY SUM(basic);
13) To sum the salary of each employee and sort it in descending order on the sum of ba-
sic.
SELECT emp_no, SUM(basic)
FROM salary
GROUP BY emp_no
ORDER BY SUM(basic) DESC;
14) To sum the salary of each employee and sort it in descending order on the sum of ba-
sic. Display name also
SELECT s.emp_no, e.emp_name, SUM(s.basic)
FROM salary s, emp e
WHERE s.emp_no = e.emp_no
GROUP BY s.emp_no, e.emp_name
ORDER BY SUM(s.basic) DESC;
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
FROM salary s, emp e
WHERE s.emp_no = e.emp_no
GROUP BY s.emp_no, e.emp_no
ORDER BY AVG(s.basic);
17) To group the data by average salary of each employee and display where average ba-
sic is more than 2000..
SELECT s.emp_no, INITCAP(e.emp_name), AVG(s.basic)
FROM salary s, emp e
WHERE s.emp_no = e.emp_no
GROUP BY s.emp_no, e.emp_no
HAVING AVG(s.basic) >= 2000
ORDER BY AVG(s.basic);
SUBQUERIES
18) To list the employees who earn less than the average salary.
SELECT *
FROM salary
WHERE basic < (SELECT AVG(basic)
FROM salary);
WEEK 6
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
1) Queries (along with subqueries) using ANY, ALL, IN, EXISTS, NOT
EXISTS, UNIQUE, INTERSECT, Constraints. Example: select the
rollno and name of the student who secured 4th rank in the class.
TABLE DEFINITIONS
BRANCH TABLE
CUSTOMER TABLE
LOAN TABLE
BORROWER TABLE
ACCOUNT TABLE
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
DEPOSITOR TABLE
QUERIES
1) To list all the fields from the table Customer.
SELECT branch_name
FROM Loan;
2) To list rows after eliminating duplicates.
5) Find all loan numbers for loans made at the Perryridge branch with loan
amounts
greater than Rs1200.
SELECT loan_number
FROM Loan
WHERE branch_name = ‘Perryridge’
AND amount > 1200;
6) Find all loan numbers for loans with loan amounts between Rs90,000
and Rs100,000.
SELECT loan_number
FROM Loan
WHERE amount BETWEEN 90000 AND 100000;
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
Or
SELECT loan_number
FROM Loan
WHERE amount <= 100000
AND amount >= 90000;
7) Find all loan numbers for loans with loan amounts not between
Rs90,000 and
Rs100,000.
SELECT loan_number
FROM Loan
WHERE amount NOT BETWEEN 90000 AND 100000;
8) For all customers who have a loan from the bank, find their names, loan
numbers and loan amounts.
Or
Or
SELECT customer_name
FROM Customer
WHERE customer_street LIKE ‘%Main%’;
12) To list in alphabetic order all customers who have a loan at the Per-
ryridge branch.
SELECT *
FROM Loan
ORDER BY amount DESC, loan_number ASC;
14) To find all customers having a loan, an account or both at the bank,
without duplicates.
(SELECT customer_name
FROM Depositor)
UNION
(SELECT customer_name
FROM Borrower);
15) To find all customers having a loan, an account or both at the bank,
with duplicates.
(SELECT customer_name
FROM Depositor)
UNION ALL
(SELECT customer_name
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
FROM Borrower);
16) To find all customers having both a loan and an account at the bank,
without duplicates.
(SELECT customer_name
FROM Depositor)
INTERSECT
(SELECT customer_name
FROM Borrower);
17) To find all customers having a loan, an account or both at the bank,
with duplicates.
(SELECT customer_name
FROM Depositor)
INTERSECT ALL
(SELECT customer_name
FROM Borrower);
18) To find all customers who have an account but no loan at the bank,
without duplicates.
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
SELECT AVG(balance)
FROM Account
GROUP BY branch_name;
22) Find the number of depositors for each branch .
SELECT AVG(balance)
FROM Account;
SELECT COUNT(*)
FROM Customer;
26) Find the average balance for each customer who lives in Harrision and
has at least three accounts.
27) Find all the loan number that appear in loan relation with null amount
values.
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
SELECT loan_number
FROM Loan
WHERE amount IS NULL;
28) Find all customers who have both a loan and an account at the bank.
SELECT customer_name
FROM Borrower
WHERE customer_street IN (SELECT customer_name
FROM Depositor);
29) Find all customers who have both an account and a loan at the Per-
ryridge branch
or
SELECT customer_name
FROM Borrower B
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT *
FROM Depositor D
WHERE D.customer_name = B.customer_name);
30) Find all customers who do not have a loan at the bank, but do not have
an account the bank.
31) Find the names of customers who do have a loan at the bank, and
whose names are neither Smith nor Jones.
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
SELECT branch_name
FROM Account
GROUP BY branch_name
HAVING AVG(balance) >= ALL (SELECT AVG(balance)
FROM Account
GROUP BY branch_name);
34) Find all customers who have an account at all the branches located in
Brooklyn.
SELECT T.customer_name
FROM Depositor AS T
WHERE UNIQUE (SELECT R.customer_name
FROM Depositor AS R, Account AS A
WHERE T.customer_name = R.customer_name
AND R.account_number = A.account_number
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
38) Find the maximum across all branches of the total balance at each
branch.
SELECT MAX(tot_balance)
FROM (SELECT branch_name, SUM(balance)
FROM Account
GROUP BY branch_name)
AS Branch_total(branch_name, tot_balance);
39) Find the all customers who have an account but no loan at the bank.
SELECT d-CN
FROM (Depositor LEFT OUTER JOIN Borrower
ON Depositor.customer_name = Borrower.customer_name)
AS db1(d-CN, account_number, b-CN, loan_number)
WHERE b-CN is null;
40) Find the all customers who have either an account or a loan (but not
both) at the bank.
SELECT customer_name
FROM (Depositor NATURAL FULL OUTER JOIN Borrower)
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
WEEK 7
4) Queries (along with subqueries) using ANY, ALL, IN, EXISTS, NOT
EXISTS, UNIQUE, INTERSECT, Constraints. Example: select the
rollno and name of the student who secured 4th rank in the class.
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE, ‘MM’) FROM DUAL;
GROUP FUNCTIONS:
STRING FUNCTIONS:
17) To display a field value after left padding.
SELECT LPAD('PAGE-1', 10, '*') FROM DUAL;
WEEK 8 (PL/SQL)
Declare
<declaration stmts>
Begin
<executable stmts>
[exception <exceptional stmts>]----- optional
End;
/---end of buffer
Example: 1
Create a file DBFOR.SQL, to execute the FOR loop and display the variable.
At SQL Prompt type, ed dbfor to open notepad and type the below program:
Program
declare
cnt number;
begin
dbms_output.put_line('This is a demo of FOR loop ');
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
for cnt in 1..5 loop
dbms_output.put_line('loop number ' || cnt);
end loop;
end;
/
set serveroutput off
OUTPUT:-
This ia a demo of FOR loop
loop number 1
loop number 2
loop number 3
loop number 4
loop number 5
PS:
For syntax:
For <var> in <start_num> .. <endnum> loop
<statement(s);>
End loop;
Example: 2
Create a file DBREVFOR.SQL, to execute the REVERSE FOR loop and
display the variable.
Program
begin
dbms_ouput.put_line(‘This is a demo of REVERSE FOR loop’);
for cnt in reverse 1..10 loop
if mod(cnt, 2) = 0 then
dbms_output.put_line(‘loop counter ‘ || cnt);
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
end if;
end loop;
end;
/
OUTPUT:-
This is a demo of REVERSE FOR loop
loop counter 10
loop counter 8
loop counter 6
loop counter 4
loop counter 2
PS:
If <condition> then
<action(s);>
Else
<action(s);>
End if;
If <condition> then
<action(s);>
Elsif <condition> then
<action(s);>
else
<action(s);>
End if;
Example: 3
Create a file DBLOOP.SQL, to execute the LOOP loop and display the
variable.
Program
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
set serveroutput on
declare
cnt number(2) := 0;
begin
dbms_ouput.put_line(‘This is a demo of LOOP loop’);
loop
cnt := cnt + 1;
exit when cnt > 10;
dbms_output.put_line(‘loop counter ‘ || cnt);
end loop;
end;
/
set serveroutput off
OUTPUT:-
This is the demo of LOOP loop
loop counter 1
loop counter 2
loop counter 3
loop counter 4
loop counter 5
loop counter 6
loop counter 7
loop counter 8
loop counter 9
loop counter 10
PS:
Loop syntax:
loop
<statement(s);>
Exit when <condition>;
End loop;
Example: 4
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
Create a file DBWHILE.SQL, to execute the WHILE loop and display the
variable.
Program
set serveroutput on
declare
cnt number(2) := 1;
begin
dbms_ouput.put_line(‘This is a demo of WHILE loop’);
while cnt <= 10
loop
dbms_output.put_line(‘loop counter: ‘ || to_char(cnt, ‘999’));
cnt := cnt + 1;
end loop;
end;
/
set serveroutput off
OUTPUT:-
This is a demo of WHILE loop
loop counter : 1
loop counter : 2
loop counter : 3
loop counter : 4
loop counter : 5
loop counter : 6
loop counter : 7
loop counter : 8
loop counter : 9
loop counter : 10
PS:
while syntax:
while <condition> loop
<statement(s);>
End loop;
Example: 4
Write a program EMPDATA.SQL, to retrieve the employee details of an
employee whose number is input by the user .
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
Program
-- PROGRAM TO RETRIEVE EMP DETAILS
set serveroutput on
OUTPUT:-
enter employee number:
13
old 9:where eno =&n;
employee details
Name:allen
basic:9500
desig:mech
PS:
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
Similarly you can use other SQL statements in the PL/SQL block
Exercises:
ANSWER:-
declare
n number(20):=123;
s number(13):=0;
d number(3):=1;
r number(3):=10;
begin
d:=mod(n,10);
s:=(s*r)+d;
n:=n/r;
end loop;
end;
OUTPUT:-
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
ANSWER:-
accept number n
declare
isum number(2):=0;
i number;
n number:=&n;
begin
isum:=isum+i;
end loop;
end;
OUTPUT:-
sum is 28
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
ANSWER:-
set serveroutput on
declare
area number(5);
rad number(3);
pi number(4):=3.14;
begin
area:=pi*rad*rad;
end loop;
end;
OUTPUT:-
area is :27
area is :48
area is :75
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
area is :108
area is :147
WEEK 9 (PL/SQL)
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
Example: 1
Create a file (NEWINS.SQL), to insert into a new table, NEWEMP, the
record of any employee whose number is input by the user.
1. Create the table NEWEMP <emp_no, emp_name, join_date, basic).
2. Open an editor and type the following program.
Program
prompt Enter Employee Number:
accept userno number
declare
dno number(4);
dname varchar2(30);
ddate date;
dbasic number(10);
begin
select emp_no, emp_name, join_date, basic
into dno, dname, ddate, dbasic
from emp
where emp_no = &userno;
if sql%rowcount > 0
then
insert into newemp
values (dno, dname, ddate, dbaisc);
end if;
end;
/
3. Save the file as NEWINS
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DataBaseManagementSystems LAB MANUAL
4. Execute the program as
SQL> start newins
Example: 2
Create a file (NEWINS2.SQL), to insert into a new table, NEWEMP, the
record of any employee whose number is input by the user. Also display on
the screen the employee details and to handle errors like user entering a
number which does not exist in the table.
Program
prompt Enter Employee Number:
accept userno number
declare
dno number(4);
dname varchar2(30);
ddate date;
dbasic number(10);
begin
select emp_no, emp_name, join_date, basic
into dno, dname, ddate, dbasic
from emp
where emp_no = &userno;
if sql%rowcount > 0
then
insert into newemp
values (dno, dname, ddate, dbasic);
exception
when no_data_found then
dbms_output.put_line (‘Record ‘ || &userno || ‘ does not exist’);
end;
/
Example: 3
Create a file (CALCTAX.SQL), to calculate tax for a specific employee and
display name and tax.
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Program
prompt Enter Employee Number:
accept userno number
declare
tot_basic number(10, 2);
tax number(10, 2);
name varchar2(30);
begin
select emp_name, basic
into name, tot_basic
from emp
where emp_no = &userno;
exception
when no_data_found then
dbms_output.put_line (‘Record ‘ || &userno || ‘ does not exist’);
end;
/
PS:
EXECPTIONS
When a program is executed certain errors are automatically recognized and
certain error situations must be recognized by the program itself. Errors in
general are referred to as Exceptions.
Exceptions can be either System defined or User defined.
Certain system exceptions raise the following flags:
CURSOR_ALREADY_OPEN – Displayed when the user tries to open a cursor
that is already open
DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX – when user tries to insert a duplicate value into a
unique column
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User defined exceptions must be declared in the declare section with the
reserved word, EXCEPTION.
Exercises:
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1) Write a PL/SQL code block that will accept an account number from
the user and debit an amount of RS2000 from the account. If the ac-
count has a minimum balance of 500 after amount is debited the
process should set a freeze on the account by setting the status to F.
(use table schema Accounts (acno, balance, status)
2) Write a PL/SQL block of code to achieve the following:
If the price of the product is >4000 then change the price to 4000. The
price change is to be recorded in the old price table along with product
number and date on which the price was last changed.
(use table schemas Product(pno, price) and Old_Price(pno,
date_of_change, oldprice)
WEEK 10 (PL/SQL)
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Example: 1
Create a PL/SQL program using cursors, to retrieve first tuple from the
department relation.
(use table dept(dno, dname, loc))
Program
declare
vdno dept.deptno%type;
vdname dept.dname%type;
vloc dept.loc%type;
cursor c1 is select * from dept;
or // cursor c1 is select * from dept where rowno = 1;
begin
open c1;
fetch c1
into vdno,vdname,vloc;
dbms_output.put_line('vdno = ' ||vdno|| ' vdname = '||vdname||' vloc
= '||vloc);
close c1;
end;
/
PS:
Cursors are used when the SQL select statement is expected to return more than
1 row.
A cursor must be declared and its definition contains a query and is defined in
the DECLARE section of the program.
A cursor must be opened before processing and closed after processing.
(Similar to how files are opened and closed in a C program).
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Example: 2
Create a PL/SQL program using cursors, to retrieve each tuple from the
department relation.
(use table dept(dno, dname, loc))
Program
declare
vdept dept%rowtype;
cursor c1 is select * from dept;
begin
for vdept in c1 loop
dbms_output.put_line('vdno = ' ||vdept.deptno|| ' vdname = '||
vdept.dname||' vloc = '||vdept.loc);
end loop;
end;
/
PS:
The cursor for loop can be used to process multiple records. The advantage of
cursor for loop is that the loop itself will open the cursor, read the records into
the cursor from the table until end of file and close the cursor.
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<STATEMENTs>
END LOOP;
Example: 3
Create a PL/SQL program using cursors, to display the number, name, salary
of the three highest paid employees.
(use table emp(empno, ename,sal))
Program
declare
no emp.empno%type;
name emp.ename%type;
salary emp.sal%type;
cursor c1 is select empno, ename, sal from emp order by sal desc;
begin
open c1;
loop
fetch c1 into no,name,salary;
exit when c1 %notfound;
exit when c1 %rowcount >3;
dbms_output.put_line(no||name||salary);
end loop;
close c1;
end;
/
PS:
Cursors Attributes:
There are 4 cursor attributes used to provide information on the status of a
cursor.
%NOTFOUND – To determine if a row was retrieved
Used after FETCH
NOTFOUND is TRUE if row is not retrieved
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Example: 4
Create a PL/SQL program using cursors, to delete the employees whose
salary is more than 3000.
Program
declare
vrec emp%rowtype;
cursor c1 is select * from emp where sal>3000 for update;
begin
open c1;
loop
fetch c1 into vrec;
exit when c1 %notfound;
delete from emp where current of c1;
dbms_output.put_line('Record deleted');
end loop;
close c1;
end;
/
PS:
In order to DELETE or UPDATE rows, the cursor must be defined with the
FOR UPDATE clause.
Example: 5
Create a PL/SQL program using cursors, to update the salary of each
employee by the avg salary if their salary is less than avg salary.
Program
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declare
vrec emp%rowtype;
avgsal number(10,2);
cursor c1 is select * from emp for update;
begin
select avg(sal) into avgsal from emp;
for vrec in c1 loop
if vrec.sal < avgsal then
vrec.sal := avgsal;
update emp set sal = vrec.sal where current of c1;
dbms_output.put_line('Record updated');
end if;
end loop;
end;
/
PS:
Variable Attributes:
%TYPE - is used in PL/SQL to declare a variable to be of the same type as a
previously declared variable or to be of the same type as a column in a table.
TOTBASIC SALARY.BASIC%TYPE;
will declare TOTBASIC of the same type as BASIC column from the table
SALARY.
Example: 6
Create a PL/SQL program using cursors, to insert into a table, NEWEMP,
the record of ALL MANAGERS. Also DISPLAY on the screen the NO,
NAME, JOIN_DATE. Handle any user defined exceptions.
(use table emp(emp_no, emp_name, join_date, desig))
Program
set serveroutput on
declare
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ctr number(2) := 2;
dno number(4);
dname varchar2(30);
ddate date;
cursor cur_mgr is
select emp_no, emp_name, join_date
from emp
where upper(desig) = ‘MGR’;
no_manager_found exception;
begin
open cur_mgr;
loop
fetch cur_mgr
into dno, dname, ddate;
end loop;
if cur_mgr%rowcount = 0
then
close cur_mgr;
raise no_manager_found;
end if;
exception
when no_manager_found then
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end;
/
Exercises:
1) Create a PL/SQL program using cursors, to insert into a table,
NEWEMP, for any designation input by the user from the keyboard.
Handle any user defined exceptions.
2) Code a program to calculate Tax for any employee whose number is in-
put from the keyboard. Display appropriate error message if data does
not exist in the table.
WEEK 11 (PL/SQL)
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Program
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE TOTSALES
(CID IN CSTMAST.CSTID%TYPE, SAL OUT NUMBER)
IS
id TRN.ITMID%TYPE;
qty TRN.TRNQTY%TYPE;
price ITMMAST.ITMPRICE%TYPE;
sales NUMBER(10, 2) := 0;
cursor cur_tr is
select trn.itmid, trnqty, itmprice
from trn, itmmast
where trn.cstid = cid
and trn.itmid = itmmast.itmid;
begin
open cur_tr;
loop
fetch cur_tr into id, qty, price;
if cur_tr%rowcount = 0
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then
raise_application_error(-20020, ‘ERREOR!!!THERE IS NO
DATA’);
end if;
exit when cur_tr%notfound;
sales := sales + qty * price;
end loop;
close cur_tr;
sal := sales;
end;
/
PS:
Procedural Objects
Groups of SQL and PL/SQL statements can be stored in the database. The code
stored once in the database can be used by multiple applications. Since the code
is in the database, which is in the server, processing is faster.
Procedures and functions are also referred to as sub-programs as they can take
parameters and be invoked.
Procedures:
Procedures are sub-programs, which will perform an action and functions are
subprograms that are generally coded to compute some value.
The clients execute the procedure or function and the processing is done in the
server.
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Procedures can receive and return values from and to the caller.
Communication is passed to a procedure through a parameter and
communication is passed out of a procedure through a parameter.
When calling a procedure, the parameters passed can be declared to be IN, OUT
or IN OUT.
The IN parameter is used to pass values to the procedure being called. It
behaves like a constant inside the procedure, i.e., cannot be assigned values
inside the procedure.
The OUT parameter is used to pass values out of a procedure to the caller of the
procedure. It behaves like a uninitialized variable inside the procedure.
The IN OUT parameter is used to pass values to the procedure being called and
it is used to pass values to the caller of the procedure. The IN OUT variable
behaves like a regular variable inside the procedure.
Functions:
Functions are also a collection of SQL and PL/SQL code which can return a
value to the caller.
Unlike procedures, functions can return a value to the caller. This value is
returned through the use of the RETURN keyword within the function. A
function can return a single value to the caller. Functions do not allow the OUT
and IN OUT arguments.
Packages:
Packages are groups of procedures, functions, variables and SQL statements in
a single unit.
It consists of the package definition/specification and package body.
A package specification consists of the list of functions, procedures, variables,
constants, cursors and exceptions that will be available to users of the package.
A package body consists of the PL/SQL blocks and specifications for all of the
public objects listed in the package specification. It may also include code that
is run every time the package is invoked, regardless of the part of the package
that is executed.
The name of the package body should be the same as the name of the package
specification.
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Example: 2
Code a function to return the square of a given number.
Program
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION SQR
(NO NUMBER)
RETURN NUMBER
IS
BEGIN
return no*no;
END;
/
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Example: 3
Code a function to return the net salary of a given employee.
Program
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION NETSAL
(id in salary.emp_no%type)
RETURN NUMBER
IS
netsal salary.basic%type;
BEGIN
select sum(basic) + sum(commission) – sum(deduction)
into netsal
from salary
where emp_no = id;
return (netsal);
end;
/
Example: 4
Code a package
Program
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE MAHEPACK
AS
function netsal
(id in salary.emp_no%type)
return number;
procedure tax
(id in salary.emp_no%type, tax out number);
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procedure totsales
(cid in cstmast.cstid%type, sal out number);
END;
/
Step 3: Save the above file and open the editor to create the package body
Program
procedure tax
(id in salary.emp_no%type, tax out number)
is
netsalary number(10, 2);
begin
netsalary := netsal(id);
if netsalary < 2000
then
tax := netsalary * 0.02;
elsif netsalary < 4000
then
tax := netsal * 0.04;
else
tax := netsalary * 0.01;
end if;
end;
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procedure totsales
(cid in cstmast.cstid%type, sal out number)
is
id TRN.ITMID%TYPE;
qty TRN.TRNQTY%TYPE;
price ITMMAST.ITMPRICE%TYPE;
sales NUMBER(10, 2) := 0;
cursor cur_tr is
select trn,itmid, trnqty, itmprice
from trn, itmmast
where trn.cstid = cid
and trn.itmid = itmmast.itmid;
begin
sales := 0;
open cur_tr;
loop
fetch cur_tr into id, qty, price;
if cur_tr%rowcount = 0
then
raise_application_error(-20020, ‘ERREOR!!!THERE
IS NO DATA’);
end if;
exit when cur_tr%notfound;
sales := sales + qty * price;
end loop;
close cur_tr;
sal := sales;
end;
END;
/
Step 4: Save the above file and to create the package, at SQL prompt type
SQL> start mpack
SQL> start mpackb
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Or
SQL> variable nsal number
SQL> execute :nsal := mahepack.netsal(1001)
SQL> print nsal
PS:
Show Errors:
SHOW ERRORS is used to display the line number and error of the most recent
compilation errors.
SQL> SHOW ERRORS
WEEK 12 (PL/SQL)
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Example: 1
Write a row trigger to insert the existing values of the salary table into a new
table when the salary table is updated.
(Salary < emp_no, basic, commission, deduction, salary_date, department>
Salaryaud < emp_no, basic, commission, deduction, salary_date, department>)
Program
CREATE TRIGGER UPDSAL
BEFORE UPDATE ON SALARY
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
insert intosalaryaud
values
(:old.emp_no, :old.basic, :old.commission, :old.deduction, :old.salary_date, :old
.department);
END
/
Step 5: To test the trigger, update values in salary table and see if data is
inserted in salaryaud table.
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Example: 2
Write a trigger to restrict the user from using the emp table on Tuesday.
Program
create or replace trigger tr2
before insert or update or delete
on emp
begin
if (rtrim(to_char(sysdate, 'day')) = 'tuesday')
then
raise_application_error(-20121, 'Cannot delete on Tuesday');
end if;
end;
/
Example: 3
Write a PL/SQL block of code that first inserts a record in an Emp table.
Update salaries of emp 1001 and emp 1002 by Rs 2000 and Rs 1500. Then
check to see that the total salary does not exceed Rs 20000. If total salary is
greater than Rs 20000 then undo the updates made to emp 1001 and emp
1002.
Program
DECLARE
total_sal number(9);
BEGIN
insert into emp
values (‘1009’, ‘Ram’, 1000);
SAVEPOINT no_update;
update emp
set sal = sal + 2000
where emp_id = 1001;
update emp
set sal = sal + 1500
where emp_id = 1002;
select sum(sal)
into total_sal
from emp;
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COMMIT;
END;
/
PS:
The above program first inserts a record into emp table. It then marks and saves
the current position in the transaction by using the SAVEPOINT. It updates the
salaries, if the salaries are exceeding 20000 it rollsback to the save point, ie
ignores the 2 updates and only commits the insert. If the salaries do not exceed
20000 then the insert and 2 updates are committed.
Example: 4
Write a PL/SQL code of block, to calculate the area of the circle for the
values of radius varying from 1 to 10. Store the odd radius values and the
corresponding areas in a table.
Program
declare
pi constant number(4,2) := 3.14;
radius number(5);
areaa number(14,2);
begin
radius := 1;
while radius <= 10 loop
areaa := pi*power(radius,2);
case
when radius = 1
then
insert into area values (radius, areaa);
when radius = 3
then
insert into area values (radius, areaa);
when radius = 53
then
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Other Examples:
INPUT:
SQL>Insert into prog values (‘kkk’,’05-may-56’);
RESULT: 1 row created.
INPUT:
SQL>Insert into prog20 values(‘Hema’,’25-sept-01’28-jan-85’,’f’,’c’,’c+
+’,’25000’);
RESULT: 1 row created.
INPUT:
SQL>Insert into prog values(‘&pname’,’&doj’);
SQL> Insert into prog values('&pname','&doj');
Enter value for pname: ravi
Enter value for doj: 15-june-81
RESULT:
old 1: Insert into prog values('&pname','&doj')
new 1: Insert into prog values('ravi','15-june-81')
1 row created.
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2. SQL - UPDATE
Syntax: UPDATE tablename SET column_name =value [ WHERE condition]
Examples:
UPDATE S SET CITY = ‘KANPUR’ WHERE SNO=‘S1’
UPDATE EMP SET SAL = 1.10 * SAL
SQL> update emp set sal=20000 where empno=7369;
1 row updated.
Syntax:
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INPUT:
SQL>commit;
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2. ROLLBACK
Undo work done (transactional).
Syntax:
ROLLBACK [WORK] [TO
[SAVEPOINT]'savepoint_text_identifier'];
INPUT:
SQL>rollback;
RESULT:Rollback complete.
3. SAVEPOINT
Save changes to a point (transactional).
Syntax:
SAVEPOINT text_identifier
Example:
UPDATE employees
SET salary = 95000
WHERE last_name = 'Smith';
SAVEPOINT justsmith;
UPDATE employees
SET salary = 1000000;
SAVEPOINT everyone;
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COMMIT;
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SQL>desc emp;
RESULT:
Name Null? Type
-------------------------------- ----------------------- -------------------------
EMPNO NOT NULL NUMBER(4)
ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
JOB VARCHAR2(9)
MGR NUMBER(4)
HIREDATE DATE
SAL NUMBER(7,2)
COMM NUMBER(7,2)
DEPTNO NUMBER(3)
AGE NUMBER(3)
ESAL NUMBER(10)
SQL>desc dept;
RESULT:
Name Null? Type
--------------------------------- --------------------- ---------------------------
DEPTNO NOT NULL NUMBER(2)
DNAME VARCHAR2(14)
LOC VARCHAR2(13)
RESULT:
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO
AGE ESAL
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4.List all employee names and their salaries, whose salary lies between
1500/- and 3500/- both inclusive.
INPUT
SQL>select ename from emp where sal between 1500 and 3500;
RESULT
ENAME
----------
ALLEN
JONES
BLAKE
CLARK
SCOTT
TURNER
FORD
russel
greg
9 rows selected.
5. List all employee names and their and their manager whose manager is
7902 or 7566 0r 7789.
INPUT SQL>select ename from emp where mgr in(7602,7566,7789);
RESULT
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ENAME
-------
SCOTT
FORD
6. List all employees which starts with either J or T.
INPUT SQL>select ename from emp where ename like ‘J%’ or ename like ‘T
%’;
RESULT:
ENAME
---------
JONES
TURNER
JAMES
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7. List all employee names and jobs, whose job title includes M or P.
INPUT SQL>select ename,job from emp where job like ‘M%’ or job like ‘P
%’;
RESULT:
ENAME JOB
---------- ---------
JONES MANAGER
BLAKE MANAGER
CLARK MANAGER
KING PRESIDENT
8. List all jobs available in employee table.
INPUT SQL>select distinct job from emp;
RESULT:
JOB
---------
ANALYST
CLERK
MANAGER
PRESIDENT
SALESMAN
assistant
clerk
7 rows selected.
9. List all employees who belongs to the department 10 or 20.
INPUT SQL>select ename from emp where deptno in (10,20);
RESULT:
ENAME
----------
SMITH
JONES
CLARK
SCOTT
KING
ADAMS
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FORD
MILLER
8 rows selected.
10. List all employee names , salary and 15% rise in salary.
INPUT SQL>select ename , sal , sal+0.15* sal from emp;
RESULT:
ENAME SAL SAL+0.15*SAL
---------- ---------- ------------
SMITH 800 920
ALLEN 1600 1840
WARD 1250 1437.5
JONES 2975 3421.25
MARTIN 1250 1437.5
BLAKE 2850 3277.5
CLARK 2450 2817.5
7 rows selected.
11. List minimum , maximum , average salaries of employee.
INPUT SQL>select min(sal),max(sal),avg(sal) from emp;
RESULT:
12. Find how many job titles are available in employee table.
INPUT SQL>select count (distinct job) from emp;
RESULT:
COUNT(DISTINCTJOB)
------------------
7
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14. Display all employee names and salary whose salary is greater than
minimum salary of the company and job title starts with ‘M’.
INPUT SQL>select ename,sal from emp where job like ‘M%’ and sal > (select
min (sal) from emp);
RESULT
ENAME SAL
---------- ----------
JONES 2975
BLAKE 2850
CLARK 2450
15. Find how much amount the company is spending towards salaries.
INPUT SQL>select sum (sal) from emp;
RESULT
SUM(SAL)
---------
32928
16. Display name of the dept. with deptno 20.
INPUT SQL>select ename from emp where deptno = 20;
RESULT
ENAME
----------
SMITH
JONES
SCOTT
ADAMS
17. List ename whose commission is NULL.
INPUT SQL>select ename from emp where comm is null;
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ENAME
RESULT ----------
CLARK
SCOTT
KING
ADAMS
JAMES
FORD
6 rows selected.
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ANALYST 6000
CLERK 23050
MANAGER 8275
PRESIDENT 5000
SALESMAN 5600
assistant 2200
clerk 2003
7 rows selected.
RESULT
PNAME SUM(SCOST)
-------------------- ----------
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john 12000
kamala 12000
raju 12333
3 rows selected.
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RESULT
PNAME COUNT(TITLE)
-------------------- ------------
john 1
kamala 1
raju 1
ramana 1
rani 1
5 rows selected.
6. Display the number of packages in each language for which the
development cost is less than thousand.
INPUT SQL>select devin, count(title) from software where dcost < 1000 group
by devin;
RESULT
DEVIN COUNT(TITLE)
---------- ------------
cobol 1
7. Display each institute name with number of students.
INPUT SQL>select splace, count(pname) from study group by splace;
RESULT
SPLACE COUNT(PNAME)
-------------------- ------------
BDPS 2
BITS 1
BNRILLIANI 1
COIT 1
HYD 1
5 rows selected.
RESULT
SOLD
---------
11
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14. Which language has been stated by the most of the programmers as
proficiency one?
INPUT SQL>select prof1, count(*) from programmer group by prof1 having
count (*) = (select max (count (*) ) from programmer group by prof1);
Writing Nested Queries.
To write queries using Set operations and to write nested queries.
Set Operations:
UNION - OR
INTERSECT - AND
EXCEPT - - NOT
NESTED QUERY:- A nested query makes use of another sub-query to
compute or retrieve the information.
1. Find the name of the institute in which the person studied and
developed the costliest package.
INPUT SQL>select splace, pname from study where pname = (select pname
from software where scost = (select max (scost) from software);
RESULT
SPLACE PNAME
------------ -------------
SAHBHARI MARY
2. Find the salary and institute of a person who developed the highest
selling package.
INPUT SQL> select study.pname, sal, splace from study, programmer where
study.pname = programmer.pname and study.pname = (select pname from
software where scost = (select max (scost) from software));
RESULT
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3. How many packages were developed by the person who developed the
cheapest package.
INPUT SQL>select pname, count (title) from software where dcost = (select
min(dcost) from software) group by pname;
RESULT
PNAME COUNT(TITLE)
------------- ----------------------
VIJAY 1
4. Calculate the amount to be recovered for those packages whose
development cost has not yet recovered.
INPUT SQL>select title , (dcost-scost) from software where dcost > scost;
5. Display the title, scost, dcost, difference of scost and dcost in the
descending order of difference.
INPUT SQL> select title, scost, dcost, (scost - dcost) from software descending
order by (scost-dcost);
6. Display the details of those who draw the same salary.
INPUT SQL> select p.pname, p.sal from programmer p, programmer t where
p.pname <> t.pname and p.sal = t.sal;(or)
INPUT SQL>select pname,sal from programmer t where pname<>t.pname and
sal= t.sal;
Writing Queries using functions.
AIM: To write queries using single row functions and group functions.
1. Display the names and dob of all programmers who were born in
january.
INPUT SQL>select pname , dob from programmer where to_char
(dob,’MON’)=’JAN’;
2. Calculate the experience in years of each programmer and display along
with programmer name in descending order.
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To write a PL/SQL block for inserting rows into EMPDET table with the
following Calculations:
HRA=50% OF BASIC
DA=20% OF BASIC
PF=7% OF BASIC
NETPAY=BASIC+DA+HRA-PF
INPUT
DECLARE
ENO1 empdet.eno%type;
ENAME1 empdet.name%type;
DEPTNO1 empdet.deptno%type;
BASIC1 empdet.basic%type;
HRA1 empdet.HRA%type;
DA1 empdet.DA%type;
PF1 empdet.pf%type;
NETPAY1 empdet.netpay%type;
BEGIN
ENO1:=&ENO1;
ENAME1:='&ENAME1';
DEPTNO1:=&DEPTNO1;
BASIC1:=&BASIC1;
HRA1:=(BASIC1*50)/100;
DA1:=(BASIC1*20)/100;
PF1:=(BASIC1*7)/100;
NETPAY1:=BASIC1+HRA1+DA1-PF1;
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RESULT:
SQL> @BASIC
Enter value for eno1: 104
old 11: ENO1:=&ENO1;
new 11: ENO1:=104;
Enter value for ename1: SRINIVAS REDDY
old 12: ENAME1:='&ENAME1';
new 12: ENAME1:='SRINIVAS REDDY';
Enter value for deptno1: 10
old 13: DEPTNO1:=&DEPTNO1;
new 13: DEPTNO1:=10;
Enter value for basic1: 6000
old 14: BASIC1:=&BASIC1;
new 14: BASIC1:=6000;
SQL>/
Enter value for eno1: 105
old 11: ENO1:=&ENO1;
new 11: ENO1:=105;
Enter value for ename1: CIRAJ
old 12: ENAME1:='&ENAME1';
new 12: ENAME1:='CIRAJ';
Enter value for deptno1: 10
old 13: DEPTNO1:=&DEPTNO1;
new 13: DEPTNO1:=10;
Enter value for basic1: 6000
old 14: BASIC1:=&BASIC1;
new 14: BASIC1:=6000;
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INPUT
DECLARE
num number(5);
rem number(5);
s number(5):=0;
num1 number(5);
BEGIN
num:=#
num1:=num;
while(num>0)
loop
rem:=mod(num,10);
s:=s+power(rem,3);
num:=trunc(num/10);
End loop;
if (s=num1)then
dbms_RESULT.put_line(num1||' IS ARMSTRONG NUMBER ');
else
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RESULT:
SQL>@arm
Enter value for num: 153
old 7: num:=#
new 7: num:=153;
153 IS ARMSTRONG NUMBER
SQL> /
Enter value for num: 123
old 7: num:=#
new 7: num:=123;
123 IS NOT ARMSTRONG NUMBER
INPUT
DECLARE
num number(5);
rem number;
BEGIN
num:=#
rem:=mod(num,2);
if rem=0
then
dbms_RESULT.put_line(' Number '||num||' is Even');
else
dbms_RESULT.put_line(' Number '||num||' is Odd');
end if;
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END;
RESULT:
SQL>start even
Enter value for num: 6
old 5: num:=#
new 5: num:=6;
Number 6 is Even
SQL> /
Enter value for num: 3
old 5: num:=#
new 5: num:=3;
Number 3 is Odd
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
INPUT
DECLARE
num number(5);
rem number(5);
sm number(5):=0;
num1 number(5);
BEGIN
num:=#
num1:=num;
while(num>0) loop
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rem:=mod(num,10);
sm:=sm+rem;
num:=trunc(num/10);
end loop;
dbms_RESULT.put_line('SUM OF DIGITS OF '||num1||' IS: '||sm);
end;
/
RESULT:
SQL> @sum
INPUT truncated to 2 characters
Enter value for num: 123
old 7: num:=#
new 7: num:=123;
SUM OF DIGITS OF 123 IS: 6
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
SQL> @sum
INPUT truncated to 2 characters
Enter value for num: 456
old 7: num:=#
new 7: num:=456;
SUM OF DIGITS OF 456 IS: 15
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
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DECLARE
num number(5);
f1 number(5):=0;
f2 number(5):=1;
f3 number(5);
i number(5):=3;
BEGIN
num:=#
dbms_RESULT.put_line('THE FIBONACCI SERIES IS:');
dbms_RESULT.put_line(f1);
dbms_RESULT.put_line(f2);
while(i<=num) loop
f3:=f1+f2;
dbms_RESULT.put_line(f3);
f1:=f2;
f2:=f3;
i:=i+1;
end loop;
END;
/
RESULT:
SQL> start fib
Enter value for num: 10
old 8: num:=#
new 8: num:=10;
THE FIBONACCI SERIES IS:
0
1
1
2
3
5
8
13
21
34
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
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INPUT
DECLARE
name1 varchar2(20);
name2 varchar2(20);
l number(5);
BEGIN
name1:='&name1';
l:=length(name1);
while l>0 loop
name2:=name2||substr(name1,l,1);
l:=l-1;
end loop;
dbms_RESULT.put_line('REVERSE OF STRING IS:'||NAME2);
if(name1=name2) then
dbms_RESULT.put_line(name1||' IS PALINDROME ');
else
dbms_RESULT.put_line(name1||' IS NOT PALINDROME ');
end if;
END;
/
RESULT
Enter value for name1: LIRIL
old 6: name1:='&name1';
new 6: name1:='LIRIL';
REVERSE OF STRING IS:LIRIL
LIRIL IS PALINDROME
SQL> /
Enter value for name1: MADAM
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old 6: name1:='&name1';
new 6: name1:='MADAM';
REVERSE OF STRING IS:MADAM
MADAM IS PALINDROME
INPUT
DECLARE
cursor c1 is select * from dept;
cursor c2 is select * from emp;
s emp.sal%type;
BEGIN
for i in c1 loop
s:=0;
dbms_RESULT.put_line('----------------------------------------------');
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Department is :' || i.deptno ||'
Department name is:' || i.dname);
dbms_RESULT.put_line('-------------------------------------------');
for j in c2 loop
if ( i.deptno=j.deptno) then
s:=s+j.sal;
dbms_RESULT.put_line(j.empno|| ' '|| j.ename || '
'|| j.sal );
end if;
end loop;
dbms_RESULT.put_line('----------------------------------------------');
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Total salary is: '|| s);
dbms_RESULT.put_line('----------------------------------------------');
end loop;
END;
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RESULT:
SQL> @abc
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Department is :10 Department name is : ACCOUNTING
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7782 CLARK 2450
7839 KING 5000
7934 MILLER 1300
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total salary is: 8750
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Department is :20 Department name is:RESEARCH
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7369 SMITH 800
7566 JONES 2975
7788 SCOTT 3000
7876 ADAMS 1100
7902 FORD 3000
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total salary is: 10875
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Department is :30 Department name is:SALES
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7499 ALLEN 1600
7521 WARD 1250
7654 MARTIN 1250
7698 BLAKE 2850
7844 TURNER 1500
7900 JAMES 950
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total salary is: 9400
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Department is :40 Department name is:OPERATIONS
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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INPUT
DECLARE
cursor c(jb varchar2) is select ename from emp where job=jb;
em emp.job%type;
BEGIN
open c('MANAGER');
dbms_RESULT.put_line(' EMPLOYEES WORKING AS MANAGERS
ARE:');
loop
fetch c into em;
exit when c%notfound;
dbms_RESULT.put_line(em);
end loop;
close c;
open c('ANALYST');
dbms_RESULT.put_line(' EMPLOYEES WORKING AS ANALYST
ARE:');
loop
fetch c into em;
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RESULT:
INPUT
DECLARE
cursor c is select empno, ename, deptno, sal from emp ;
i emp.empno%type;
j emp.ename%type;
k emp.deptno%type;
l emp.sal%type;
BEGIN
open c;
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Empno, name, deptno, salary of employees
are:= ');
loop
fetch c into i, j, k, l;
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RESULT:
SQL> @EMP
Empno,name,deptno,salary of employees are:=
7369 SMITH 20 800
7499 ALLEN 30 1600
7521 WARD 30 1250
7566 JONES 20 2975
7654 MARTIN 30 1250
7698 BLAKE 30 2850
7782 CLARK 10 2450
7788 SCOTT 20 3000
7839 KING 10 5000
7844 TURNER 30 1500
7876 ADAMS 20 1100
7900 JAMES 30 950
7902 FORD 20 3000
7934 MILLER 10 1300
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
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open c1(jb,d);
fetch c1 into row1.empno,row1.ename;
if c1%notfound then
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Employee does not exist');
else
dbms_RESULT.put_line('empno is:'||row1.empno||' ' ||'employee
name is:'||row1.ename);
end if;
END;
RESULT:
SQL> @CUR
Enter value for jb: MANAGER
old 7: jb:='&jb';
new 7: jb:='MANAGER';
Enter value for d: 20
old 8: d:=&d;
new 8: d:=20;
empno is:7566 employee name is:JONES
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
SQL> /
Enter value for jb: CLERK
old 7: jb:='&jb';
new 7: jb:='CLERK';
Enter value for d: 40
old 8: d:=&d;
new 8: d:=40;
Employee does not exist
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
INPUT
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DECLARE
a varchar2(20);
l number(5);
BEGIN
a:='&a';
l:=length(a);
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Using Lower Function:' || lower(a));
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Using UPPER Function:' || upper(a));
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Using Initcap Function:' || initcap(a));
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Using Substring Function:' || substr(a,l,1));
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Using Substring Function:' || substr(a,1,3));
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Using Ltrim function for xxxabcxxxx:' ||
ltrim('xxxabcxxxx','x'));
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Using Rtrim function for xxxabcxxxx:'||
rtrim('xxxabcxxxx','x'));
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Using Lpad function :'|| lpad(a,l+4,'*'));
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Using Rpad function :'|| rpad(a,l+4,'*'));
END;
RESULT:
SQL>@STR
Enter value for a: santosh reddy
old 5: a:='&a';
new 5: a:='santosh reddy';
Using Lower Function:santosh reddy
Using UPPER Function:SANTOSH REDDY
Using Initcap Function:Santosh Reddy
Using Substring Function:y
Using Substring Function:san
Using Ltrim function for xxxabcxxxx:abcxxxx
Using Rtrim function for xxxabcxxxx:xxxabc
Using Lpad function :****santosh reddy
Using Rpad function :santosh reddy****
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INPUT
CREATE OR RELPLACE TRIGGER trig1 before insert on dept for each row
DECLARE
a number;
BEGIN
if(:new.deptno is Null) then
raise_application_error(-20001,'error::deptno cannot be null');
else
select count(*) into a from dept where deptno=:new.deptno;
if(a=1) then
raise_application_error(-20002,'error:: cannot have duplicate
deptno');
end if;
end if;
END;
RESULT:
SQL> @trigger
Trigger created.
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ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20001: error::deptno cannot be null
ORA-06512: at "SCOTT.TRIG1", line 5
ORA-04088: error during execution of trigger 'SCOTT.TRIG1'
SQL> /
Enter value for deptnp: 10
Enter value for dname: manager
Enter value for loc: hyd
old 1: insert into dept values(&deptnp,'&dname','&loc')
new 1: insert into dept values(10,'manager','hyd')
insert into dept values(10,'manager','hyd')
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20002: error:: cannot have duplicate deptno
ORA-06512: at "SCOTT.TRIG1", line 9
ORA-04088: error during execution of trigger 'SCOTT.TRIG1'
SQL> /
Enter value for deptnp: 50
Enter value for dname: MARKETING
Enter value for loc: HYDERABAD
old 1: insert into dept values(&deptnp,'&dname','&loc')
new 1: insert into dept values(50,'MARKETING','HYDERABAD')
1 row created.
SQL> select * from dept;
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Locking Table.
AIM: To learn commands related to Table Locking
Syntax:
LOCK TABLE [schema.] table [options] IN lockmode
MODE [NOWAIT]
Options:
PARTITION (partition)
SUBPARTITION (subpartition)
@dblink
lockmodes:
EXCLUSIVE
SHARE
ROW EXCLUSIVE
SHARE ROW EXCLUSIVE
ROW SHARE* | SHARE UPDATE*
Several tables can be locked with a single command - separate with commas
Even when a row is locked you can always perform a SELECT (because
SELECT does not lock any rows) in addition to this, each type of lock will
allow additional locks to be granted as follows.
Although it is valid to place more than one lock on a row, UPDATES and
DELETE's may still cause a wait if a conflicting row lock is held by another
transaction.
Introduction
Use Form Builder to simplify for the creation of data-entry screens, also known
as Forms. Forms are the applications that connect to a database, retrieve
information requested by the user, present it in a layout specified by Form
designer, and allow the user to modify or add information. Form Builder allows
you to build forms quickly and easily.
In this Hands-On, you learn how to: Create a Data block for the “Customer”
table, Create a layout, Use “content” canvas, Use “execute query”, Navigate a
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table, Use next, previous record, Enter query, Manipulate table’s record, Insert,
Update, Delete and Save record.
Welcome window
You will get the ‘Welcome to the Form Builder’ window. If you don’t want to
get this window anymore uncheck the ‘Display at startup’ box. You can start
your work with any of the following options:
Use the data Block Wizard
Build a new form manually
Open an existing form
Build a form based on a template
The default is ‘Use the data Block Wizard.’ If you want to build a new form
manually, click on "Cancel” or check ‘Build a new form manually’ and click
‘OK.’
Connect to database
Notice that the box next to ‘Database Objects’ is not empty anymore and it has
a ‘+’ sign in it. That will indicate that this item is expandable and you are able
to see its entire objects.
Click on the ‘+’ sign next to the ‘Database Objects’ to expand all database
schemas.
Create a Module
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In the ‘Object Navigator’ window, highlight "Data Blocks,” and click on the
"create” icon. The ‘Create’ icon is in the vertical tool bar in the ‘Object
Navigator’ window. It is a green ‘+’ sign. If you drag your cursor on the icon a
tooltip will show ‘Create.’
In the ‘New Data Block’ window, choose the default option “Data Block
Wizard” and click "OK."
In the ‘Welcome Data Block Wizard’ window click on the “NEXT” icon.
Select the type of data block you would like to create by clicking on a radio
button. Select the default option ‘Table or View’ and then click “NEXT” again.
Selecting Tables
Click on “browse.” In the ‘Tables’ window, highlight the "cust11” table; then
click "OK."
To choose all columns, click on the two arrow signs in the ‘Data Block Wizard’
window. To choose selected columns, click on the one arrow sign. And then
select all columns, and click “next.”
Layout Wizard
End of the Data Block Wizard and beginning of the Layout Wizard
In the ‘Congratulations’ screen, use the default checkmark radio button (Create
the data block, then call the Layout Wizard), and click "Finish." You can also
use the Data Block Wizard to modify your existing data block. Simply select
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the data block in the Object Navigator and click the Data Block Wizard toolbar
button, or choose ‘Data Block wizard’ from the ‘Tools’ menu.
Welcome screen
Selecting canvas
In the ‘Layout Wizard’ window, select the "new canvas" option. Canvas is a
place that you will have your objects such as columns, titles, pictures, etc. If
you have already had your canvas, select the canvas and then click on the next.
The following are different types of canvases: Content, Stacked, Vertical
Toolbar, Horizontal Toolbar, and Tab.
Think of the ‘Content’ canvas as one flat place to have all your objects. In the
stacked canvas, you can have multiple layers of objects and it is the same as the
tab canvas. You use the vertical or horizontal toolbar canvases for your push
buttons. Check the different types of canvases by clicking on the ‘down arrow’
box next to the ‘Type’ field. Select "content," then click “Next.”
In the ‘Layout Wizard’ window, select all the columns. These are the columns
that you want to be displayed on the canvas. Then click “Next.”
Change size or prompt if needed. In this window, you can enter a prompt,
width, and height for each item on the canvas. You can change the
measurement units. As a default the default units for item width and height are
points. You can change it to inch or centimeter. When you change size, click
“Next.”
Select a layout style for your frame by clicking a radio button. Select "Form," if
you want one record at a time to be displayed. Select “Tabular,” if you want
more than one record at a time to be displayed. Select "Forms," and then click
“next.”
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Record layout
Type the "Frame Title" and click "next." Checkmark the ‘Display Scrollbar’
box when you use multiple records or the ‘Tabular’ option.
Congratulation Screen
The object module should be compiled successfully before executing the Form.
Execute Query
Click on the "Execute Query" icon below the main menu. If you drag the cursor
on the toolbar in the ‘Forms Runtime’ window, a tooltip will be displayed and
you see ‘Execute Query.’
So to know all your option, drag your cursor to view all the icon descriptions.
Next Record
Previous Record
Enter Query
Insert Record
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Click "Insert Record" to add new customer. All items on the forms will be
blanked. You can either type all the customer information or duplicate it from
pervious record.
Duplicate Record
To duplicate the previous record, go to the main menu and select the ‘Record’
sub-menu. A drop down menu will be displayed. Select the ‘Duplicate’ option
in the sub-menu.
Apply the changes. Remember in this stage, your record was inserted but not
committed yet.
Next and Previous Record
Click "next record" and "previous record" to navigate through the records and
the one was added.
Save transactions
Delete Record
Lock a Record
Exit the FORM Runtime. If you have not committed any transaction, you will
be prompted to save changes. Click “YES” to save changes.
Click “OK” for acknowledgement.
RABAD
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Object wizard
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Introduction
Tabular report shows data in a table format. It is similar in concept to the idea
of an Oracle table. Oracle, by default, returns output from your select statement
in tabular format.
Hands-on
In this Hands-On, your client is a stock broker that keeps track of its customer
stock transactions. You have been assigned to write the reports based on their
reports layout requirements.
Your client wants you to create a simple listing report to show list of the stock
trades by using stocks table for their brokerage company
You will learn how to: use report wizard, object navigator, report builder, “date
model”, property palette, work on query and group box, see report style, use
tabular style, navigating through report’s record, change the format mask for
dollar, numeric and date items.
Connect to database
In the Object Navigator, highlight "Database Objects,” choose "File," then
select the "Connect" option.
In the ‘Connect’ window, login as “iself” password schooling, then click
“CONNECT.”
Save a report
In the Object Navigator, highlight the "untitled" report, choose “File,” and
select the “Save as” option.
In the ‘Save as’ window, make sure to save the report in the ISELF folder and
name it "rpt01_stock_history,” report number 1 stock history.
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Data Model
In the Object Navigator, double click on the "Data Model" icon.
In the ‘SQL Query Statement’ window, write a query to read all the stocks
record sorted by their symbol.
(SQL Query Statement)
SELECT * FROM stocks
ORDER BY symbol
Click “OK.”
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Click “NEXT” to navigate to Totals tab, select the fields for which you would
like to calculate totals. We have none in this hands-on exercise.
Click “NEXT” to open the Labels tab, modify the labels and widths for your
fields and totals as desired.
Click “NEXT” again to go to the Template tab, and choose a template for your
report. Your report will inherit the template’s colors, fonts, line widths, and
structure.
Use the default template and click “finish.”
Running a report
Now, you should have your output report on the screen.
Resize an object
Maximize the output report and format the report layout. To resize an object ,
select it and drag its handler to the preferred size.
Move an object
To move an object, select and drag it while the cursor is on the object.
Use the “zoom in” and “zoom out” icon to preview the report.
Select the “traded today” column, and click on the ‘,0’ icon (apply commas),
and make it right justify.
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Also, you can change any attributes of field by opening its property palette. To
open an object’s property palette, right click on it and select the Property Palette
option.
Right click on the "trade date" column and open its "property palette."
Change the date "Format Mask" property and make it “year 2000 complaint
(MM-DD-RR).”
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Creating reports
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Syntax:
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grantee:
user
role
PUBLIC
system_privs:
CREATE SESSION - Allows user to connect to the
database
UNLIMITED TABLESPACE - Use an unlimited amount of
any tablespace.
SELECT ANY TABLE - Query tables, views, or mviews
in any schema
UPDATE ANY TABLE - Update rows in tables and views
in any schema
INSERT ANY TABLE - Insert rows into tables and
views in any schema
Also System Admin rights to CREATE, ALTER or DROP:
cluster, context, database, link, dimension,
directory, index,
materialized view, operator, outline, procedure,
profile, role,
rollback segment, sequence, session, synonym,
table, tablespace,
trigger, type, user, view. (full list of system privs)
object_privs:
SELECT, UPDATE, INSERT, DELETE, ALTER, DEBUG,
EXECUTE, INDEX, REFERENCES
roles:
SYSDBA, SYSOPER, OSDBA, OSOPER, EXP_FULL_DATABASE,
IMP_FULL_DATABASE
SELECT_CATALOG_ROLE, EXECUTE_CATALOG_ROLE,
DELETE_CATALOG_ROLE
AQ_USER_ROLE, AQ_ADMINISTRATOR_ROLE - advanced
queuing
SNMPAGENT - Enterprise Manager/Intelligent Agent.
RECOVERY_CATALOG_OWNER - rman
HS_ADMIN_ROLE - heterogeneous services
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Notes:
WITH HIERARCHY OPTION will grant the object privilege on all subobjects,
including any created after the GRANT statement is issued.
WITH GRANT OPTION will enable the grantee to grant those object privileges
to other users and roles.
Syntax:
Roles:
REVOKE role FROM {user, | role, |PUBLIC}
System Privs:
REVOKE system_priv(s) FROM {user, | role, |PUBLIC}
Object Privs:
REVOKE object_priv [(column1, column2..)] ON
[schema.]object
FROM {user, | role, |PUBLIC} [CASCADE
CONSTRAINTS] [FORCE]
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key:
object_privs
ALTER, DELETE, EXECUTE, INDEX, INSERT,
REFERENCES, SELECT, UPDATE, ALL PRIVILEGES
system_privs
ALTER ANY INDEX, BECOME USER, CREATE TABLE, DROP
ANY VIEW
RESTRICTED SESSION, UNLIMITED TABLESPACE, UPDATE
ANY TABLE
plus too many others to list here
roles
Standard Oracle roles -
SYSDBA, SYSOPER, OSDBA, OSOPER, EXP_FULL_DATABASE,
IMP_FULL_DATABASE
plus any user defined roles you have available
FORCE, will revoke all privileges from a user-defined-type and mark it's
dependent objects INVALID.
The roles CONNECT, RESOURCE and DBA are now deprecated (supported
only for backwards compatibility) unless you are still running Oracle 6.0
Error ORA-01927 "cannot REVOKE privileges you did not grant" - This
usually means you tried revoking permission from the table owner, e.g.
Oracle will not allow REVOKE select on USER1.Table1 from USER1 Owners
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of objects ALWAYS have full permissions on those objects. This is one reason
it makes sense to place tables in one schema and the packaged prodecures used
to access those tables in a separate schema.
REFERENCES:
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2. What is DBMS?
It is a collection of programs that enables user to create and maintain a
database. In other words it is general-purpose software that provides the users
with the processes of defining, constructing and manipulating the database for
various applications.
4. Advantages of DBMS?
Ø Redundancy is controlled.
Ø Unauthorised access is restricted.
Ø Providing multiple user interfaces.
Ø Enforcing integrity constraints.
Ø Providing backup and recovery.
Ø Referential Integrity: States that “Foreign Key can be either a NULL value or
should be Primary Key value of other relation.
10. How is the data structure of System R different from the relational
structure?
Unlike Relational systems in System R
Ø Domains are not supported
Ø Enforcement of candidate key uniqueness is optional
Ø Enforcement of entity integrity is optional
Ø Referential integrity is not enforced
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54. What are partial, alternate,, artificial, compound and natural key?
Partial Key:
It is a set of attributes that can uniquely identify weak entities and that are
related to same owner entity. It is sometime called as Discriminator.
Alternate Key:
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All Candidate Keys excluding the Primary Key are known as Alternate Keys.
Artificial Key:
If no obvious key, either stand alone or compound is available, then the last
resort is to simply create a key, by assigning a unique number to each record or
occurrence. Then this is known as developing an artificial key.
Compound Key:
If no single data element uniquely identifies occurrences within a construct,
then combining multiple elements to create a unique identifier for the construct
is known as creating a compound key.
Natural Key:
When one of the data elements stored within a construct is utilized as the
primary key, then it is called the natural key.
55. What is indexing and what are the different kinds of indexing?
Indexing is a technique for determining how quickly specific data can be found.
Types:
Ø Binary search style indexing
Ø B-Tree indexing
Ø Inverted list indexing
Ø Memory resident table
Ø Table indexing
56. What is system catalog or catalog relation? How is better known as?
A RDBMS maintains a description of all the data that it contains, information
about every relation and index that it contains. This information is stored in a
collection of relations maintained by the system called metadata. It is also
called data dictionary.
57. What is meant by query optimization?
The phase that identifies an efficient execution plan for evaluating a query that
has the least estimated cost is referred to as query optimization.
of inclusion dependency.
Network schema uses a graph data structure to organize records example for
such a database management system is CTCG while a hierarchical schema uses
a tree data structure example for such a system is IMS.
69. What are the primitive operations common to all record management
systems?
Addition, deletion and modification.
70. Name the buffer in which all the commands that are typed in are stored
‘Edit’ Buffer
72. Are the resulting relations of PRODUCT and JOIN operation the
same?
No.
PRODUCT: Concatenation of every row in one relation with every row in
another.
JOIN: Concatenation of rows from one relation and related rows from another.
software, and the data dictionary, which consists of the system-level data
structures used by the kernel to manage the database
You might think of an RDBMS as an operating system (or set of subsystems),
designed specifically for controlling data access; its primary functions are
storing, retrieving, and securing data. An RDBMS maintains its own list of
authorized users and their associated privileges; manages memory caches and
paging; controls locking for concurrent resource usage; dispatches and
schedules user requests; and manages space usage within its table-space
structures.
75. Which part of the RDBMS takes care of the data dictionary? How
Data dictionary is a set of tables and database objects that is stored in a special
area of the database and maintained exclusively by the kernel.
78. Define SQL and state the differences between SQL and other
conventional programming Languages
SQL is a nonprocedural language that is designed specifically for data access
operations on normalized relational database structures. The primary difference
between SQL and other conventional programming languages is that SQL
statements specify what data operations should be performed rather than how to
perform them.
79. Name the three major set of files on disk that compose a database in
Oracle
There are three major sets of files on disk that compose a database. All the files
are binary. These are
Ø Database files
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Ø Control files
Ø Redo logs
The most important of these are the database files where the actual data resides.
The control files and the redo logs support the functioning of the architecture
itself.
All three sets of files must be present, open, and available to Oracle for any data
on the database to be useable. Without these files, you cannot access the
database, and the database administrator might have to recover some or all of
the database using a backup, if there is one.
81. What are the four Oracle system processes that must always be up and
running for the database to be useable
The four Oracle system processes that must always be up and running for the
database to be useable include DBWR (Database Writer), LGWR (Log Writer),
SMON (System Monitor), and PMON (Process Monitor).
82. What are database files, control files and log files. How many of these
files should a database have at least? Why?
Database Files
The database files hold the actual data and are typically the largest in size.
Depending on their sizes, the tables (and other objects) for all the user accounts
can go in one database file—but that's not an ideal situation because it does not
make the database structure very flexible for controlling access to storage for
different users, putting the database on different disk drives, or backing up and
restoring just part of the database.
You must have at least one database file but usually, more than one files are
used. In terms of accessing and using the data in the tables and other objects,
the number (or location) of the files is immaterial.
The database files are fixed in size and never grow bigger than the size at which
they were created Control Files
The control files and redo logs support the rest of the architecture. Any database
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must have at least one control file, although you typically have more than one to
guard against loss. The control file records the name of the database, the date
and time it was created, the location of the database and redo logs, and the
synchronization information to ensure that all three sets of files are always in
step. Every time you add a new database or redo log file to the database, the
information is recorded in the control files.
Redo Logs
Any database must have at least two redo logs. These are the journals for the
database; the redo logs record all changes to the user objects or system objects.
If any type of failure occurs, the changes recorded in the redo logs can be used
to bring the database to a consistent state without losing any committed
transactions. In the case of non-data loss failure, Oracle can apply the
information in the redo logs automatically without intervention from the DBA.
The redo log files are fixed in size and never grow dynamically from the size at
which they were created.
files.
86. Name two utilities that Oracle provides, which are use for backup and
recovery.
Along with the RDBMS software, Oracle provides two utilities that you can use
to back up and restore the database. These utilities are Export and Import.
The Export utility dumps the definitions and data for the specified part of the
database to an operating system binary file. The Import utility reads the file
produced by an export, recreates the definitions of objects, and inserts the data
If Export and Import are used as a means of backing up and recovering the
database, all the changes made to the database cannot be recovered since the
export was performed. The best you can do is recover the database to the time
when the export was last performed.
87. What are stored-procedures? And what are the advantages of using
them.
Stored procedures are database objects that perform a user defined operation. A
stored procedure can have a set of compound SQL statements. A stored
procedure executes the SQL commands and returns the result to the client.
Stored procedures are used to reduce network traffic.
88. How are exceptions handled in PL/SQL? Give some of the internal
exceptions' name
PL/SQL exception handling is a mechanism for dealing with run-time errors
encountered during procedure execution. Use of this mechanism enables
execution to continue if the error is not severe enough to cause procedure
termination.
The exception handler must be defined within a subprogram specification.
Errors cause the program to raise an exception with a transfer of control to the
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TOO_MANY_ROWS ORA-01422
TRANSACTION_BACKED_OUT ORA-00061
VALUE_ERROR ORA-06502
ZERO_DIVIDE ORA-01476
(a) i & iii because theta joins are joins made on keys that are not primary keys.
a) is in 1NF
b) is in 2NF
c) is in 3NF
d) is in BCNF
(d) Error - the ORDER BY clause. Since ORDER BY clause cannot be used in
UNIONS
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103. What is cold backup and hot backup (in case of Oracle)?
Ø Cold Backup:
It is copying the three sets of files (database files, redo logs, and control file)
when the instance is shut down. This is a straight file copy, usually from the
disk directly to tape. You must shut down the instance to guarantee a consistent
copy.
If a cold backup is performed, the only option available in the event of data file
loss is restoring all the files from the latest backup. All work performed on the
database since the last backup is lost.
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Ø Hot Backup:
Some sites (such as worldwide airline reservations systems) cannot shut down
the database while making a backup copy of the files. The cold backup is not an
available option.
So different means of backing up database must be used — the hot backup.
Issue a SQL command to indicate to Oracle, on a tablespace-by-tablespace
basis, that the files of the tablespace are to backed up. The users can continue to
make full use of the files, including making changes to the data. Once the user
has indicated that he/she wants to back up the tablespace files, he/she can use
the operating system to copy those files to the desired backup destination.
The database must be running in ARCHIVELOG mode for the hot backup
option.
If a data loss failure does occur, the lost database files can be restored using the
hot backup and the online and offline redo logs created since the backup was
done. The database is restored to the most consistent state without any loss of
committed transactions.
104. What are Armstrong rules? How do we say that they are complete
and/or sound
The well-known inference rules for FDs
Ø Reflexive rule :
If Y is subset or equal to X then X Y.
Ø Augmentation rule:
If X Y then XZ YZ.
Ø Transitive rule:
If {X Y, Y Z} then X Z.
Ø Decomposition rule :
If X YZ then X Y.
Ø Union or Additive rule:
If {X Y, X Z} then X YZ.
Ø Pseudo Transitive rule :
If {X Y, WY Z} then WX Z.
Of these the first three are known as Amstrong Rules. They are sound because it
is enough if a set of FDs satisfy these three. They are called complete because
using these three rules we can generate the rest all inference rules.
105. How can you find the minimal key of relational schema?
Minimal key is one which can identify each tuple of the given relation schema
uniquely. For finding the minimal key it is required to find the closure that is
the set of all attributes that are dependent on any given set of attributes under
the given set of functional dependency.
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