DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING,

UNIVERSITY OF ABUJA, ABUJA

COURSE CODE: CHE 512 (C) (2 CREDITS)

COURSE TITLE: PROCESS CONTROL I

COURSE SYNOPSIS:

Process dynamics, transfer functions, frequency response analysis, control system

design, cascade control, feed forward and feed backward control, control tuning,
control valve, introduction to multi-variable control.

LECTURE MATERIAL: PART I

INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS CONTROL

All processes are subject to disturbances that tend to change operating conditions,
compositions, and physical properties of the streams in a chemical process. In order
to minimize the ill effects that could result from such disturbances, chemical plants
are implemented with substantial amounts of instrumentation and automatic control
equipment (Control systems). In critical cases and in especially large plants, the
instrumentation is computer monitored for convenience, safety, and optimization.

In order for a process to be controllable by a machine, it must be represented by a

mathematical model. Ideally, each element of a dynamic process, for example, a
reflux drum or an individual tray of a fractionator, is represented by differential
equations based on material and energy balances, transfer rates, stage efficiencies,
phase equilibrium relations, etc., as well as the parameters of sensing devices,
control valves, and control instruments. The process as a whole then is equivalent to
a system of ordinary and partial differential equations involving certain independent

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and dependent variables. When the values of the independent variables are specified
or measured, corresponding values of the others are found by computation, and the
information is transmitted to the control instruments. For example, if the
temperature, composition, and flow rate of the feed to a fractionator are perturbed,
the computer will determine the other flows and the heat balance required to
maintain constant overhead purity. Economic factors also can be incorporated into
process models; then the computer can be made to optimize the operation
continually.

As a consequence of global competition, rapidly changing economic conditions, and

stringent environmental and safety regulations, process control has become
increasingly important in the process industries. It is also clear that the scope and
importance of process control technology will continue to expand. Consequently,
chemical engineers need to master this subject in order to be able to design
and operate modern plants.

PROCESS CONTROL

Learning objectives

After completing this section, you will be able to:

1. Define process
2. Define process control
3. Describe the purpose, objectives, need, and significance/importance of
process control in processing industries in terms of variability, efficiency, and
safety

PROCESS

A process is any operation or series of operations that transforms inputs (raw

materials, energy, information) into desired outputs (finished goods, services, or
data). In general, a process consists of an assembly of equipment and material that
is related to some manufacturing operation or sequence.

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 The raw materials, which either pass through or remain in a liquid, gaseous, or
slurry (a mix of solids and liquids) state during the process, are transferred,
measured, mixed, heated or cooled, filtered, stored, or handled in some other
way to produce the end product.
Process industries include the chemical industry, the oil and gas industry, the
food and beverage industry, the pharmaceutical industry, the water
treatment industry, the power industry, etc.

In Figure 1 for instance, the process whose liquid level is placed under control
includes such components as a tank, the liquid in the tank, the flow of liquid into and
out of the tank, and the inlet and outlet piping. Any given process can involve many
dynamic variables, and it may be desirable to control all of them. In most cases,
however, controlling only one variable will be sufficient to control the process to
within acceptable limits. One occasionally encounters a multivariable process in which
many variables, some interrelated, require regulation.

Figure 1: Schematic of Liquid-level control of a Process

PROCESS VARIABLES AND CLASSIFICATION IN A CHEMICAL PROCESS.

PROCESS VARIABLE (PV): A process variable is a measurable physical or chemical

quantity (property or parameters) within a system that is monitored and controlled
in industrial processes (such as a water, wastewater, or industrial treatment plant).

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It represents the key factors that influence the performance and output of a
process, and keeping these variables within desired ranges is essential for
efficiency, quality, and safety. Common process variables are flow, level, pressure,
temperature, composition, etc.

The parameters or quantities that we wish to control at the correct limit are called
Process Variables. A variable is something that can vary or change. Because process
variables can and do change, instrumentation systems measure the variable and then
control the variable to keep the variable within the given limits. Instruments are
used to monitor and control a process variable to keep it within the correct limit.

Pressure, Temperature, and Flow are the main three process variables in industries.
The level is another process variable in industries. Process variables such as flow
rates, level, pressure, temperature, concentration etc. associated with a chemical
process for instance can be divided into two groups, namely

1. Input variables, which denote the effect of the surroundings on a chemical

process can be define as the factors or parameters introduced into a process or
system to influence its operation or behaviour. This variable shows the effect
of the surroundings on the process. It normally refers to those factors that
influence the process. Inputs may change continuously or at discrete intervals
of time. An example of this would be the flow rate of the steam through a heat
exchanger that would change the amount of energy put into the process. There
are effects of the surrounding that are controllable and some that are not. This
type of variable is sub-divided into two types:

a. Manipulated inputs: variables in the surroundings that can be controlled by

an operator or the control system in place.

b. Disturbances: inputs that cannot be controlled by an operator or control

system. There exist measurable and unmeasurable disturbances.

2. Output variables, which denote the effect of the process on the surroundings.
which denote the effect of the process on the surroundings. Also known as the
control variable. They are the measurable results or responses of a process or

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 system. They represent the system's performance or the effect of the input
variables. Also known as the control variable. These are the variables that are
process outputs that affect the surroundings. An example of this would be the
amount of CO2 gas that comes out of a combustion reaction. These variables
may or may not be measured. The output variables can also be sub-divided into
the following categories:

a. Measured output variables, if their values are known by directly measuring

them, and

b. Unmeasured output variables, if they are not or cannot be measured directly.

For example, for the stirred tank heater discussed in figure 4, we have Fi, Ti, Fst (F)
as input variables and F, V, T as output variables. On the other hand, the inputs Fi
and Ti are disturbances, while Fst and F are manipulated inputs. The output variables
V and T can be measured easily and they are considered measured outputs.

CONTROLLED VARIABLES (CV): Controlled variables in process control are the

process parameters or outputs that the control system aims to maintain at a desired
value or setpoint. These variables are the primary focus of the control system and
are typically measured using sensors to provide feedback for corrective actions.

A control variable is any variable that's held constant in a research study. It's not
a variable of interest in the study, but it's controlled because it could influence the
outcomes. Flow rates, compositions, temperatures, levels, and pressures in the
process that we will try to control, either trying to hold them as constant as possible
or trying to make them follow some desired time trajectories are good examples of
controlled variables.

MANIPULATED VARIABLES (MV): It is a specific type of input variable in a control

system that is actively adjusted by the controller to influence the system and
maintain the desired behavior or achieve a specific output. It is directly controlled
to regulate the process variable at its desired setpoint.

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The manipulated variable is controlled by the process operator or control system,
that is, the variable to be manipulated, in order to have control over the process
variable (PV). If we control a particular flow, for instance, we manipulate a valve to
control the flow. Here, the valve position is called the manipulated variable, and the
measured flow becomes the process variable.

UNCONTROLLED VARIABLES: Variables in the process that are not controlled. An

uncontrolled variable is a variable within a process that affects the system's
performance but is not directly adjusted or manipulated by the control system.
These variables, also known as disturbance variables, can introduce changes to the
process, often requiring the control system to compensate for their effects to
maintain stability and achieve the desired output.

LOAD DISTURBANCES: A disturbance variable (or load disturbance) is an external

or internal factor that affects a process but cannot be directly controlled by the
system. It introduces deviations in the process's performance, causing the
controlled variable (e.g., temperature, pressure, flow, etc.) to deviate from its
desired setpoint. These disturbances can arise from environmental changes, system
dynamics, or operational variations.

This represents variables that drive the process away from its desired behaviour.
A disturbance in process control is an input variable that affects
the process outputs but that cannot be adjusted by the control system.

A disturbance variable may be a change in the outside air temperature or a change

in indoor temperature due to a door opening. Examples of load disturbances include
Flow rates, temperatures, or compositions of streams entering (but sometimes
leaving) the process. We are not free to manipulate them. They are set by upstream
or downstream parts of the plant. The control system must be able to keep the plant
under control despite the effects of these disturbances. According to their direct
measurability, the disturbances are classified into two categories, namely; measured
and unmeasured disturbances.

For instance, the disturbances Fi and Ti of the stirred tank heater (in Figure 4) are
easily measured; thus, they are considered measured disturbances. On the other
hand, the feed composition for a distillation column, an extraction unit, reactors, and

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the like, is not normally measured (not easy to measure) and consequently is
considered an unmeasured disturbance. It should be noted that unmeasured
disturbances generate difficult control problems.

Figure 2a, b summarizes all the classes of variables that we have around a chemical
process.

Figure 2a: Input and output variables around a chemical process

Figure 2b: General representation of a control problem.

SUMMARY ON SELECTION OF CONTROLLED VARIABLES

Suggestion 1: All variables that are not self-regulating must be controlled.

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Suggestion 2: Choose output variables that must be kept within equipment and
operating constraints (e.g., temperatures, pressures, and compositions).

Suggestion 3: Select output variables that are a direct measure of product quality
(e.g., composition, refractive index) or that strongly affect it (e.g., temperature or
pressure).

Suggestion 4: Choose output variables that seriously interact with other controlled
variables.

Suggestion 5: Choose output variables that have favorable dynamic and static
characteristics.

SUMMARY ON SELECTION OF MANIPULATED VARIABLES

Suggestion 1: Select inputs that have large effects on controlled variables.

Suggestion 2: Choose inputs that rapidly affect the controlled variables.

Suggestion 3: The manipulated variables should affect the controlled variables

directly rather than indirectly.

Suggestion 4: Avoid recycling of disturbances

SUMMARY ON SELECTION OF MEASURED VARIABLES

Suggestion 1: Reliable, accurate measurements are essential for good control.

Suggestion 2: Select measurement points that have an adequate degree of

sensitivity.

Suggestion 3: Select measurement points that minimize time delays and time
constants

A chemical plant as earlier defined, is an arrangement of processing units (reactors,

heat exchangers, pumps, distillation columns, absorbers, evaporators, mixing or
storage tanks, etc.), integrated with each other in a systematic and rational manner,

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with the overall objective of converting certain raw materials (input feedstock) into
desired products using available sources of energy, in the most economical way.

However, during the chemical plant operation, certain requirements imposed by the
designer and the general technicality, economic and social conditions must be
satisfied in the presence of ever-changing external influences commonly referred
to as disturbances.

Among such requirements normally imposed and that warranted proper, adequate
monitoring, and control for the attainment of desired products are:

Safety, Production specification, Environmental regulations, Operational

constraints, and Economics. Others may include Stronger competition, highly
integrated Plants, and Strict quality control

1. Safety: The safe operation of a chemical process is a primary requirement, for

the well-being of the people in the plant and its continued contribution to
economic development. Thus, the operating pressures, temperatures,
concentration of chemicals, etc. should always be within allowable limits. For
example, if a reactor has been designed to operate at a pressure of up to 100
psig, we should have a control system that will maintain the pressure below this
value.
2. Production specifications: The plant should produce the desired amounts and
quality of the final products. For example, we may require the production of two
million pounds of ethylene per day, of 99.5% purity, from an ethylene plant.
Therefore, a control system is needed to ensure that the production level (2
million pounds per day) and the purity specifications (99.5% ethylene) are
satisfied.
3. Environmental regulations: Various federal and state laws may specify that the
temperatures, concentrations of chemicals and flow rates of the effluents from
a plant be within certain limits. Such regulations for example exist on the
amounts of SO2 that a plant can eject into the atmosphere, and the quality of
water returned to a river or a lake.
4. Operational constraints: The various types of equipment used in a chemical
plant have constraints inherent to their operation. Such constraints should be

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 satisfied throughout the operation of a plant. For example, pumps must maintain
a certain net positive suction head; tanks should not overflow or go dry;
distillation columns should not be flooded: the temperature in a catalytic reactor
should not exceed an upper limit since the catalyst will be destroyed. Control
systems are needed to satisfy all these operational constraints.
5. Economics: The operation of a plant must conform to the market conditions, i.e.,
the availability of raw materials and the demand for the final products.
Furthermore, it should be as economical as possible in its utilization of raw
materials, energy, capital and human labour. Thus, it is required that the
operating conditions are controlled at given optimum levels of minimum operating
cost, maximum profit; etc.

Since these requirements must be satisfied, then there is a need for continuous
monitoring of the operation of a chemical plant and external intervention (control)
to guarantee the satisfaction of the operational objectives. This can be actualized
through a rational arrangement of various equipment (measuring devices, valves,
controllers, computers) and human intervention (plant designers, plant operators),
which constitutes the control system.

PROCESS CONTROL

Process control refers to the methods and systems used to manage, monitor,
and regulate processes in various industries to ensure they operate efficiently,
safely, and within desired parameters. It is critical in industries like
manufacturing, chemical processing, oil and gas, pharmaceuticals, and more.

In simple term, process control could be described as a method for improving and
controlling a process with the help of statistical analysis or as the study and
application of automatic control in the field of Engineering (be it chemical, electrical,
mechanical etc.). Generally, Process control is the ability to monitor and adjust a
process to give a desired output.

Process control is an important tool that is implemented in several industries (as

earlier listed) in order to achieve a safe, economical and consistent production level
that is not possible just with manual control by humans.

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An example of a simple process that is controlled is keeping the temperature of a
room at a certain temperature using a heater and a thermostat. The term process
automation is essentially synonymous with process control.

PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES OF PROCESS CONTROL (A CONTROL SYSTEM)

PURPOSE:

The purpose of a control system is to maintain important process characteristics

(such as physical parameters like temperatures, pressures, concentrations, flow
rates, etc.; throughput, quality, yield, energy efficiency, safety and profitability) at
desired targets despite the effects of external perturbations. That is, to make
sure industrial processes are carried out safely, efficiently, consistently, and
profitably with as little variation as possible despite the effects of various possible
disturbances.

Figure 3 depicts the purpose of process control

Figure 3: Schematic of the purpose of process control.

OBJECTIVES:

The objectives of process control are generally to maintain a process at a desired,

constant operating condition (temperature, pressure, composition, etc.) in the face
of disturbances.

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In another word, the main objective of process control is to control the physical
parameters of the process that may include temperature, pressure, and flow rate
because of the effects of ever present internal and external disturbances.

The primary objective of process control is to maintain a process at a defined

desired constant operating condition (temperature, pressure, composition, etc.),
safely and efficiently, while satisfying environmental and product quality
requirements in the face of disturbances.

Generally, a control system is required to perform either one or both tasks:

1. Maintain the process at the operational conditions and set points:

Many processes should work at steady state conditions or in a state in which it

satisfies all the benefits for a company such as budget, yield, safety, and other
quality objectives. In many real-life situations, a process may not always remain
static under these conditions and therefore can cause substantial losses to the
process. One of the ways a process can wander away from these conditions is by the
system becoming unstable, meaning process variables oscillate from its physical
boundaries over a limited time span. An example of this could be a water tank in a
heating and cooling process without any drainage and is constantly filled with water.
The water level in the tank will continue to rise and eventually overflow. This
uncontrolled system can be controlled simply by adding control valves and level
sensors in the tank that can tell the engineer or technician the level of water in the
tank. Another way a process can stray away from steady state conditions can be due
to various changes in the environmental conditions, such as composition of a feed,
temperature conditions, or flow rate.

2. Transition the process from one operational condition to another

In real-life situations, engineers may change the process operating conditions for a
variety of different reasons, such as customer specifications or environment
specifications. Although, transitioning a process from one operational condition to
another can be detrimental to a process; it also can be beneficial depending on the
company and consumer demands.

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Examples of why a process may be moved from one operational set point to
another: Economics, Product specifications, Operational constraints, Environmental
regulations, and Consumer/Customer specifications.

Common objectives of process control:

Generally, there are three common basic objectives of a control system:

1. Suppress the influence of external disturbances: Eliminating, minimizing,

monitoring and controlling of the influence of external disturbances on a
process will ensure smooth, safe and stable operation
2. Stability: Ensuring that the system operates in a stable manner without
excessive oscillations or instability.
3. Optimizing the performance: and ensure cost effectiveness: Achieving the
desired level of accuracy and precision, as well as reacting to changes or
disturbances in the system quickly and effectively helps in controlling the
system's output and to maintain the desired performance. Optimizing the
performance also helps to attain the most cost-effective production.

These objectives are fundamental to designing and implementing effective control

systems in various applications, such as industrial processes, automation, and
robotics.

THE NEED FOR PROCESS CONTROL

It can be worthwhile thinking about why process control is needed. Highlighted below
are some selected reasons why process control is provided in a process plant:

1. Stabilizing the process- Many processes have integrating or unstable modes.

These have to be stabilized by feedback control; otherwise, the plant will
(sooner or later) drift into unacceptable operating conditions. In the vast
majority of cases, this stabilization is provided by automatic feedback control.
Note that in practice, "feedback stabilization" of some process variable may be
necessary even though the variable in question is asymptotically stable according
to the control engineering definition of stability.

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2. Regularity- Even if a process is stable, control is needed to avoid shutdowns due
to unacceptable operating conditions. Such shutdowns may be initiated
automatically by a shutdown system, but may also be caused by outright
equipment failure.

3. Minimizing effects on the environment- In addition to maintaining safe and

stable production, the control system should also ensure that any harmful
effects on the environment are minimized. This is done by optimizing the
conversion of raw materials, and by maintaining conditions that minimize the
production of any harmful by-products.

4. Obtaining the right product quality- Control is often needed to achieve the
right product quality, and reduce quality variations.

5. Achieving the right production rate- Control is used for achieving the right
production rate in a plant. Ideally, it should be possible to adjust the production
rate at one point in the process, and the control system should automatically
adjust the throughput of up or downstream units accordingly.

6. Optimize process operation- When a process achieves safe and stable

operation, with little downtime, and produces the right quality of product at the
desired production rate, the next task is to optimize the production. The
objective of the optimization is normally to achieve the most cost-effective
production. This involves identifying, tracking, and maintaining the optimal
operating conditions in the face of disturbances in production rate, raw material
composition, and ambient conditions (e.g., atmospheric temperature). Process
optimization often involves close coordination of several process units, and
operation close to process constraints.

THE REASONS WHY MANUFACTURERS NEED TO CONTROL PROCESSES

Generally, the reasons why manufacturers need to control processes may include

To increase labour productivity

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 To reduce labour costs.
To mitigate the effects of labour shortages.
To reduce or eliminate routine manual and clerical tasks.
To improve worker safety.
To improve product quality.
To reduce manufacturing lead time.
To accomplish processes that cannot be done manually.

IMPORTANCE OF PROCESS CONTROL

The importance of process control is as follows-

1. Enables automation: Process control is a must for mass production as its precise
nature helps in the automation of industrial processes. It is easy to operate complex
processes with exact equipment and data from the central control room.

An important thing to note down is that it is not automation, but both of them
working together are necessary for efficient performance.

If you are not using automation, then the operators will have to physically monitor
the outputs so that they can know about the best settings that should be used with
the manufacturing equipment.

Data is collected and stored with the help of automated sensors so that it becomes
easier to make successful decisions.

2. Ensures safety: Producing a product is not an easy feat, especially if a company

has to manipulate substances. Sometimes it is just a demanding process and at other
times dangerous. Remember the smallest change can cause serious repercussions and
make a difference in the finished product.

It ensures safety as it gives due importance to turbulence, flow, temperature,

proportions, etc. by consistently controlling and monitoring them to produce the
desired finished product.

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3. Common process: A process control system can be practiced across several
applications, which includes anything that controls or measures variable like
Vibration, Temperature, Pressure, Level, Flow, Connectors, and Analytical

4. Uses of the process controls in industries: There are numerous industries that
use process control, and some of the important ones are Water, Semiconductor,
Power generation, Oil and gas, Paper and pulp, Petrochemicals, OEM, Food and diary,
Heat treaters, and BioPharma.

5. Energy-efficient: Consumption of energy is at a fast rate as manufacturers want

to deliver the highest output with minimum production cost via their equipment. The
process control is a method that allows overseeing the production process.

The managers can measure and monitor the workings in their plants and make
viable guesses as per their data and information. It becomes quite easy for them to
place a viable strategy so that the machinery can be used at maximum levels.

The best thing about it is that the organization can maintain its quality levels by
reducing the production of defective goods. The process control system proves
itself as a smart tool that is also energy efficient.

ADVANTAGES OF PROCESS CONTROLS SYSTEMS IN A PROCESSING

INDUSTRIES

The advantages are as highlighted below:

1. Process control offers state-of-the-art capabilities to its customers

2. Helps a company to improve the quality of its products as variations in

the product quality is kept at a minimum level

3. It boosts productivity so that the company can show better sales figures

4. The process control system increases stability as it is a tried and tested method.

5. It improves the consistency in the product dimension

6. It does not shy away from any complex deals

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7. The method is legally viable as it meets the set standard of environmental
regulations

8. It helps to boost the performance levels

9. The system gives a warning if it detects a rise in emissions

10. It finds faults at the onset hence the quality is maintained, and the
manufacturing costs are also lower in comparison

11. Can meet the demands of customer for traceability

12. The system reduces the influence of any outward disturbances

13. It helps to control, monitor and eliminate unexpected process occurrence

14. The system reduces unit costs

15. The process control system minimizes wastage of energy by enabling efficient
operation of plant and machinery

16. The lead times are shorter because of process control

17. The system is built in such a manner that it issues an automatic warning in case
of any abnormalities. This help to minimize the risk of any untoward accidents

18. The process control helps to reduce direct labor costs

19. There is ample opportunity for additional business as your ability to handle extra
work has increased because of process control and automation

ANALYZING THESE NEEDS USING SPECIFIC EXAMPLES:

A. Suppress the influence of external disturbances:
Suppressing the influence of external disturbances on a process is the most common
objective of a controller in a chemical plant. Such disturbances denote the effect
that the surroundings (external world) have on a reactor, separator, heat exchanger,
compressor, etc., and usually, they are out of the reach of the human operator.
Consequently, we need to introduce a control mechanism that will make the proper
changes in the process to cancel the negative impact that such disturbances may
have on the desired operation of a chemical plant.
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Example 1: Controlling the Operation of a Stirred Tank Heater
Consider the tank heater system shown in Figure 4, a liquid enters the tank with a
flow rate Fi (ft3/min), and a temperature Ti (oF), where it is heated with steam
(having a flow rate FS, lb/min). Assume that F and T denote the flow rate and
temperature of the stream leaving the tank. The tank is considered to be well
stirred, which implies that the temperature of the effluent is equal to the
temperature of the liquid in the tank.
The operational objectives of this heater are:
❖ Keep the effluent temperature T at a desired value TS.
❖ Keep the volume of the liquid in the tank at a desired value VS.
The operation of the heater is disturbed by external factors like changes in the
feed flow rate and temperature, Fi and Ti’. If nothing changed, then after attaining
T = TS and V = VS, we could leave the system alone without any supervision and
control. It is clear though that this cannot be true since Ti (oF) and Fi (ft3/min) are
subject to frequent changes. Consequently, some form of control action is needed to
alleviate the impact of the changing disturbances and keep T and V at the desired
values.

Figure 4: Stirred tank heater

In Figure 5 we see such a control action to keep T = TS when Ti (oF) or Fi (ft3/min)
changes. A thermocouple measures the temperature T of the liquid in the tank. Then
T is compared with the desired value TS yielding a deviation 𝜖 = 𝑇𝑆 − 𝑇. The value of

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the deviation 𝜖 is sent to a control mechanism which decides what must be done in
order for the temperature T to return back to the desired value TS.

If 𝜖 > 0 which implies T < TS, the controller opens the steam valve so that more heat
can be supplied. On the contrary, the controller closes the steam valve when 𝜖 < 0
or T > TS. It is clear that when T = TS (i.e.𝜖 = 0), the controller does nothing. This
control system that measures the variable of direct importance (T in this case) after
a disturbance had its effect on it, is called the Feedback control system. The desired
value TS is called the Set Point and is supplied externally by the person in charge of
production.

In summary, If 𝜖 = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑆 , 𝑛𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒

𝜖 < 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑇 > 𝑇𝑆 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑄 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒

𝜖 > 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑇 < 𝑇𝑆 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑄 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒

Figure 5: Feedback temperature control for tank heater

A similar configuration can be used if we want to keep the volume V, or equivalently

the liquid level h, at its set point hs when Fi changes. In this case we measure the
level of the liquid in the tank and we open or close the valve that affects the effluent
flow rate F or Fi (see Figure 6). It is clear that the control systems shown in Figure
9 are also feedback control systems. All feedback systems shown in Figures 8 and 9

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act post facto (after the fact), i.e., after the effect of the disturbances has been
felt by the process.

Figure 6: Alternative liquid-level control schemes

Returning back to the tank heater example, it was realized that a different control
arrangement can be used to maintain T = TS when Ti changes. Measure the
temperature of the inlet stream Ti and open or close the steam valve to provide
more or less steam. Such control configuration is called Feedforward control and is
shown in Figure 7. It is obvious that the Feedforward control does not wait until the
effect of the disturbances has been felt by the system, but acts appropriately
before the external disturbance affects the system, anticipating what its effect

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will be. The suppression of the impact that disturbances have on the operating
behavior of processing units is one of the main reasons for the usage of control in
the chemical industry.

Figure 7: Feedforward temperature control for stirred tank heater.

B. Ensure the stability of a process

Consider the behaviour of the variable x shown in Figure 8. Notice that at time t =
to the constant value of x is disturbed by some external factors, but that as time
progresses the value of x returns to its initial value to and stays there. If x is a
process variable like temperature, pressure, concentration, flow rate, etc., we say
that the process is stable or self-regulating and in such a situation, there is no need
for external intervention for its stabilization. It is clear that no control mechanism
is needed to force x to return to its initial value.

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Figure 8: Response of a stable system.

In contrast to the above behaviour, the variable y shown in Figure 9 does not return
to its initial value after it is disturbed by external influences. Processes whose
variables follow the pattern indicated by y in Figure 9 (curves A, B, C) are called
unstable processes and thus require external control for the stabilization of their
behaviour. Typical examples are

❖ The explosion of a hydrocarbon duel with air is such an unstable system,

❖ Riding a bicycle is an attempt to stabilize an unstable system and we attain

that by pedaling, steering and leaning our body right or left.

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Figure 9: Alternative Responses of unstable systems.

1.2: Controlling the operation of an Unsteady Reactor

Consider a continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) in which an irreversible

exothermic reaction 𝑨 → 𝑩 takes place. The heat of reaction is removed by a coolant
medium that flows through a jacket around the reactor (Figure 10). As it known
from the analysis of a CSTR system, the curve that describes the amount of heat
released by the exothermic reaction is a sigmoidal function of the temperature, T,
in the reactor (Curve A in Figure 11). On the other hand, the heat removed by the
coolant is a linear function of the temperature, T, (line B in Figure 11).
Consequently, when the CSTR is at steady state (i.e., nothing is changing), the heat
produced by the reaction should be equal to the heat removed by the coolant. This
requirement yields the steady states, P1, P2, and P3 at the intersection of curves A
and B of Figure 8. Steady states P1, and P3 are called stable, whereas P2, is unstable.
To understand the concept of stability, let us consider steady state P2,

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Figure 10: CSTR with cooling Jacket.

Figure 11: The three steady states of a CSTR.

Assume that we are able to start the reactor at the temperature, T2, and the
concentration, (𝑪𝑨𝟐 ), that corresponds to this temperature. Consider that the

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temperature of the feed, 𝑻𝒊 increases. This will cause an increase in the temperature
of the reacting mixture, say 𝑻′ 𝟐 . At 𝑻′ 𝟐 , the heat released by the reaction, 𝑸′ 𝟐 is
more than the heat removed by the coolant, 𝑸′′ 𝟐 (See Figure 5), thus leading to
higher temperature in the reactor and consequently to increased rates of reaction.
Increased rates of reaction produce larger amounts of heat released by the
exothermic reaction, which in turn lead to higher temperatures, and so on.
Therefore, we see that an increase in Ti takes the reactor temperature away from
steady state P2, and that the temperature will eventually reach the value of steady
state P3 (Figure 12a). Similarly, if Ti were to decrease, the temperature of the
reactor would take off from P2 and end up at P1 (Figure 6b). By contrast, if we were
operating at steady state P3 or P1, and we perturbed the operation of the reactor,
it would return naturally back to point P3 or P1 from which it started (see Figure 12
c,d).

Sometimes, we would like to operate the CSTR at the middle unstable steady state,
for the following reasons:

1. The low-temperature steady state P1 causes very low yields because the
temperature Ti is very low, and
2. The high-temperature steady state P3 may be very high, causing unsafe
condition, destroying the catalyst for a catalytic reactor, degrading the
product B, and so on.

In such cases, we need a controller that will ensure the stability of the operation at
the middle steady state. (Question: The student should suggest a control mechanism
to stabilize the operation of the reactor at the unstable steady state P2. This
example demonstrates very vividly the need for stabilizing the operation of a system
using some type of control in the presence of external disturbances that tend to
take the system away from the desired point)

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Figure 12: Dynamic response of a CSTR: (a) and (b) indicate the instability of the
middle steady state, while (c) ad (d) demonstrate the stability of the other two

C. Optimize the performance of the Chemical Process

Safety and the satisfaction of the production specifications are the two principal
operational objectives for a chemical plant. Once these are achieved, the next goal
is how to make the operation of the plant more profitable. Given the fact that the
conditions that affect the operation of the plant do not remain the same, it is clear
that we would like to be able to change the operation of the plant (flow rates,
pressures, concentrations, temperatures) in such a way that an economic objective
(profit) is always maximized. This task is undertaken by the automatic controllers

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of the plant and its human operators. A good example is how a controller is used to
optimize the economic performance of a single unit in a chemical process industry.

Optimizing the Performance of a Batch Reactor: Consider a batch reactor where

the following two consecutive reactions take place:
1 2
𝐴→𝐵→𝐶

Both reactions are assumed to be endothermic with first order kinetics. The heat
required for the reactions is supplied by steam which flows through the jacket
around the reactor (Figure 13). The desired product is B while C is an undesired
waste. The economic objective for the operation of the batch reactor is to maximize
the profit ∅ over a period of time,𝑡𝑅 that is,
𝑡𝑅
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 ∅ = ∫ {[𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝐵]
0
− ⌈𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚⌉}𝑑𝑡

Where 𝑝𝐶𝐵 (𝑡) = revenue from product B, 𝐶𝑟 𝐶𝐴 (0) = cost of raw material A, 𝐶ℎ 𝑄(𝑡) =
cost of steam, P = price per lb-mole of product B, 𝐶𝑟 = price per lb-mole of raw
material A; 𝐶ℎ = cost per lb of steam; 𝐶𝐴 (0) = concentration of A at the beginning of
the batch reaction and 𝑡𝑅 = the period of reaction.

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Figure 13: Batch reactor with two consecutive reactions.

The only variable that we can change freely in order to maximize the profit is the
steam flow rate 𝑄(𝑡). The steam flow rate, which can vary with time, will affect the
temperature in the batch reactor and the temperature will, in turn, affect the rates
of the desired and undesired reactions. The question is how we should vary 𝑄(𝑡) with
time so that the profit ∅ is maximized. Let us examine some special policies with
respect to 𝑄(𝑡).

1. If 𝑄(𝑡) is given the largest possible value for the entire reaction period 𝑡𝑅 , then
the temperature of the reacting mixture will take the largest value that is
possible. Initially, when CA is large, we will have high yields of B but we will also
pay more for the steam. As time goes on and the concentration of B increases,
the yield of C also increases. Consequently, towards the end of the reaction
period the temperature must decrease, necessitating decrease in the steam flow
rate.

2. If the steam flow rate is kept at its lowest value, [i.e., 𝑄(𝑡) = 0], for the entire
reaction period 𝑡𝑅 , we will have no steam cost, but we will also have no production
of B.

We see clearly from the above two extreme cases that 𝑄(𝑡) will vary between its
lowest and highest values during the reaction period 𝑡𝑅 . How it should vary in order
to maximize the profit is not trivial and requires the solution of the above
optimization problem.

Figure 14, shows a general trend that the steam flow rate must follow in order to
optimize the profit ∅. Therefore, a control system is needed which will: (1) compute
the best steam flow rate for every time during the reaction period and (2) adjust
the valve (inserted in the steam line) so that the steam flow rate takes its best value
[as computed above in (1)]. Such problems as the above are known as optimal control
problems.

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Figure 14: Optimal profile of the steam flow rate for the batch reactor in Figure 16.

This example indicates that the control of the steam flow rate is not used to ensure
the stability of the reactor or to eliminate the effect of external disturbances on
the reactor but to optimize its economic performance.

BENEFITS OF PROCESS CONTROL

The benefits of controlling or automating processes are in a number of distinct areas
in the operation of a unit or chemical plant. The safety of workers and the community
around a plant is probably concern number one or should be for most engineers as
they begin to design their processes. Chemical plants have a great potential to do
severe damage if something goes wrong and it is inherent in the setup of process
control to set boundaries on specific units so that they don’t injure or kill workers
or individuals in the community.

Process control is to ensure that chemical/industrial processes are carried out

efficiently, consistently, and with as little variation as possible, so as to improve
process safety, product quality, and the cost-effectiveness of process operation.

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Installation of control systems in industrial settings helps to:

maintain throughput, quality, yield and energy efficiency.

make sure working practices are carried out safely and profitably.

Note: Throughput in process control or process design refers to the amount of

material, energy, or product that flows through or is processed by a system within
a specified time frame. It is a key performance indicator (KPI) used to evaluate the
capacity, efficiency, and productivity of a process.

Proper application of process control can actually improve the safety and
profitability of a process. It is, however, not an easy task to achieve this because
modern plants tend to be difficult to operate due to high complexity and highly
integrated process units.

PERFORMANCE OF PROCESS CONTROL

The key components of a performance measurement and control system include:

Setting realistic expectations that are measurable. Thinking through how to
continuously capture measuring information. Developing strategies and tactics
capable of accomplishing clearly defined expected outcomes.

The evaluation criteria will quantify the accumulated control error, the consumption
of energy of the control variable, the response speed of the process, and the
overshoot and damping of the process variable.

Closeness to set points

Short transient to one set point to other set points
Smaller overshoot and less oscillation
Smooth and minimum changes of variable manipulation
Minimum usage of raw materials and energy

There are three essential performance requirements of a control system,

these include stability, accuracy, and response.

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TYPES OF PROCESS CONTROLS

There are three types of process control and these are described below-

1. Batch process control

In this type of application, exact quantities of particular raw materials are mixed
for a precise period in a particular manner to achieve a specific product. An
important example is the production of medicines which requires specific directions
for the exact result. The batch process control is also defined as a system where
the material is stationary at a particular physical location while it is undergoing a
process.

2. Continuous

In this type of application, the variables remain uninterrupted and smooth in time.
The purpose is to produce a product at the best economy, maximum flow rate, and
given composition. Some important examples are the production of plastics and fuels
and heating and rolling of steel ingots.

3. Hybrid

In this type of application, you can find elements of both continuous and batch
process control.

CLASSIFICATION/TYPES OF PROCESS CONTROL

The control system may be classified in a number of ways. Some popular

classifications are:

1. Depending on the decision or control method, it can be divided into Feedback

control, Feedforward control, Concurrent control, Open-loop control, and
Compound control
2. Depending on the type of system components, it can be divided into a mechanical
system, electrical system, electromechanical system, hydraulic system, biological
system, thermal or pneumatic control system etc.

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3. Depending on the system function, it can be divided into the temperature control
system, pressure control system and position control system.
4. Depending on the methods analysis and design and the system performance, it
can be divided into linear system and nonlinear system, continuous system and
discrete system, steady system and time-varying system, deterministic system
and uncertain system.
5. Depending on the change rule of input quantity, it can be divided into a constant
value system, a follow-up system and program control system, etc.
6. Depending upon the type of signals, the system can be time-varying, time-
invariant continuous data, discrete data, modulated or unmodulated control
system etc.
7. Depending upon the primary purpose, the system can be position control, velocity
control etc.

NOTE:

1. CONTROL LOOP IS DIVIDED INTO OPEN LOOP AND. CLOSED LOOP

a. Open Loop – output is not sent back to the input. The desired output does
not affect the control action. This requires human intervention.
b. Closed Loop – output is sent back to the input. The desired output affects
the control action. This is fully automatic, no need for human interaction.
Some loops can be converted from open to closed modes and vice versa. It is
manually controlled when open and fully automated when closed.

Table 1: Differences between Open Loop and Closed Loop Control Systems

S/N Open Loop Control System Closed Loop Control System

1 Independent control action Dependent control action

2 No feedback path Feedback path

3 Non-feedback control system Feedback control system

4 Can be designed easily Cannot be designed easily

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 5 Manually controlled Fully automated

6 Economical Expensive

7 Inaccurate Accurate

2. FEEDBACK
If the output or a part of the output is sent back to the input and used as part of
the system input, then it is called feedback. Feedback helps to improve control
system performance substantially and is an important part of any system’s design.

Types of Feedback

• Positive Feedback – the reference input and feedback output are added.

• Negative Feedback – the error between the reference input and system
output is reduced.

3. TWO TYPICAL FORMS OF PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS ARE

1. single input – single output (SISO) – one input and output.
2. multiple-input – multiple-output (MIMO) – two or more inputs and outputs.

APPLICATIONS OF PROCESS CONTROL

Process control applications are found in industrial processes that involve controlling
fluids; liquids, gases, dry solids, and slurry mixtures. The common industries where
you have process control systems are Chemical, Oil & Gas, Food & Beverage,
Pharmaceutical, Water & Waste Water, Power, etc.

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ELEMENTS OF A PROCESS CONTROL

A typical process control system consists of elements that include a Controlled

variable, measured variable, Set-Point, Deviation, Manipulated variable and
Disturbances. For convenience, all these elements are categorized into four essential
elements: namely, process, measurement, evaluation, and control as shown in Figure
15

Figure 15: Four elements of a control system

A process control system consists of four essential elements: process,

measurement, evaluation, and control.

PROCESS: In general, a process consists of an assembly of equipment and material

that is related to some manufacturing operation or sequence. Any given process can
involve many dynamic variables, and it may be desirable to control all of them. In
most cases, however, controlling only one variable will be sufficient to control the
process to within acceptable limits. One occasionally encounters a multivariable
process in which many variables, some interrelated, require regulation.

MEASUREMENT:

To control a dynamic variable in a process, you must have information about the
entity or variable itself. This information is obtained by measuring the variable.

Measurement refers to the conversion of the process variable into an analog or

digital signal that can be used by the control system. The device that performs

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 the initial measurement is called a sensor or instrument. Typical measurements
are pressure, level, temperature, flow, position, and speed. The result of any
measurement is the conversion of a dynamic variable into some proportional
information that is required by the other elements in the process control loop or
sequence.

EVALUATION: In the evaluation step of the process control sequence, the

measurement value is examined, and compared with the desired value or set point,
and the amount of corrective action needed to maintain proper control is determined.
A device called a controller performs this evaluation. The controller can be a
pneumatic, electronic, or mechanical device mounted in a control panel or on the
process equipment. It can also be part of a computer control system; in which case
the control function is performed by software.

CONTROL: The control element in a control loop is the device that exerts a direct
influence on the process or manufacturing sequence. This final control element
accepts an input from the controller and transforms it into some proportional
operation that is performed on the process. In most cases, this final control element
will be a control valve that adjusts the flow of fluid in a process. Devices such as
electrical motors, pumps, and dampers are also used as control elements.

DESIGN METHODOLOGY FOR PROCESS CONTROL

1. Understand the process: Before attempting to control a process, it is

necessary to understand how the process works and what it does.
2. Identify the operating parameters: Once the process is well understood,
operating parameters such as temperatures, pressures, flow rates, and other
variables specific to the process must be identified for its control.
3. Identify the hazardous conditions: In order to maintain a safe and hazard-
free facility, variables that may cause safety concerns must be identified and
may require additional control.

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4. Identify the measurables: It is important to identify the measurables that
correspond with the operating parameters in order to control the process.
Measurables for process systems include: Temperature,
Pressure, Flow rate, pH, Humidity, Level, Concentration,
Viscosity, Conductivity, Turbidity, Redox/potential, Electrical
behavior, and Flammability.
5. Identify the points of measurement: Once the measurables are identified,
it is important to locate where they will be measured so that the system can
be accurately controlled.
6. Select measurement methods: Selecting the proper type of measurement
device specific to the process will ensure that the most accurate, stable, and
cost-effective method is chosen. There are several different signal types
that can detect different things.
These signal types include: Electric, Pneumatic, Light,
Radiowaves, Infrared (IR), and Nuclear
7. Select control method: In order to control the operating parameters, the
proper control method is vital to control the process effectively. On/off is
one control method and the other is continuous control. Continuous control
involves Proportional (P), Integral (I), and Derivative (D) methods or some
combination of those three.
8. Select control system: Choosing between a local or distributed control
system that fits well with the process effects both the cost and efficacy of
the overall control.
9. Set control limits: Understanding the operating parameters allows the ability
to define the limits of the measurable parameters in the control system.
10. Define control logic: Choosing between feed-forward, feed-backward,
cascade, ratio, or other control logic is a necessary decision based on the
specific design and safety parameters of the system.
11. Create a redundancy system: Even the best control system will have
failure points; therefore, it is important to design a redundancy system to
avoid catastrophic failures by having back-up controls in place.

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 12. Define a fail-safe: Fail-safes allow a system to return to a safe state
after a breakdown of the control. This fail-safe allows the process to avoid
hazardous conditions that may otherwise occur.
13. Set lead/lag criteria: Depending on the control logic used in the
process, there may be lag times associated with the measurement of the
operating parameters. Setting lead/lag times compensates for this effect and
allows for accurate control.
14. Investigate effects of changes before/after: By investigating
changes made by implementing the control system, unforeseen problems can
be identified and corrected before they create hazardous conditions in the
facility.
15. Integrate and test with other systems: The proper integration of a
new control system with existing process systems avoids conflicts between
multiple systems.

HOW DO CONTROL SYSTEM MEASURE THE PROCESS VARIABLE?

Control systems measure the process variable using sensors or transducers. These
devices convert the physical variable being controlled (such as temperature,
pressure, flow rate, position, etc.) into an electrical or mechanical signal that can be
easily measured and processed by the control system.

The specific type of sensor or transducer used depends on the nature of the
process variable being measured. Here are a few common examples:

Temperature Sensor: A thermocouple or resistance temperature detector (RTD)

can be used to measure temperature. They generate a voltage or resistance change
proportional to the temperature.

Pressure Sensor: Pressure-sensitive devices such as pressure transducers or

pressure gauges are used to measure pressure. They can provide an electrical signal
(e.g., voltage or current) proportional to the applied pressure.

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Flow Sensor: Flow meters, such as turbine flow meters or electromagnetic flow
meters, can measure the flow rate of liquids or gases passing through a pipe. They
generate a signal that represents the flow rate.

Position Sensor: Linear or rotary encoders, potentiometers, or Hall effect sensors

can be used to measure the position of an object. They provide feedback on the
object's location or displacement.

These sensors are connected to the control system, which receives the measured
signal and processes it to determine the current value of the process variable. Based
on this information, the control system can make adjustments or take actions to
regulate the process variable according to the desired set point.

HOW A PROCESS CONTROL LOOP WORKS IN AN AUTOMATIC CONTROL

SYSTEM

The final control element initiates a change in the process by changing the
manipulated variable, MV, which then alters the process until it settles at the
setpoint. In this way, the process variable is taken back to its desired value or
setpoint. This is essentially how a process control loop works (See Figure 18).

Figure 18: Block diagram of control loop in an automatic control system

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DESIGN ELEMENTS OF A CONTROL SYSTEM

Basic questions that we must ask and try to answer while attempting to design a
control system that will satisfy the control needs for a chemical process includes:

1. What are the operational objectives that a control system is called upon
to achieve?

The answer to this question actually determines the control objectives and they
have to do with:

• Suppress the influence of external disturbances,

• Ensure the 'stability of a chemical process,

• Optimize the performance of a chemical process and

• A combination of the above.

At the beginning the control objectives are 'defined qualitatively and subsequently
they are quantified, usually in terms of the output variables. For example, for the
stirred tank heater of figure 7 the control objectives are to maintain the
temperature of the outlet (T) and the volume of the fluid (V) in the tank at desired
values. For this example, the quantification of the control objectives is direct and
straightforward, i.e. T = TS and V = VS, where TS and VS are given desired values.

Whatever are our control objectives, we need some means to monitor the
performance of the chemical process. This is done by measuring the values of certain
processing variables such as temperatures, pressures, concentrations, flow rates,
etc. The second question that arises is:

2. What variables should we measure in order to monitor the operational

performance of a plant?

It is self-evident that we would like to monitor directly the variables that represent
our control objectives, and this is what is done whenever possible. Such
measurements are called primary measurements. For example, in the stirred tank
heater system (Figure 7) our control objectives are to keep the volume and the
temperature of the liquid in the tank at desired levels, i.e. keep

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 T = TS and V = VS

Consequently, our first attempt is to install measuring devices that will monitor T
and V directly. For the present system this is simple by using a thermocouple (for T)
and a differential pressure cell (for V).

It sometimes happens that our control objectives are not measurable quantities, i.e.
they belong to the class of unmeasured outputs. In such cases we must measure
other variables which can be measured easily and reliably. Such supporting
measurements are called secondary measurements.

Then we develop mathematical relationships between the unmeasured outputs and

the secondary measurements, i.e.

unmeasured output = f (secondary measurements)

which allow us to determine the values of the unmeasured outputs (once the values
of the secondary measurements are available).

Once the control objectives have been specified and the various measurements
identified, the next question relates to how we effect a change in the process.

3. What are the manipulated variables to be used in order to control a

chemical process?

Usually in a process we have a number of available input variables which can be

adjusted freely. Which ones we select to use as manipulated variables is a crucial
question as the choice will affect the quality of the control actions we take. For
example, In order to control the level of liquid in a tank we can either adjust the
flow rate of the inlet stream (Figure 9b) or the flow rate of the outlet stream
(Figure 9a). Which one is better is an important question that must also be analyzed.

After the control objectives, the possible measurements, and the available
manipulated variables have been identified, the final problem to be solved is that of

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defining the control configuration. Before we define what, a control configuration
is, let us look at some control systems with different control configurations. The
two feedback control systems in Figures 9a and 9b constitute two different control
configurations. Thus, the same information (measurement of liquid level) flows to
different manipulated variables, i.e., F (Figure 9a) and Fi (Figure 9b). Similarly, the
feedback control system (Figure 8) and the Feedforward control system (Figure 10)
for the tank heater constitute two distinctly different control configurations. For
these two control systems the same manipulated variable was used (i.e., Fst) but
different measurements. Thus, for the feedback system of Figure 8 the
temperature of the liquid in the tank was used, whereas for the Feedforward system
of Figure 4 the temperature of the inlet was measured.

In the above examples it is obvious that the two control configurations differ either
in:

1. The information (measurement) flowing to the same manipulated variable

or

2. The manipulated variable to which the same information flows.

Thus, for the two feedback control systems in Figures 9a and 9b the same
information was used (measurement of the liquid level) but different manipulated
variables (F or Fi). On the contrary, for the control systems in Figures 8 and 10, we
have different measurements (T or Ti) which are used to adjust the value of the
same manipulated variable (Fst).

A control configuration may be defined as the information structure that is used to

connect the available measurements to the available manipulated variables.

It is clear from the previous examples that normally we will have many different
control configurations for a given chemical process, which therefore raises the
following question:

4. What is the best control configuration for a given chemical process control
situation?

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The answer to this question is very critical for the quality of the control system we
are asked to design. Depending on how many controlled outputs and manipulated
inputs we have in a chemical process, we can distinguish the control configurations
as either single-input, single-output (SISO) or multiple-input, multiple-output
(MIMO) control systems.

For example, for the tank heater system:

1. If the control objective (controlled output) is to keep the liquid level at a

desired value by manipulating the effluent flow rate, then we have a SISO
system.

2. On the contrary, if our control objectives are (more than one) to keep the
level and the temperature of the liquid at desired values, by manipulating
(more than one) the steam flow rate and the effluent flow rate, then we
have a MIMO system.

In the chemical industry most of the processing systems are multiple inputs,
multiple-output systems but the design of SISO systems is simpler compared to
that of design of MIMO systems. It is also good to note that there are three general
types of control configurations, which include:

1. Feedback control configuration: This type of configuration uses direct

measurements of the controlled variables to adjust the values of the
manipulated variables (Figure 20). The objective is to keep the controlled
variables at desired levels (set points). A good example is the feedback
control in Figures 7 and 8.

2. Inferential control configuration: This uses secondary measurements

(because the controlled variables cannot be measured) to adjust the values
of the manipulated variables (Figure 21). The objective here is to keep the
(unmeasured) controlled variables at desired levels.

The estimator uses the values of the available measured outputs, together with the
material and energy balances that govern the process, to compute mathematically

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(estimate) the values of the unmeasured controlled variables. These estimates in
turn are used by the controller to adjust the values of the manipulated variables

3. Feedforward control configuration: It uses direct measurements of the

disturbances to adjust the values of the manipulated variables (Figure 22).
The objective here is to keep the values of the controlled output variables
at desired levels. An example of Feedforward control configuration we can
see in Figure 10.

Figure 20: General structure of feedback control configuration.

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Figure 21: General structure of inferential control configuration.

Figure 22: General structure of inferential control configuration.

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ASSIGNMENT 1

Write on different process control strategies/configurations, their basic

principle/theory, advantages and disadvantages and industrial applications.

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