Fundamentals of Information

Technology
Unit-6: Networks and Internet

Instructor : RamAdhin Sah

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Contents
Introduction to communication system and computer network; Uses
of computer network; Types and topologies of network; Network
media and network software; Introduction, features and applications
of Internet; Intranet and extranet; World Wide Web, E-mail, E-
commerce, E-Learning, E-Governance, E-Banking; Introduction to
Network Protocols (TCP/IP, HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, SMTP, POP3,
IMAP).

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 A data communication model
 Data : Data is define as the raw facts, figures, symbols, or values that are
collected, stored, and processed by computers.

 Communication : Communication is defined as a process in which more than one

computer transfers information, instructions to each other and for sharing resources.
Or in other words, communication is a process or act in which we can send or
receive data.

Components of Data Communication

A communication system is made up of the following components:

1. Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from one

person to another. It could be a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.

2. Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a computer,

mobile, telephone, laptop, video camera, or workstation, etc.

3. Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer, telephone

mobile, workstation, etc.

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 A data communication model
4. Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication channels
are the medium that connect two or more workstations. Workstations can be
connected by either wired media or wireless media.

5. Protocol : A protocol is a set of rules that governs (control) the data

communications. A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is
communicated, and when it is communicated.

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 A data communication model
 A Basic Communications Model :
Transfer of information from one point to another point located at a certain
distance far away through transmission system or channel is called
communication. The fundamental purpose of a communications system is the
exchange of data between two parties.

A simple model of communication, in general can be illustrated as below with

specific example

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 A data communication model
1. Source :
• Source generates the data to be transmitted source may be analog or digital.

• Devices that are used to generate the data for transmission are computers, phone
etc.

2. Transmitter :
• Converts data into transmittable signals.

• Usually, data generated by the source is not transmitted directly.

• Transmitter encodes the information (assign different sequence of symbol format

to common format, adds redundant bits to message bit stream) [For Digital
Communication].

• Converts into electrical form or electromagnetic signals and make it appropriate

for transmission through transmission system.

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 A data communication model

3. Transmission System :
• Carries data from source to destination.

• Could be transmission line or Complex network.

• Connects source and destination.

4. Receiver :
• Converts received signal into data.

• Decodes and convert the received signal from transmission system into form
suitable for destination device to handle.

5. Destination :
• It takes the incoming data from receiver and convert it into desired form.

• for example : Speaker, Monitor, printer etc.

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 Transmission modes (Direction of Data Flow)
• The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is
known as transmission mode.

• The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.

• Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and

transmission media provide the direction. Therefore, the transmission mode is
also known as a directional mode.

• The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.

The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:

1. Simplex
2. Half-duplex
3. Full-duplex

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1. Simplex mode

 In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in

one direction.

 A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the
data but cannot send the data.

 This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly communications require

the two-way exchange of data. The simplex mode is used in the business field
as in sales that do not require any corresponding reply.

 The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the listeners
but never allows them to transmit back.

 Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a keyboard
can only accept the data from the user and monitor can only be used to
display the data on the screen.
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 Advantage of Simplex mode:
In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication
channel, so that more data can be transmitted at a time.

 Disadvantage of Simplex mode:

Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-communication between
devices.

2. Half-Duplex mode

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 In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can transmit
and receive the data as well.

 Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.

 The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one direction

at a time.

 In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if any

error occurs, then the receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.
 A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode. In Walkie-talkie, one
party speaks, and another party listens. After a pause, the other speaks and first
party listens. Speaking simultaneously will create the distorted sound which
cannot be understood.

 Advantage of Half-duplex mode:

In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and receive the data and also can
utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication channel during the transmission
of data.

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 Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:
In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data, then another has to wait,
this causes the delay in sending the data at the right time.

3. Full-duplex mode

 In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow in
both the directions.

 Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.

 Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic moving in
one direction, and another channel has traffic flowing in the opposite direction.

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 The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between devices.

 The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone network.

When two people are communicating with each other by a telephone line, both
can talk and listen at the same time.

 Advantage of Full-duplex mode:

Both the stations can send and receive the data at the same time.

 Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:

If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices, then the capacity of the
communication channel is divided into two parts.

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 Differences b/w Simplex, Half-duplex and Full-duplex mode
Basis for comparison Simplex mode Half-duplex mode Full-duplex mode

Direction of In simplex mode, the In half-duplex mode, the In full-duplex mode, the
communication communication is communication is communication is
unidirectional. bidirectional, but one at a bidirectional.
time.
Send/Receive A device can only send Both the devices can send Both the devices can send
the data but cannot and receive the data, but and receive the data
receive it or it can only one at a time. simultaneously.
receive the data but
cannot send it.
Performance The performance of half- The performance of full- The Full-duplex mode
duplex mode is better duplex mode is better has better performance
than the simplex mode. than the half-duplex among simplex and half-
mode. duplex mode as it
doubles the utilization of
the capacity of the
communication channel.

Example Examples of Simplex Example of half-duplex Example of the Full-

mode are radio, is Walkie-Talkies. duplex mode is a
keyboard, and monitor. telephone network.

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 Computer Networks
• A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that
enables the computer to communicate with another computer and share
their resources, data, and applications.

• A computer network is a system that connects many independent

computers to share information (data) and resources. The integration of
computers and other different devices allows users to communicate more
easily. A computer network is a collection of two or more computer
systems that are linked together. A network connection can be established
using either cable or wireless media. Hardware and software are used to
connect computers and tools in any network.

• A computer network consists of various kinds of nodes. Servers,

networking hardware, personal computers, and other specialized or
general-purpose hosts can all be nodes in a computer network. Hostnames
and network addresses are used to identify them. In this article, we are
going to discuss computer networking in detail.

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 Application of Computer Network
There are a variety of fields in computer networks that are used in industries. Some
of them are as follows:
1. Internet and World Wide Web
In computer networks, we have a global internet, also known as the World
Wide Web, that offers us various features like access to websites, online
services and retrieval of information. With the help of the World Wide Web,
we can browse, and we can do search, and access web pages and multimedia
content.

2. Communication
With the help of computer networks, communication is also easy because we
can do email, instant messaging, voice and video calls and video conferencing,
which helps us to communicate with each other effectively. People can use
these features in their businesses and organizations to stay connected with each
other.
3. File Sharing and Data Transfer
Data transfer and file sharing are made possible by networks that connect
different devices. This covers file sharing within a business setting, file sharing
between personal devices, and downloading/uploading of content from the
internet.
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4. Online gaming
Multiplayer online games use computer networks to link players from all over
the world, enabling online competitions and real-time gaming experiences.

5. Remote Access and Control

Networks enable users to access and control systems and devices from a
distance. This is helpful when accessing home automation systems, managing
servers, and providing remote IT support.

6. Social media
With the help of a computer network, we can use social media sites like
Facebook, Twitter and Instagram to help people set up their profiles, and we
can connect with others and share content on social media.

7. Cloud Computing
The provision of on-demand access to computing resources and services
hosted in distant data centres relies on networks. Some example of cloud
computing is software as a service (SaaS), platform as a service (PaaS) and
infrastructure as service (IaaS).

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4. Online Banking and E-Commerce
Online banking and e-commerce platforms, where customers conduct financial
transactions and make online purchases, require secure computer networks.

5. Healthcare
With the help of computer networks in the health industry, we can share patient
records and store the records in the form of data that is easy and secure
compared to the file method. Networks are also necessary for telemedicine and
remote patient monitoring.
6. Education
Schools use networks to access online courses, virtual classrooms, and other
online learning materials. Campuses of colleges and universities frequently
have extensive computer networks.

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A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is
mainly of three types:

1. LAN(Local Area Network)

2. MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
3. WAN(Wide Area Network)

1. LAN(Local Area Network)

 Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small
area such as building, office.

 LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a

communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
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 It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network
adapters, and ethernet cables.

 The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.

 Local Area Network provides higher security.

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 Advantages of LAN:
1. High Speed
LANs offer high data transfer speeds due to the short distances between devices and the
use of high-speed communication technologies like Ethernet.
2. Cost-Effective
Sharing resources such as printers, scanners, and internet connections reduces costs for
an organization or home network.
3. Easy of Communication
Devices on a LAN can easily communicate with one another, facilitating file sharing,
messaging, and collaborative work.
4. Centralized Control
LAN allows for centralized data management through servers, simplifying tasks like
backups, updates, and user authentication.
5. Scalability
It is relatively easy to add new devices or users to an existing LAN without significant
hardware changes.
6. Improved Security
Compared to wider networks like WAN, LANs are easier to secure as they are confined
to a specific area and can implement robust local security measures.
7. Reliability
LANs are less prone to external interference and have minimal latency, ensuring
reliable performance.
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 Disadvantages of LAN:
1. Initial Setup Cost
Setting up a LAN, including purchasing hardware (routers, switches, cabling,
etc.) and software, can be expensive.
2. Maintenance
Maintaining and troubleshooting the network requires technical expertise and
resources, which can be costly over time.
3. Limited Coverage
LANs are restricted to a small geographic area, making them unsuitable for
large-scale networking needs.
4. Dependence on Server
If the central server in a LAN fails, it can disrupt the entire network, causing
downtime for all connected devices.
5. Data Security Risks
Internal security risks may arise due to unauthorized access by users within the
LAN, especially if proper security measures are not in place.
6. Cabling Issues
In wired LANs, managing and organizing cables can be a challenge,
particularly in larger networks.

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2. MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
 A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by
interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.

 Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.

 In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone

exchange line.

 The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN,
OC-3, ADSL, etc.

 It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

 Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

1. MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
2. It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
3. It can be used in a college within a city.
4. It can also be used for communication in the military.

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 Advantages of MAN:
1. Wide Coverage Area
MAN provides connectivity over a larger area than a LAN, making it suitable for
connecting multiple buildings or offices within a city.
2. Cost-Effective
MANs are more affordable than Wide Area Networks (WANs) as they use shared
infrastructure like fiber optics or leased lines.
3. High Speed
MANs offer high-speed data transfer, which is faster than WANs, making them
suitable for applications requiring quick communication.
4. Resource Sharing
MAN facilitates the sharing of resources (e.g., internet, databases, and printers)
across multiple locations, improving efficiency.
5. Reliable Communication
With advanced technologies like fiber optics, MANs provide reliable and consistent
communication between connected networks.
6. Scalability
MANs can be expanded to connect more LANs or devices as the need arises,
offering flexibility for growing organizations.
7. Centralized Management
Centralized control in a MAN simplifies network management and troubleshooting.

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 Disadvantages of MAN:
1. High Initial Cost
Setting up a MAN is expensive due to the need for specialized equipment,
infrastructure, and skilled personnel.
2. Complexity
Managing a MAN is more complex than a LAN due to its larger scale and the
need for coordination between multiple locations.
3. Security Vulnerabilities
The larger coverage area increases the risk of unauthorized access and
cyberattacks, requiring robust security measures.
4. Interference and Downtime
MANs can be affected by external factors such as electromagnetic
interference or issues with shared infrastructure, leading to potential
downtime.
5. Limited Coverage
While larger than LAN, MANs are still limited to a metropolitan area and
cannot connect networks across countries or continents like WANs.
6. Maintenance Challenges
Regular maintenance and troubleshooting in a larger network require
significant effort and expertise.
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3. WAN(Wide Area Network)
 A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area
such as states or countries.

 A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.

 A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.

 The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.

 A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.

Examples Of Wide Area Network:
• Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.

• Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the
customers in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
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• Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44
offices. This network is made by using the telephone leased line provided by
the telecom company.

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 Advantages Of Wide Area Network:
1. Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area.
Suppose if the branch of our office is in a different city then we can connect
with them through WAN. The internet provides a leased line through which we
can connect with another branch.
2. Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we
do not need to buy the emails, files or back up servers.
3. Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the
programmers get the updated files within seconds.
4. Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The
web application like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate
with friends.
5. Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the
software and other resources like a hard drive, RAM.
6. Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
7. High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the
high bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in
turn increases the productivity of our company.

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 Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:
1. Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN
and MAN network as all the technologies are combined together that creates the
security problem.

2. Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet
which can be changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be
used. Some people can inject the virus in our system so antivirus is needed to
protect from such a virus.

3. High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves
the purchasing of routers, switches.

4. Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is

difficult.

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 Network Architecture:
• Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of
the software, hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data.
Simply we can say that how computers are organized and how tasks are
allocated to the computer.

• The two types of network architectures are used:

1. Peer-To-Peer network
2. Client/Server network

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1. Peer-To-Peer network
 Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together
with equal privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.

 Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10

computers.

 Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.

 Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but
this can lead to a problem if the computer with the resource is down.

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 Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:
1. It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.

2. If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.

3. It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.

 Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

1. In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system
. Therefore, it cannot back up the data as the data is different in different
locations.

2. It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.

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 Client/Server Network
 Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to
access the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as Server.

 The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the network are
called clients.

 A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.

 A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer,
etc.

 All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1
wants to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the
permission. The server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its communication
with the client 2.

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 Advantages Of Client/Server network:
1. A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can back
up the data easily.
2. A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall
performance of the whole system.
3. Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the
shared resources.
4. It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.

 Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:

1. Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.
2. A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources to the
clients, but the cost of NOS is very high.
3. It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.

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 Network Topology
• Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other. Network topology is the way devices are
connected in a network. It defines how these components are connected and
how data transfer between the network. Understanding the different types of
network topologies can help in choosing the right design for a specific
network.

• There are two major categories of Network Topology i.e. Physical Network
topology and Logical Network Topology. Physical Network Topology refers
to the actual structure of the physical medium for the transmission of data.
Logical network Topology refers to the transmission of data between devices
present in the network irrespective of the way devices are connected. The
structure of the network is important for the proper functioning of the
network. one must choose the most suitable topology as per their
requirement.

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  Network Topology
 Types of Network Topology
Below mentioned are the types of Network Topology
1. Point to Point Topology
2. Mesh Topology
3. Star Topology
4. Bus Topology
5. Ring Topology
6. Tree Topology
7. Hybrid Topology

1. Point-to-Point Topology
Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts such as computer, switches
or routers, servers connected back to back using a single piece of cable. Often,
the receiving end of one host is connected to sending end of the other and vice-
versa.

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  Network Topology
If the hosts are connected point-to-point logically, then may have multiple
intermediate devices. But the end hosts are unaware of underlying network and
see each other as if they are connected directly.

Characteristics of Point-to-Point Topology:

1. Direct Connection: Each pair of devices is directly connected by a
communication medium such as a cable or wireless link.

2. Exclusive Communication: The link is solely dedicated to the two connected

devices, ensuring no interference from other devices.

3. Simplicity: This topology is straightforward to configure and maintain due to its

simple structure.

4. High Performance: Since the link is dedicated, communication occurs with

minimal delay and without sharing bandwidth with other devices.

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  Network Topology
 Advantages Point-to-Point Topology :
1. Ease of Setup: Easy to implement and configure, especially for small-scale
networks.
2. Reliability: The dedicated link ensures stable and secure communication
between the two nodes.
3. High Speed: Since the connection is exclusive, there is no contention for
bandwidth.
4. Low Latency: Minimal delay due to the direct connection.

 Disadvantages Point-to-Point Topology :

1. Limited Scalability: Adding more devices requires additional links, which can
become complex and costly.
2. Single Point of Failure: If the link fails, communication between the two nodes
is disrupted.
3. Resource-Intensive: Requires a separate communication link for each pair of
nodes, making it resource-intensive for larger networks.

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1. Mesh Topology
 Structure:
o In a mesh topology, every device is connected to every other device in the
network.
o Connections can be either full mesh (all devices interconnected) or
partial mesh (some devices interconnected).
o The total number of ports required = N * (N-1).
o the total number of links required is 5*4/2 = 10.

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 1. Mesh Topology
 How it Works:
• Data Transmission: Data can travel via multiple paths from source to
destination, optimizing routes based on current network conditions.

• Routing: Devices use routing protocols to determine the best path for data
transmission.

• Fault Tolerance: If one path fails, data can be rerouted through other
available paths.

 Advantages:
• High Reliability: Redundant paths ensure that the network remains
operational even if some connections fail.

• Fault Isolation: Easy to isolate faults as the impact is limited to a specific

connection.

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 1. Mesh Topology
• High Performance: Direct connections between devices minimize latency
and collisions.

• Scalability: Adding new devices or connections does not significantly

impact the existing network.

Disadvantages:
• High Cost: Requires extensive cabling and hardware, making it expensive.

• Complex Installation: Setting up and configuring a mesh network is time-

consuming and complex.

• Maintenance Overhead: Managing a large number of connections can be

challenging.

• Scalability Issues: Adding more devices increases the number of connections

exponentially, which can become unmanageable.
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2. Star Topology

 Structure:
• Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected
to the central hub and switch.

• Point-to-Point Links: Each connection is directly between a device and the hub.

• Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star

topology.

• Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.

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 2. Star Topology
 How it Works:
• Data Transmission: Data sent by a device is received by the hub and then
forwarded to the intended recipient.

• Central Management: The hub/switch controls the flow of data between devices.

• Collision Management: Collisions are minimized since each device

communicates with the hub, not directly with other devices.

 Advantages:
• Fault Tolerance: Failure of a single device does not affect the network; only its
connection is impacted.

• Centralized Management: Simplifies network management and monitoring

through the central hub.

• Scalability: Adding new devices is straightforward by connecting them to the hub.

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 2. Star Topology

• Performance: Each device has a dedicated connection to the hub, improving

overall network performance.

 Disadvantages:
• Central Hub Dependence: If the hub fails, the entire network goes down.

• Higher Costs: Requires more cabling and a central hub or switch, which
increases costs.

• Performance Bottleneck: The central hub or switch can become a bottleneck if it

is not capable of handling the traffic.

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3. Bus Topology
 Structure:
• The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected
through a single cable known as a backbone cable.

• Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly
connected to the backbone cable.

• The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other

topologies.

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 3. Bus Topology
 How it Works:
• When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over
the network. All the stations available in the network will receive the message
whether it has been addressed or not.

• The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message
is broadcast to all the stations.

• The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access).

 Advantages:
• Cost-Effective: Requires less cabling compared to other topologies.

• Simple Design: Easy to set up and understand.

• Easy to Expand: Adding new devices involves connecting them to the bus with
minimal disruption.
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 3. Bus Topology
• Flexibility: Allows for easy addition of devices without affecting the rest of the
network.

 Disadvantages:
• Limited Performance: Performance degrades with more devices due to
increased data collisions and network congestion.

• Single Point of Failure: Failure in the central bus affects the entire network.

• Signal Degradation: Longer cable lengths can lead to weaker signals and
reduced performance.

• Difficult Fault Isolation: Identifying faults can be challenging as the entire

network might be affected.

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4. Ring Topology

o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit
to the next node.

o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.

o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.

o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having
no termination point.

o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.

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 4. Ring Topology
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
• Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from
one node to another node.

• Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

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 4. Ring Topology
 Working of Token passing
• A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to computer
until it reaches the destination.

• The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.

• The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination address
matches. Once the token received by the destination device, then it sends the
acknowledgment to the sender.

 Advantages of Ring topology:

• Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network
without bringing the network down.

• Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation
and monitoring are available.

• Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the
installation cost is very low.
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 4. Ring Topology
• Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not
dependent on the single host computer.

 Disadvantages of Ring topology:

• Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine
the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the
communication for all the nodes.

• Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall
network.

• Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow

down the network.
• Delay: Communication
• delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding new devices
increases the communication delay.

52
5. Tree Topology
 Structure:
• Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.

• A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected
with each other in hierarchical fashion.

• The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes
are the branches of the root node.
.

53
 5. Tree Topology
How it Works:
• Data Transmission: Data travels through the central backbone to reach the
appropriate star network.

• Hierarchical Flow: The central backbone handles high-level data traffic, while
individual star networks manage local traffic.

• Branch Management: Each branch (or star network) can be managed

independently.

 Advantages:
• Hierarchical Structure: Provides a clear structure for network organization and
management.

• Fault Isolation: Faults are limited to individual branches or sections, not

affecting the entire network.

• Scalability: New branches or devices can be added easily without significant

disruption.
54
 5. Tree Topology
• Centralized Control: The backbone provides a central point for managing and
controlling network traffic.

 Disadvantages:
• Central Backbone Dependency: If the central backbone fails, it affects the
entire network.

• Higher Costs: Requires more cabling and equipment for both the backbone and
individual branches.

• Complex Configuration: Setting up and maintaining the backbone and

branches can be complex.

• Potential Bottlenecks: The central backbone can become a bottleneck if not

properly managed and scaled.

55
6. Hybrid Topology

• The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.

• A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer

the data.

• When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as

Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other will not
result in Hybrid topology.

• For example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of NIC bank and bus
topology in another branch of NIC bank, connecting these two topologies will
result in Hybrid topology.

56
6. Hybrid Topology

57
 6. Hybrid Topology
 Advantages of Hybrid Topology
• Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the
functioning of the rest of the network.
• Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices
without affecting the functionality of the existing network.
• Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the
requirements of the organization.
• Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way
that the strength of the network is maximized and weakness of the network is
minimized.

 Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

• Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of
the Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid
network.
• Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these
hubs are different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
• Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network
requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.
58
 Transmission media
1. Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information
from the sender to the receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic
signals.

2. The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information in

the form of bits through LAN(Local Area Network).

3. It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data communication.

4. In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.

5. In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.

6. In OSI(Open System Interconnection) phase, transmission media supports the

Layer 1. Therefore, it is considered to be as a Layer 1 component.

7. The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire, fibre optics,
atmosphere, water, and vacuum.

59
8. The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by the
characteristics of medium and signal.
9. Transmission media is of two types are wired media and wireless media. In
wired media, medium characteristics are more important whereas, in wireless
media, signal characteristics are more important.
10. Different transmission media have different properties such as bandwidth, delay,
cost and ease of installation and maintenance.
11. The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI reference
model, i.e., Physical layer.

 The transmission media is categorized in following two types:

1. Guided media
2. UnGuided media

1. Guided transmission media

 Guided transmission media consists of physical connection between source and
destination through a wire or a cable.

 There are three basic types of guided media which are as follows −
1. Twisted pair cable
2. Co-axial cable 60
3. Fiber-optic cable
1. Twisted pair cables:
The cable is designed with two independent insulated wires wrapped around
each other is called twisted pair cables.
This method is used as a means to reduce interference from the electromagnetic
spectrum which allows the network device to run smoother with less noise from
outside source ( noise come from multiple sources like power lines).

There are two types of twisted pair cables. They are:

a. Shielded twisted pair cable:
The cables having extra covering that acts as ground to phone cable to carry data at
faster rates is known as Shielded twisted pair cable.

STP cables have an additional shielding layer around the twisted pairs, which
provides better protection against EMI (Electromagnetic interference) and crosstalk.

STP cables are commonly used in environments where there are high levels of
electromagnetic interference, such as in industrial settings.

61
 Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
1. Reduced Interference: The shielding provides better protection against
electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI),
making STP ideal for environments with high electrical noise.

2. Improved Security: The shielding reduces the risk of signal leakage, providing
better security against eavesdropping.

3. Better Performance: STP cables generally support higher data transmission

rates compared to unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables in noisy environments.

4. Greater Distance Support: The shielding helps maintain signal integrity over
longer distances than UTP cables.

5. Suitable for Industrial Environments: Ideal for use in industrial or factory

settings where equipment generates substantial EMI.

6. Minimized Crosstalk: The shielding reduces crosstalk between adjacent pairs

of wires, improving signal clarity.

62
 Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
1. Higher Cost: STP cables are more expensive than UTP cables due to the
additional shielding materials and manufacturing process.

2. Bulkier and Less Flexible: The shielding makes the cables thicker and less
flexible, complicating installation in tight spaces.

3. More Difficult Installation: Requires careful handling and grounding of the

shielding to ensure proper performance, increasing installation time and
complexity.

4. Susceptibility to Improper Grounding: If not grounded correctly, the

shielding can act as an antenna and exacerbate interference rather than reducing
it.

5. Limited Availability: Not as widely available as UTP cables, especially in

certain categories or regions.

6. Maintenance Challenges: Repairing or replacing STP cables can be more

challenging due to the shielding.
63
b. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
UTP cables are commonly used in Ethernet networks and
telephone systems.
They consist of twisted pairs of copper wires without any
additional shielding.

UTP cables are cost-effective, easy to install, and suitable for

many applications, especially in environments with low to
moderate levels of electromagnetic interference.

64
 Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
1. Cost-Effective: UTP cables are inexpensive compared to other networking
cables like coaxial or fiber-optic cables.

2. Ease of Installation: Lightweight, thin, and flexible, making it easy to install in

tight spaces.

3. Widely Available: UTP cables are standardized and widely available in various
categories (Cat 5e, Cat 6, etc.).

4. High-Speed Support: Higher categories of UTP (e.g., Cat 6, Cat 6A) can
support high data transmission speeds, suitable for gigabit Ethernet.

5. Scalability: UTP cables support various network topologies and can easily be
upgraded to higher categories if needed.

6. Compatibility: Compatible with most networking equipment, making it

versatile for a wide range of applications.

7. Low Maintenance: Requires minimal maintenance compared to shielded

cables. 65
 Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
1. Limited Distance: Signal degradation occurs over longer distances; typically
limited to 100 meters without repeaters.

2. Lower Security: Prone to eavesdropping due to the lack of shielding, which

can make it less secure in certain environments.

3. Durability: Lacks physical protection, making it more susceptible to damage

from environmental factors or physical handling.

4. Not Suitable for High-Noise Environments: Performs poorly in environments

with high electrical noise, such as industrial settings.

5. Bandwidth Limitations: While newer categories improve bandwidth, UTP

may still lag behind fiber-optic cables for very high-speed and long-distance
applications.

66
2. Coaxial cables :
Coaxial Cable is a type of guided media made of Plastics, and copper wires which transmit the
signal in electrical form into one device to other device.
The core copper conductor is used for the transmission of signals and the insulator is used to
provide insulation to the copper conductor the insulator is surrounded by a braided metal
conductor which helps to prevent the interference of electrical signals and prevent cross talk.
This entire setup is again covered with a protective plastic layer to provide extra safety to the
cable.
Structure of Coaxial Cable
Copper conductor: A central conductor, which consists of copper. The conductor is the point
at which data is transmitted.
Insulator: Dielectric plastic insulation around the copper conductor. it is used to maintain the
spacing between the center conductor and shield.
Braided mesh: A braided mesh of copper helps to shield from electromagnetic interference,
The braid provides a barrier against EMI moving into and out of the coaxial cable.
Protective plastic layer: An external polymer layer, which has a plastic coating. It is used to
protect internal layers from damage.

67
 Advantages of Coaxial Cables:
1. High Bandwidth and Capacity: Coaxial cables support high data transmission
rates and bandwidth, making them suitable for applications like cable TV, internet,
and high-speed data transmission.

2. Resistance to Interference: The shielding in coaxial cables provides strong

protection against electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency
interference (RFI).

3. Durability: Coaxial cables are robust and can withstand environmental factors like
moisture and physical damage better than some other types of cables.

4. Long-Distance Transmission: Coaxial cables can transmit signals over longer

distances without significant degradation compared to UTP cables.

5. Versatility: Widely used for various applications, including television, internet, and
telecommunication.

6. Reduced Crosstalk: The shielding minimizes crosstalk between adjacent cables,

ensuring clearer signal transmission.

7. High Signal Quality: Maintains signal integrity over extended distances, especially
when combined with amplifiers. 68
Disadvantages of Coaxial Cables:
1. Higher Cost: Coaxial cables are generally more expensive than UTP cables due
to their construction and materials.

2. Limited Flexibility: The thick, rigid design makes coaxial cables less flexible
and harder to install in tight spaces.

3. Complex Installation: Installation often requires special tools and expertise,

such as crimping and soldering connectors.

4. Signal Degradation: Over very long distances, signal degradation can occur,
necessitating the use of repeaters or amplifiers.

5. Bulkiness: Coaxial cables are bulkier compared to UTP cables, which can make
cable management more challenging.

6. Grounding Issues: Improper grounding can lead to interference or signal loss.

7. Obsolescence: In some cases, coaxial cables are being replaced by fiber-optic

cables for higher-speed and more efficient transmission.

69
3. Fibre Optic Cable:
A fibre optic cable is made of high quality of thin glass or plastic and used to
transfer digital data signals in the form of light up to long distance.

Total internal reflection of light is used in the fiber optical cable. Depending on the
amount of power needed and the distance needed, the fibers are designed to allow
light to travel in parallel with the optical fiber. While multimode fiber is used for
transmission over shorter distances, single-mode fiber is used for long-distance
transmission.

Classification of fiber optic cable in terms of propagation is as follows:

I. Single-Mode Fibres: These fibers are used to transmit signals over long
distances.
II. Multimode Fibres: These fibers are used to transmit signals over short distances.

70
Construction of an Optical Fiber cable
Below mentioned is the basic terms that are used in the construction of the Optical
Fibre Cable.
• Core
This is the actual physical channel that carries optical data signals from a
connected light source to a receiver. The diameter of the core, which is a
single continuous strand of glass or plastic, is measured in microns (). The
cable can carry more light the larger the core size.
The three most widely used multimode sizes are 50, 62.5, and 100 microns. In
general, single-mode cores are less than 9 microns.
• Cladding
This is the thin coating that covers the fiber core, acts as a barrier, and
reflects light waves, allowing information to travel the entire length of the
fiber segment.
• Coating
This plastic coating covers the core and cladding to fortify and safeguard the
fiber core. Coatings might be anywhere between 250 and 900 microns thick.

71
• Bolstering fibers(strength Member)
During installation, these parts aid in defending the core from crushing forces
and too much stress. The materials can be made of Kevlar®, wire strands, or
sleeves filled with gel.
• Cable sleeve(outer jacket)
Any cable’s outer layer is this. Although some varieties of fiber optic cables
can have black or yellow jackets, the majority of them have orange ones.

72
 Advantages of fiber optics cable

1. High Bandwidth: Fiber optic cables have a much higher bandwidth capacity
than copper cables. They can transmit a significantly larger amount of data over
longer distances without signal degradation.

2. Low Attenuation: Light signals in fiber optic cables experience minimal

attenuation (signal loss) over long distances. This allows data to be transmitted
over much greater distances without the need for signal boosters or repeaters.

3. Immunity to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): Unlike copper cables,

which can be affected by electromagnetic interference from nearby electrical
equipment or power lines, fiber optic cables are immune to EMI.

4. Security: Fiber optic cables are difficult to tap into, making them more secure
for transmitting sensitive data. Since they transmit data as pulses of light rather
than electrical signals, it's much harder for unauthorized parties to intercept on
the data being transmitted.

73
5. Durability: Fiber optic cables are resistant to environmental
factors such as moisture, temperature fluctuations, and corrosion.

6. Longer Distances: Fiber optic cables can transmit data over

much longer distances without signal degradation compared to
copper cables.

7. Higher Speeds: Fiber optic cables support higher data

transmission speeds compared to copper cables.

74
 Disadvantages of fiber optics cable

1. Cost: Fiber optic cables can be more expensive to install and maintain
compared to traditional copper cables. The equipment required for fiber optic
networks, such as transceivers and optical switches, can also be costly.

2. Complexity of Installation and Maintenance: Installing and maintaining

fiber optic networks requires specialized knowledge and equipment.

3. Limited Availability: Fiber optic infrastructure may not be as widely available

in some areas compared to traditional copper networks. This can limit the
feasibility of deploying fiber optic solutions in certain locations.

4. Compatibility: Fiber optic cables may not be compatible with existing copper-
based infrastructure, requiring costly upgrades or replacements. Additionally,
not all devices and equipment are compatible with fiber optic connections,
which can pose challenges when integrating fiber optic networks with existing
systems.

75
2. Unguided Media:
• It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media.No physical
medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.

• An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using any

physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.

• In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy
can flow easily.

Features:
 Signal is broadcasted through air
 Less Secure
 Used for larger distances

76
There are 3 major types of Unguided Media:
1. infrared waves
Low frequency infrared waves are used for very short distance communication
like TV remote, wireless speakers, automatic doors, hand held devices etc.
Infrared signals can propagate within a room but cannot penetrate walls.
However, due to such short range, it is considered to be one of the most secure
transmission modes.

77
2. Radiowaves –
• These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and
receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM
and FM radios and cordless phones use Radiowaves for transmission.

• We all are familiar with radio channels that broadcast entertainment programs.
Radio stations transmit radio waves using transmitters, which are received by
the receiver installed in our devices.

• Both transmitters and receivers use antennas to radiate or capture radio signals.
These radio frequencies can also be used for direct voice communication within
the allocated range. This range is usually 10 miles.

Further Categorized as
1. Terrestrial
2. Satellite.

78
 Advantages of Radio Wave
These are some of the advantages of radio wave transmissions −
1. Inexpensive mode of information exchange

2. No land needs to be acquired for laying cables

3. Installation and maintenance of devices is cheap

 Disadvantages of Radio Wave

These are some of the disadvantages of radio wave transmissions −
1. Insecure communication medium

2. Prone to weather changes like rain, thunderstorms, etc.

79
3. Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to
be properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is
directly proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz –
300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone communication and
television distribution.

80
 Advantages of Microwaves:
1. High Bandwidth: Microwaves provide a broad frequency spectrum, enabling high-speed
data transmission and supporting applications like satellite communication and
broadband networks.

2. Line-of-Sight Communication: Microwaves can efficiently transmit signals between

two points without requiring physical cables, making them ideal for long-distance
communication.

3. Suitable for Remote Areas: Useful in areas where laying cables is impractical, such as
mountainous or rural regions.

4. Low Transmission Loss: Microwaves experience relatively low transmission loss,

especially at higher frequencies, ensuring signal quality over long distances.

5. Compact Equipment: Microwave communication systems often require smaller

antennas and less space compared to lower-frequency systems.

6. Versatile Applications: Widely used in various fields such as telecommunications, radar

systems, satellite communication, and medical equipment.

7. Cost-Effective for Long Distances: Eliminates the need for physical infrastructure,
reducing costs for long-distance communication.
81
Disadvantages of Microwaves:
1. Line-of-Sight Dependency: Requires an unobstructed path between transmitting
and receiving antennas, limiting its use in areas with physical obstructions like
buildings or hills.

2. Weather Sensitivity: Adversely affected by atmospheric conditions like rain, fog,

and snow, which can cause signal attenuation (rain fade).

3. Limited Range: The line-of-sight range is limited by the Earth's curvature, requiring
repeaters or satellites for very long distances.

4. Interference Issues: Susceptible to interference from other microwave systems or

electronic devices operating in the same frequency range.

5. Health Concerns: Prolonged exposure to high-intensity microwave radiation may

pose health risks, although this is regulated in most applications.

6. High Initial Costs: The setup of microwave communication systems, including

antennas, transmitters, and receivers, can be expensive.

7. Security Vulnerabilities: Microwave signals can be intercepted, making them less

secure unless proper encryption is used.
82
 Network Software
• Network software is an umbrella term used to describe a wide range of software that
streamlines the operations, design, monitoring, and implementation of computer
networks.

• Network software is a fundamental element for any networking system. It helps

administrators and security personnel reduce network complexities, and manage, monitor,
and better control network traffic. Network software plays a crucial role in managing a
network infrastructure and simplifying IT operations by facilitating communication,
security, content, and data sharing.

• Network software offers useful benefits to organizations. It has become an important tool
in facilitating round-the-clock communication and allowing an uninterrupted exchange of
information. One of the most significant advantages of network software is its direct
correlation with productivity. The centralized nature of network software increases the
productivity of the complete system. This helps reduce end-user technical support
problems.

• For example, if an end user accidentally damages their computer, the chances of losing
data are reduced substantially as all its data is already shared on the network. Another key
benefit of network software is its ability to enable programmatic management of network
resources. This eliminates the need for manual processes, thereby providing a dynamic and
efficient network configuration to work with.
83
 Functions of network software
1. Resource Sharing
• Enables sharing of hardware resources like printers, storage devices, and processors.
• Facilitates access to shared software applications and files among users.

2. Communication Management
• Provides protocols and tools to enable smooth communication between devices,
applications, and users.
• Manages data transfer using protocols like TCP/IP, ensuring error-free and reliable
communication.

3. Data Transmission Control

• Ensures proper routing of data using routing algorithms and protocols.
• Handles error detection and correction to maintain data integrity.
• Implements flow control to manage data transmission rates and avoid congestion.

4. Network Security
• Protects data and resources through encryption, authentication, and firewalls.
• Monitors and prevents unauthorized access to the network.
• Implements secure communication protocols like HTTPS, IPSec, and VPNs.

84
5. File and Application Services
• Allows centralized storage and retrieval of files.
• Supports shared access to applications and collaborative tools.

6. Support for Multiple Access

• Implements access control mechanisms to regulate user and device access.
• Manages multiple access techniques like CSMA/CD (Ethernet) and CSMA/CA (Wi-
Fi).

7. Protocol Implementation
• Implements communication protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and DNS for
application-layer services.
• Supports lower-layer protocols for data link, network, and transport functionalities.

8. Quality of Service (QoS) Management

• Prioritizes traffic to ensure optimal performance for critical applications.
• Manages bandwidth allocation and latency-sensitive services like VoIP and video
streaming.

9. Addressing and Naming

• Facilitates device identification and communication using IP addressing schemes.
• Resolves hostnames to IP addresses using DNS.

85
Advantages of Network Software
1. Efficient Resource Sharing
Enables sharing of hardware (printers, storage devices) and software resources, reducing
costs and improving utilization.
2. Enhanced Communication
Provides tools and protocols for seamless communication, such as email, file sharing,
and video conferencing.
3. Centralized Management
Facilitates centralized control of network resources, user access, and security, simplifying
administration.
4. Data Security and Privacy
Implements security measures like encryption, authentication, and firewalls to protect
sensitive data.
5. Scalability
Allows networks to expand easily by adding more users, devices, or resources without
significant changes.
6. Automation and Efficiency
Automates tasks like IP address assignment (via DHCP), software updates, and network
monitoring, reducing manual effort.
7. Fault Tolerance and Recovery
Incorporates mechanisms for backup, failover, and error correction to ensure reliability
and data recovery.

86
1. Disadvantages of Network Software
2. Complexity
Setting up and managing network software can be complex, requiring skilled personnel
and regular maintenance.
3. Cost
Purchasing, installing, and maintaining network software can be expensive, especially for
large-scale networks.
4. Security Vulnerabilities
Despite security measures, network software is susceptible to hacking, malware, and data
breaches.
5. Dependency on Network
If the network fails, services provided by the software (e.g., shared resources,
communication) become inaccessible.
6. Performance Issues
High traffic or poorly configured software can cause network congestion, latency, or
downtime.
7. Regular Updates and Licensing
Requires frequent updates and renewal of licenses, which can be time-consuming and
costly.
8. Scalability Challenges
While scalable, expanding a network can introduce compatibility and configuration
issues..

87
 Introduction to Internet
Internet is a global communication system that links together thousands of
individual networks. It allows exchange of information between two or more
computers on a network. Thus internet helps in transfer of messages through
mail, chat, video & audio conference, etc. It has become mandatory for day-to-
day activities: bills payment, online shopping and surfing, tutoring, working,
communicating with peers, etc.

 History of the Internet

The Internet came in the year 1960 with the creation of the first working model
called ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency). It allowed multiple
computers to work on a single network which was their biggest achievement at
that time. ARPANET uses packet switching to communicate multiple computer
systems under a single network. In October 1969, using ARPANET first
message was transferred from one computer to another. After that technology
continues to grow.

88
 Features of the Internet
1. Global Connectivity
The Internet connects millions of devices worldwide, enabling users to access information
and communicate with others globally.
2. Decentralization
No single entity controls the Internet, making it a decentralized system with multiple
independent networks.
3. Interoperability
Devices and systems with different hardware and software can communicate seamlessly
through standardized protocols.
4. Scalability
The Internet can accommodate an ever-growing number of devices, applications, and
users.
5. Accessibility
With minimal resources, people can access the Internet through smartphones, computers,
and other devices.
6. Multimedia Support
The Internet supports a wide range of content formats, including text, images, audio, and
video.
7. Real-time Communication
Enables instant messaging, video conferencing, and live streaming.
8. Information Sharing
Provides platforms for sharing knowledge, such as websites, social media, and cloud
storage.
89
 Applications of the Internet
1. Communication
• Email, instant messaging, and video conferencing (e.g., Zoom, WhatsApp,
Skype).
• Social networking platforms (e.g., Facebook, Twitter, Instagram).
2. Information Sharing and Retrieval
• Search engines like Google and Bing provide access to vast amounts of data.
• Educational resources such as e-books, online courses, and research
publications.
3. E-commerce
• Online shopping platforms (e.g., Amazon, eBay).
• Digital payment systems (e.g., PayPal, Google Pay).
4. Entertainment
• Online streaming services (e.g., Netflix, YouTube, Spotify).
• Gaming platforms and virtual reality experiences.
5. Education and E-learning
Online learning platforms (e.g., Coursera, Khan Academy).
Collaborative tools for virtual classrooms.
6. Healthcare
• Telemedicine for remote consultations.
• Online pharmacies and health monitoring via IoT devices.
90
7. Business Operations
• Cloud computing services for storage and software.
• Digital marketing and online advertising.
8. Science and Research
• Collaboration between researchers across the globe.
• Access to digital libraries and data repositories.
9. Navigation and Travel
• Real-time maps and GPS services (e.g., Google Maps, Waze).
• Online booking for transportation and accommodations.
10. IoT and Smart Applications
Smart homes, connected vehicles, and industrial automation.

11. Cybersecurity and Digital Identity

Tools for secure communication and identity verification.

12. Government and Public Services

• E-governance initiatives for public service delivery.
• Online tax filing and voting systems.

91
 What is an Intranet?
An intranet is owned by a single organization and is a tool for sharing
information throughout the organization. It is the type of Internet that is used
privately. Since the intranet is a private network no one can use the intranet
whose have not valid username and password. In intranet, there are a limited
number of connected devices as compared to the internet. The intranet is highly
secure and has a small number of visitors. It is used in order to get employee
information, telephone directory, etc.

 Advantages of Intranet
1. Enhanced Communication: Promotes easy flow of communication between
departments.

2. Centralized Information: Enables easy retrieval of documents and other key

resources that are used in a given process.

3. Increased Productivity: Decrease the physical time that is required in locating

information and conducting work within the organization.

4. Secure Environment: Ensures the safety of the user’s information only allows
internal personnel to access the application.
92
 Disadvantages of Intranet
1. Maintenance Costs: Need a frequent fixing and updating process which may
fancy the cost.

2. Limited Accessibility: Only accessible within the organisation which means

there may be a problem if need to involve personnel who are not physically
present at the organisation.

 What is an Extranet?
Extranet is owned by either a single or a many organization. It is managed on a
contractual basis between organizations and is a tool for sharing information
between the internal members and external members. Like intranet, it is also
a private network so only those who have a valid username and password can
use the extranet. Extranet is used to check status, access data, send mail, place
order etc.

 Advantages of Extranet
1. Improved Collaboration: Facilitates interaction with other bodies outside the
organization.
2. Secure Data Sharing: Gives a restricted access to communicate with outside
vendors or other third parties, thus protecting the TCP.
93
3. Cost-Effective: Saves on costs by doing away with physical consultations
which are often very expensive.

 Disadvantages of Extranet
1. Complex Setup: If implemented and designed properly it will be very strong
but the planning is key to security and functionality.

2. Security Risks: poses an increased risk if it is not protected which can lead to
external threats penetrating the business.

94
 Difference Between Intranet and Extranet
Intranet Extranet
Whereas Extranet is a tool for sharing
Intranet is a tool for sharing information
information between the internal members and
throughout the organization.
external members.
While Extranet is owned by either a single or a
Intranet is owned by a single organization.
many organization.
Whereas in this, security is implemented
In intranet, security is implemented through a
through a firewall in order to separate the
firewall.
extranet and the internet.
Whereas Extranet is managed by many
Intranet is managed by an organization.
organizations.
Intranet has a limited number of connected Whereas in the extranet, connected devices are
devices. comparable with the intranet.
While it is also a private network in which
Intranet is a private network type for an
public network is used in order to share the
organization.
information to the suppliers and customers.
Intranet is used in order to get employee While It is used to check status, access data,
information, telephone directory etc. send mail, place order etc.

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Intranet is the limited and compromised While Extranet is the limited and
version of Extranet. compromised version of Internet.
A particular organization is the regulating While it is regulated by multiple
authority for intranet. organizations.
It is accessible to only the members of It is accessible to members of organization
organization. as well as external members with logins.
It’s restricted area is upto an organization
It’s restricted area is upto an organization.
and some of its stakeholders.
It is derived from Internet. It is derived from Intranet.
Example: WIPRO using internal network Example: DELL and Intel using network
for its business operations. for business related operations.

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 World Wide Web (WWW):
The World Wide Web (WWW) is a vast, interconnected space within the Internet that
allows users to access information through websites and web applications. It was
developed by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989. The WWW uses the Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP) or HTTPS (secure version) for communication between web
browsers and servers.
Key Components:
Web Pages: These are documents written in HTML (Hypertext Markup
Language), often containing text, images, videos, and links to other pages.
URLs (Uniform Resource Locators): These are the addresses used to access web
pages, such as https://www.example.com.
Browsers: Web browsers (like Chrome, Firefox, Safari) allow users to navigate the
WWW by accessing web pages using URLs.
Web Servers: These are specialized computers that store and serve web content to
users.
Web Protocols: HTTP and HTTPS define how browsers and servers communicate.
HTTPS ensures encrypted communication for secure browsing.
Use Cases:
1. Information Access: The WWW allows anyone with an Internet connection to
access vast amounts of information, including news, academic articles, and
entertainment.
2. Communication: It enables communication through platforms like social media,
blogs, and email.
3. Services: Governments, businesses, and educational institutions use the web to
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provide services, such as e-commerce, e-learning, and e-government.
 E-mail (Electronic Mail):
E-mail is the process of sending digital messages over the Internet. It was invented in
the early 1970s and has become one of the most common forms of communication
today.

Key Components:
1. Email Address: An email address is typically structured as [email protected].
The domain identifies the server that will handle the email message.
2. Email Protocols:
1. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used to send emails.
2. POP (Post Office Protocol) and IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol):
Used to receive and manage emails.
3. Inbox and Folders: Email clients organize messages into an inbox and allow users
to create folders for organization.

Use Cases:
1. Instant Communication: Emails enable nearly instantaneous communication across
vast distances.
2. Professional and Personal Use: Used in both personal correspondence and business
communication, allowing for the transmission of text, images, and documents.
3. Business and Marketing: Email is a crucial tool in business operations, including
marketing campaigns, customer service, and internal communication.

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 E-commerce (Electronic Commerce)
• E-commerce refers to the buying and selling of goods and services over the internet.
It has transformed the retail industry by enabling businesses to reach global
audiences without the need for a physical store.

• E-commerce platforms typically include an online store (website or app), a payment

gateway for processing transactions, and a fulfillment system for delivering goods.
The transaction process is often secure, with encryption technologies like SSL/TLS
ensuring data safety.
Key types:
1. B2B (Business-to-Business): Businesses sell products or services to other
businesses (e.g., Alibaba, wholesale distribution).
2. B2C (Business-to-Consumer): Businesses sell products directly to consumers
(e.g., Amazon, eBay, Zara).
3. C2C (Consumer-to-Consumer): Consumers sell products to other consumers
(e.g., Craigslist, eBay auctions).
4. C2B (Consumer-to-Business): Consumers offer services or products to businesses
(e.g., freelance websites like Upwork).

Applications: Online shopping, digital marketplaces, auctions, online payment

systems (PayPal, Stripe), and digital goods (e-books, music, software).

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 E-learning (Electronic Learning):
E-learning refers to the use of digital platforms to deliver educational content and
facilitate learning activities. With the rise of online education, especially during the
COVID-19 pandemic, e-learning has grown significantly.

Key Components:
1. Learning Management Systems (LMS): Platforms like Moodle, Blackboard, and
Canvas that organize courses, track progress, and provide resources for learners.
2. Virtual Classrooms: Tools like Zoom or Microsoft Teams enable real-time
interaction between teachers and students.
3. Online Assessments: Quizzes, assignments, and exams can be conducted digitally,
often automatically graded.

Impact and Use Cases:

1. Accessibility: E-learning makes education accessible to students regardless of
location, enabling lifelong learning.
2. Flexibility: Learners can study at their own pace, taking courses when it fits their
schedule.
3. Cost-Effective: Online courses can be less expensive than traditional education,
offering a more affordable route to gaining skills.

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 E-Governance (Electronic Governance):
E-governance is the use of digital technologies by government organizations to provide
services, interact with citizens, and improve transparency and efficiency.

Key Components:
1. Online Services: Governments provide services like tax filing, social security
registration, and e-voting through digital platforms.
2. Digital Transparency: Governments use websites to publish information, such as
public records, budgets, and policy updates.
3. Citizen Engagement: Social media, online forums, and digital platforms enable
citizens to participate in decision-making processes and provide feedback.

Use Cases:
1. Efficiency and Transparency: E-governance reduces corruption, increases
transparency, and allows for quicker response times.
2. Accessibility: Citizens can access government services and information without the
need for in-person visits, making services more accessible.
3. Public Participation: Digital platforms make it easier for the public to participate in
governance, such as through online petitions or e-voting.

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 E-Banking (Electronic Banking):
E-banking involves using electronic systems to perform banking operations, such as
money transfers, balance checks, and bill payments, without needing to visit a physical
branch.

Key Components:
1. Internet Banking: Banks provide online portals for customers to access their
accounts, transfer funds, and pay bills.
2. Mobile Banking: Mobile apps allow customers to perform banking transactions on
smartphones or tablets.
3. ATMs: Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) allow users to withdraw cash, check
balances, and perform other banking tasks.
4. Digital Payment Systems: Services like PayPal, Google Pay, and Apple Pay enable
quick, online financial transactions.

Use Cases:
1. Convenience: E-banking allows users to manage their finances anywhere and
anytime, without the need to visit a bank in person.
2. Security: Digital banking platforms are equipped with security measures like
encryption and two-factor authentication to protect user data.
3. Global Transactions: E-banking facilitates international transfers, allowing users to
send and receive money across borders quickly and securely.

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 Protocol
A protocol is a set of rules that governs (control) the data communications. A
protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is
communicated.

The key elements of a protocols are :

1. Syntax (format)
2. Semantics (meaning)
3. Timing

1. Syntax:
• Syntax refers to the structure or the format of the data that gets exchanged
between the devices.
• It indicates how to read the bit-field delineation (border or boundary).
• Syntax should be the same in sender and receiver for communications.

2. Semantics:
• Semantics defines data transmitted between devices. It provides rules and norms
for understanding message or data element values and actions.

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3. Timing:
• Timing refers to the synchronization and coordination between devices while
transferring the data.
• This term mainly refers to two characteristics: At what time the data should be
sent and how fast data can be sent.

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 TCP/IP
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a suite of
communication protocols that define the standards for transmitting data over
computer networks, including the internet. The TCP/IP protocol is the
foundation of the internet and enables devices to communicate with each other
using a common language.

 Working of TCP/IP
In simple terms, TCP takes care of how data is transferred in a network.

1. It breaks down the data into smaller packets that can be shared across a network
effectively.
2. At the receiver's end, TCP helps to arrange the data packets into a specific order
to convey the initial information transferred through the web.
3. To share the data packets, we should have a particular address. Each connection
will have a specific IP address. It helps the transmitter to know the destination.
4. The IP address consists of two addresses: of the receiver and the sender. The
subnet mask divides and helps to identify the two addresses from one another.

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Characteristics of TCP/IP:
1. Share Data Transfer: The TCP allows applications to create channels of
communications across a network. It also permits a message to be separated into
smaller packets before they are transmitted over the web and after that collected
in the right order at the destination address. So, it guarantees the solid
transmission of data across the channel.

2. Internet Protocol: The IP address tells the packets the address and route so that
they reach the proper destination. It includes a strategy that empowers portal
computers on the internet-connected to arrange forward the message after
checking the IP address.

3. Reliability: The most vital feature of TCP is solid data delivery. In arrange to
supply unwavering quality, TCP must recover information that’s harmed,
misplaced, copied, or conveyed out of arranging by the Arrange Layer.

4. Connections: Before application forms can send information by utilizing TCP,

the devices must set up a connection. The associations are made between the
harbor numbers of the sender and the collector devices.
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5. Compatibility: TCP/IP is designed to be compatible with a wide range of
hardware and software platforms. This makes it a versatile protocol suite that
can be used in a variety of network environments.

6. Scalability: TCP/IP is highly scalable, which means that it can be used in

networks of any size, from small home networks to large enterprise networks.

7. Open standards: TCP/IP is based on open standards, which means that the
protocol specifications are publicly available and can be implemented by
anyone. This fosters innovation and competition in the networking industry.

8. Reliability: TCP/IP is designed to be highly reliable, with built-in error

checking and correction mechanisms that ensure data is transmitted accurately
and reliably.
9. Flexibility: TCP/IP is a flexible protocol suite that can be used for a wide range
of applications, including web browsing, email, file sharing, and more.

10. End-to-end connectivity: TCP/IP provides end-to-end connectivity between

devices, which means that data can be transmitted directly from the source
device to the destination device without being routed through intermediate
devices.
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  Application Layer Protocols:
 What is Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)?
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the foundation of data communication
on the World Wide Web. It is an application-layer protocol used for transmitting
hypermedia documents, such as HTML. HTTP is designed for communication
between web browsers and web servers, allowing users to access and interact
with web pages and other web resources.

HTTP is designed to transfer information between networked devices and runs

on top of other layers of the network protocol stack. A typical flow over HTTP
involves a client machine making a request to a server, which then sends a
response message.

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  Application Layer Protocols:
 HTTP Request
HTTP request is simply termed as the information or data that is needed by
Internet browsers for loading a website. This is simply known as HTTP Request.

There is some common information that is generally present in all HTTP requests.
These are mentioned below.
1. HTTP Version
2. URL
3. HTTP Method
4. HTTP Request Headers
5. HTTP Body

• HTTP Request Headers

HTTP Request Headers generally store information in the form of key-value and
must be present in each HTTP Request. The use of this Request Header is to provide
core information about the client’s information, etc.

• HTTP Request Body

HTTP Request Body simply contains the information that has to be transferred.
HTTP Request has the information or data to be sent to these browsers.
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• HTTP Method
HTTP Methods are simply HTTP Verb. In spite of being present so many HTTP
Methods, the most common HTTP Methods are HTTP GET and HTTP POST.
These two are generally used in HTTP cases. In HTTP GET, the information is
received in the form of a website.

 HTTP Response
HTTP Response is simply the answer to what a Server gets when the request is
raised.
There are various things contained in HTTP Response. some of them are listed
below.
1. HTTP Status Code
2. HTTP Headers
3. HTTP Body

• HTTP Response Headers

HTTP Response headers are simply like an HTTP Request where it has that work to
send some important files and data to the HTTP Response Body.

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  Application Layer Protocols:
• HTTP Response Body
HTTP Responses are the responses that are received successfully upon the request.
Generally, it comes under the requests generated by the web. In most cases, the
request is of transferring the HTML data into a webpage.

HTTP Status Code

HTTP Status Codes are the 3-Digit codes that tell the message or simply tell us about
the HTTP Request whether it has been completed or not. There are simply 5 types of
status codes.

 Features of HTTP:
1. Stateless Protocol: Each HTTP request from a client to server is independent,
and the server does not retain any session information between requests. This
means that each request is treated as a new request, without any memory of
previous interactions.

2. Request-Response Model: HTTP operates on a request-response model, where

a client (usually a web browser) sends a request to a server, and the server
responds with the requested resource or an error message.

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3. Methods (Verbs): HTTP defines a set of request methods to indicate the desired
action to be performed on the identified resource. The most common methods
include:
a. GET: Retrieve data from the server.
b. POST: Send data to the server to create a new resource.
c. PUT: Update an existing resource on the server.
d. DELETE: Remove a resource from the server.
e. HEAD: Retrieve metadata of a resource without the body.
f. OPTIONS: Describe the communication options for the target resource.
g. PATCH: Apply partial modifications to a resource.
4. HTTP Headers: Both requests and responses in HTTP can include headers,
which provide metadata about the request or response. Common headers include
Content-Type (indicating the media type of the resource), Authorization
(credentials for authentication), User-Agent (information about the client), and
many others.
5. Status Codes: The server's response includes a status code indicating the result
of the request. Common status codes include:
• 200 OK: The request was successful.
• 404 Not Found: The requested resource was not found.
• 500 Internal Server Error: The server encountered an error.
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  Application Layer Protocols:
6. Secure HTTP (HTTPS): HTTPS is the secure version of HTTP, where
communication is encrypted using Transport Layer Security (TLS) or its
predecessor, Secure Sockets Layer (SSL). HTTPS ensures data privacy and
integrity between the client and server.

 Evolution and Versions:

HTTP has evolved over time to accommodate new needs and improve
performance:
1. HTTP/0.9: In 1991, The first version, very simple and limited.
2. HTTP/1.0: In 1996, Introduced more features like non persistent connection,
including HTTP headers and status codes.
3. HTTP/1.1: In January 1997, Improved performance and features like
persistent connections, chunked transfer encoding, and more status
codes. updates to the HTTP version 1.1 standard were released under RFC
2616 in June 1999.
4. HTTP/2: In May 14, 2015, Focused on performance improvements with
multiplexing (multiple requests over a single connection), header
compression, and server push.
5. HTTP/3: Currently under development and uses QUIC (a transport layer
protocol) instead of TCP, aiming to further reduce latency and improve
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  Application Layer Protocols:
 Advantages of HTTP
1. Memory usage and CPU usage are low because of fewer simultaneous
connections.
2. Since there are few TCP connections hence network congestion is less.
3. Since handshaking is done at the initial connection stage, then latency is reduced
because there is no further need for handshaking for subsequent requests.
4. The error can be reported without closing the connection.
5. HTTP allows HTTP pipe-lining of requests or responses.

 Disadvantages of HTTP
1. HTTP requires high power to establish communication and transfer data.
2. HTTP is less secure because it does not use any encryption method like HTTPS
and use TLS to encrypt regular HTTP requests and response.
3. HTTP is not optimized for cellular phones and it is too gabby.
4. HTTP does not offer a genuine exchange of data because it is less secure.
5. The client does not close the connection until it receives complete data from the
server; hence, the server needs to wait for data completion and cannot be
available for other clients during this time.

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  Application Layer Protocols:

 Cookies in HTTP
An HTTP cookie (web cookie, browser cookie) is a little piece of data that a
server transmits to a user’s web browser. When making subsequent queries, the
browser may keep the cookie and transmit it back to the same server. An HTTP
cookie is typically used, for example, to maintain a user’s login state, to
determine whether two requests originate from the same browser. For the
stateless HTTP protocol, it retains stateful information.

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  Application Layer Protocols:

 File Transfer Protocol(FTP) :

File Transfer Protocol(FTP) is an application layer protocol. FTP (File Transfer
Protocol) is a standard network protocol used for the transfer of files from one host
to another over a TCP-based network, such as the Internet.

 FTP stands for File transfer protocol.

 FTP is a standard internet protocol provided by TCP/IP used for transmitting the
files from one host to another.

 It is mainly used for transferring the web page files from their creator to the
computer that acts as a server for other computers on the internet.

 It is also used for downloading the files to computer from other servers.

 Objectives of FTP
 It provides the sharing of files.
 It is used to encourage the use of remote computers.
 It transfers the data more reliably and efficiently.
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  Application Layer Protocols:
 Mechanism of FTP

The above figure shows the basic model of the FTP. The FTP client has three
components: the user interface, control process, and data transfer process. The
server has two components: the server control process and the server data
transfer process.

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  Application Layer Protocols:

 There are two types of connections in FTP:

1. Control Connection: The control connection uses very simple rules for
communication. Through control connection, we can transfer a line of
command or line of response at a time. The control connection is made
between the control processes. The control connection remains connected
during the entire interactive FTP session.

2. Data Connection: The Data Connection uses very complex rules as data
types may vary. The data connection is made between data transfer processes.
The data connection opens when a command comes for transferring the files
and closes when the file is transferred.
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  Application Layer Protocols:
 Advantages of FTP:
1. Speed: One of the biggest advantages of FTP is speed. The FTP is one of the
fastest way to transfer the files from one computer to another computer.
2. Efficient: It is more efficient as we do not need to complete all the operations to
get the entire file.
3. Security: To access the FTP server, we need to login with the username and
password. Therefore, we can say that FTP is more secure.
4. Back & forth movement: FTP allows us to transfer the files back and forth.
Suppose you are a manager of the company, you send some information to all
the employees, and they all send information back on the same server.

 Disadvantages of FTP:
1. FTP does not encrypt the data this is one of the biggest drawbacks of FTP.
2. File size limit is the drawback of FTP only 2 GB size files can be transferred.
3. More then one receivers are not supported by FTP.
4. It is not compatible with every system.

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  Application Layer Protocols:
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP):
 SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.

 SMTP is an application layer protocol that is a set of communication guidelines that

allow software to transmit an electronic mail (message) over the internet is called Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol.

 It is a program used for sending messages to other computer users based on e-mail
addresses.

 It provides a mail exchange between users on the same or different computers, and it also
supports:
 It can send a single message to one or more recipients.
 Sending message can include text, voice, video or graphics.
 It can also send the messages on networks outside the internet.

 The main purpose of SMTP is used to set up communication rules between servers. The
servers have a way of identifying themselves and announcing what kind of
communication they are trying to perform. They also have a way of handling the errors
such as incorrect email address. For example, if the recipient address is wrong, then
receiving server reply with an error message of some kind.

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  Application Layer Protocols:

 Components of SMTP

1. Mail User Agent (MUA): It is a computer application that helps you in sending
and retrieving mail. It is responsible for creating email messages for transfer to
the mail transfer agent(MTA).

2. Mail Submission Agent (MSA): It is a computer program that receives mail

from a Mail User Agent(MUA) and interacts with the Mail Transfer Agent(MTA)
for the transfer of the mail.

3. Mail Transfer Agent (MTA): It is software that has the work to transfer mail
from one system to another with the help of SMTP.

4. Mail Delivery Agent (MDA): A mail Delivery agent or Local Delivery Agent is
basically a system that helps in the delivery of mail to the local system.

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  Application Layer Protocols:
 Working of SMTP :

The working of SMTP is a three-step process and is based on the client/server

model.
 In the first step, an email server sends the email (message) from an email
client such as Gmail, Outlook, etc., to an email server using SMTP;
 in the second step, the email server using SMTP sends the email to the
receiving email server.
 In the third step, the receiver server uses an email client to download incoming
mail via IMAP and place it in the inbox of the recipient.
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  Application Layer Protocols:
 Let's understand in an easy way:
1. Submission of Mail: The mail client submits the completed mail to the SMTP
server by using SMTP on TCP port 25.
2. Delivery of Mail: The SMTP server divides the recipient mail address into two
parts: recipient's username and domain name. For example, [email protected],
where "rocky" is the username of the recipient and "gmail.com" is the domain
name.
If the domain name of the sender and recipient are same, the SMTP server
directs the email towards POP3 server for domain using the delivery agent. If
their domain names are different, Mail Submission Agent (MSA) sends the mail
to the Mail Transfer Agent (MTA), which searches the MX record from the
Domain Name System to obtain the recipient's domain. The MX record contains
information about the user's domain and IP address. Once, the domain is
located, MTA connects to the exchange server to transfer the mail.
3. Receipt and Processing of Mail: After receiving the incoming message, the
exchange server transfers the message to the incoming server (Mail Delivery
Agent), which holds the mail until the user gets it.
4. Access and Retrieval of Mail: The email stored in the MDA is retrieved by
using MUA (Mail User Agent), which can be accessed by using login id and
password.
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  Application Layer Protocols:
 Characteristics of SMTP
1. SMTP makes use of Port 25.
2. It makes use of persistent TCP connections and thus can send multiple emails
all at once.
3. It is a stateless protocol.
4. It is a connection-oriented protocol.
5. It makes use of TCP at the transport layer.
6. It is a push control protocol.

 Advantages of SMTP
1. SMTP offers reliability in terms of the outgoing email messages.
2. It is the simplest form of communication between various computers in a
network via Email.
3. Low cost and wide coverage area.
4. Offer choices for email tracking.
5. Reliable and prompt email delivery.

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  Application Layer Protocols:
 Disadvantages of SMTP
1. SMTP’s common port can be blocked by several firewalls.

2. SMTP security is a bigger problem.

3. Its simplicity restricts how useful it can be.

4. Just 7-bit ASCII characters can be used.

5. If a message is longer than a certain length, SMTP servers may reject the entire
message.

6. Delivering your message will typically involve additional back-and-forth

processing between servers, which will delay sending and raise the likelihood
that it won’t be sent.

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  Application Layer Protocols:

 POP Protocol
POP stands for Post Office Protocol. The POP protocol was published in the year
1984. POP has been updated two times namely “POP2” and “POP3”. The POP
protocol is an Internet Standard Protocol that works on the application layer.. As we
know that SMTP is used as a message transfer agent. When the message is sent,
then SMPT is used to deliver the message from the client to the server and then to
the recipient server. But the message is sent from the recipient server to the actual
server with the help of the Message Access Agent. The Message Access Agent
contains two types of protocols, i.e., POP3 and IMAP.

 What is POP3?
POP 3 stands for Post Office Protocol Version 3. POP3 protocol is used to provide
access to the mail inbox that is stored in the email server. POP3 protocol can
download and delete messages. Once the POP3 client has established a connection
with the mail server it can easily retrieve all the messages from the server. The user
can access the messages locally even if the user is offline. Every time the client
needs to check manually for new messages as POP3 Protocol provides the feature of
real-time synchronization. Various email applications such as Microsoft Outlook,
Apple Mail, Gmail supports POP3 protocol.
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  Application Layer Protocols:

 POP3 Ports
POP3 makes use of two network ports. They are:

• Port 110: Port 110 is a default TCP port used by POP3. But It has a disadvantage
that it does not support encrypted communication.

• Port 995: Port 995 is majorly used for more secure applications. Port 995 is
a Transport Layer Security (TLS) or Secure Socket Layer (SSL) port used to
provide more security.
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  Application Layer Protocols:

 Working of POP3

1. Initially, POP3 needs to establish a connection between the POP client and the
POP server.
2. Once a secure connection is established several commands are exchanged
between them to perform the task.
3. Once a connection is established client requests available email messages.
4. The Server sends the available messages along with their size and unique
identifier number.
5. Once the client receives the message, it makes a request to the server for
downloading the messages. The user marks such messages and sends them to
the server.
6. Upon receiving from the client-server sends the messages selected by the
client and accordingly marks them as read or unread.
7. The client if want sends a request for deleting the messages.
8. Once the tasks are completed the client sends a close connection request to the
server
9. The server then sends an acknowledgment to the client and closes the
connection.
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  Application Layer Protocols:
Advantages of POP3
1. The message can be read offline also.
2. POP3 requires less storage space.
3. POP3 is easy to use and configure.
4. POP3 is supported by many email applications.
5. Since our PC already has the emails stored there, accessing them is quick and
simple.
6. The size of emails we send and receive is unrestricted.
7. Since all emails are kept locally, less server storage space is needed.

Disadvantages of POP3
1. POP3 does not provide the feature of real-time synchronization.
2. If an email consists of virus attachments it can affect the system easily.
3. POP3 does not support accessing the same email at the same time on different
systems.
4. At a time entire email folder can be discarded.
5. It is also possible for the email folder that is downloaded from the mail server
to get corrupted.
6. Since the emails are kept locally, anyone using your computer can access the
email folder.
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  Application Layer Protocols:
 What is IMAP?
Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is an application layer protocol that
operates as a contract for receiving emails from the mail server. It was designed by
Mark Crispin in 1986 as a remote access mailbox protocol, the current version
of IMAP is IMAP4. It is used as the most commonly used protocol for retrieving
emails. This term is also known as Internet mail access protocol, Interactive mail
access protocol, and Interim mail access protocol. IMAP retrieves all of your recent
messages from your email provider by getting in touch with it. They are removed
from the email service as soon as you download them to your Mac or PC. This
implies that the email can only be viewed on the same computer after it has been
downloaded. You won’t be able to access the previously downloaded messages if you
attempt to access your email on a different device.

 Features of IMAP
1. It is capable of managing multiple mailboxes and organizing them into various
categories.
2. Provides adding of message flags to keep track of which messages are being
seen.
3. It is capable of deciding whether to retrieve email from a mail server before
downloading.
4. It makes it easy to download media when multiple files are attached.
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  Application Layer Protocols:
 Working of IMAP
IMAP follows Client-server Architecture and is the most commonly used email
protocol. It is a combination of client and server process running on other computers
that are connected through a network. This protocol resides over the TCP/IP
protocol for communication. Once the communication is set up the server listens on
port 143 by default which is non-encrypted. For the secure encrypted
communication port, 993 is used.

1. Email client Gmail establishes a connection with Gmail’s SMTP server.

2. By approving the sender’s and recipient’s email addresses, the SMTP server
verifies (authenticates) that the email can be sent.
3. The email is sent to the Outlook SMTP server by Gmail’s SMTP server.
4. The recipient’s email address is authenticated by the Outlook SMTP server.
5. IMAP or POP3 is used by the Outlook SMTP server to deliver the email to the
Outlook email client.
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  Application Layer Protocols:

Advantages
1. It offers synchronization across all the maintained sessions by the user.
2. It provides security over POP3 protocol as the email only exists on the IMAP
server.
3. Users have remote access to all the contents.
4. It offers easy migration between the devices as it is synchronized by a
centralized server.
5. There is no need to physically allocate any storage to save contents.

Disadvantages
1. IMAP is complex to maintain.
2. Emails of the user are only available when there is an internet connection.
3. It is slower to load messages.
4. Some emails don’t support IMAP which makes it difficult to manage.

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Difference Between POP3 and IMAP
POP3 IMAP
IMAP (Internet Message Access
POP is a simple protocol that only allows
Protocol) is much more advanced and
downloading messages from your Inbox
allows the user to see all the folders on
to your local computer.
the mail server.

The POP server listens on port 110, and The IMAP server listens on port 143, and
the POP with SSL secure(POP3DS) server the IMAP with SSL secure(IMAPDS) server
listens on port 995 listens on port 993.

In POP3 the mail can only be accessed Messages can be accessed across
from a single device at a time. multiple devices

To read the mail it has to be downloaded The mail content can be read partially
on the local system. before downloading

The user can not create, delete or The user can create, delete or rename
rename email on the mail server. an email on the mail server.

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Best Of Luck

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