3.

1 Generalist & Specialist Species

● Natural and anthropogenic changes to environments lead to changes to habitat &
organisms have to adapt quickly
○ Some species can adapt quickly and others are better suited for stable
environments
● Racoons are generalist, having no habitat/food specific requirements
○ they can live in forests, mountains, large cities, rural/suburban areas
○ they live throughout almost all of North America
○ they are omnivores and eat fruit, nuts, frogs, human trash, etc
● Mule deer are another generalist species example
● Giant Pandas are specialist species
○ they are only found in southwestern China, along Tibetan Plateau
○ they live in mountain forests at an altitude of 4000-11500 ft
○ more than 99% of their diet is bamboo/branches & they consume a lot a day

Generalist Specialist

Live in variety of environments Require a specific habitat

Eat variety of food Limited diet

Broad ecological tolerance for environmental Narrow ecological tolerance for

conditions environmental conditions

Have an advantage when the environment Have an advantage in constant/stable habitats

changes

Mountain Gorillas = specialist; live in high altitude, have thick fur

for it but are being pushed up due to human encroachment

Rats = generalists; arrived from Euriope and spread quickly

because they thrive in broad range of environments and eat almost
anything

Why are specialist species advantaged in habitats that remain constant, while generalist species
are more advantaged in habitats that are changing? In habitat disturbances, specialists cannot
adapt to use other food sources/habitats as quickly as generalists can. Generalists can reproduce
and adapt quickly to a variety of resources.
Is it better to be a generalist or a specialist? In a stable environment, specialists have an
advantage because they are really good at what they do and can outcompete other species.
However, with changing environments, generalist species are advantaged because they are able
to reproduce and survive with their large ecological tolerances.
3.2 K-Selected & R-Selected Species

K-selected species r-selected species

● tend to be large ● tend to be small

● have few offspring/reproduction event ● have many offspring
● expend significant energy for each ● expend or invest minimal energy for
offspring each offspring
● mature after many years of parental ● mature early; have short life spans
care; have long lifespans ● may reproduce only once in their
● reproduce more than once in their lifespan
lifetime ● are able to thrive in disturbed
● live in stable environments environments
● competition for resources in ● competition for resources in r-selected
K-selected species’ habitats is usually species’ habitats is typically relatively
relatively high low
● tend to be specialist ● tend to be generalist

● Giant Panda → K-selected species

○ give birth to two offspring, usually only one cub survives
○ cubs may stay with mothers for up to 3 years & don’t reach sexual maturity until
4-8 yrs old
○ females only produce 5-8 cubs in her lifetime
○ lifespan = 14-20 years
● Mosquitos → r-selected
○ adult mosquitoes mate within the first few days after emerging
○ they live 3-5 days after mating
○ they lay up to 100 eggs at a time; eggs are hardy & overwinter
● Populations have different capacities for growth: biotic potential is the maximum
reproductive rate of a population in ideal
conditions
● Many organisms cannot be categorized as
strictly r-selected or K-selected; the
classification is a continuum
○ Sea turtles have traits of both, having a
long life-span & are large (K), but
produce a large number of eggs that they abandon (r)
○ Ospreys & Eagles can also be both
● The reproductive strategy is a product of adaptation/natutal selection
 ● identifying differences between k-selected and r-selected is helpful for managing
populations and understanding how to control invasive species

Why are most invasive species r selected? Most invasive species are r-selected because they have
high reproductive potential, mature quickly and thus are able to colonize areas quickly to
outcompete native species.

Why are K-selected species typically more adversely affected by invasive species than r-selected
species? They are typically specialists that have a low population growth while invasive species
are generalists that quickly reproduce and take over a habitat. R-selected are minimally affected
by invasive species because they can easily switch to a different resource to avoid competition.

3.3 Survivorship Curves

● Type 1 → a large % of population survives to adulthood because they can provide care
for their young and thus increase their chance of survival to old age
● Type 3 → a small percent of the population live to adulthood because they provide no
parental care therefore there is a high infant mortality rate
○ Mountain gorillas provide a lot of parental care → Type 1 & K-selected
○ Monarch butterfly have a lot of kids and not many live—> Type 3 & R-selected
● Survivorship curves gives insight to K/r selected species
● Ecologists can calculate how many females will survive to reproduction age and use that
data to determine the population growth rate, important information for managing species

3.4 Carrying Capacity

● Eventually population reaches carrying capacity, meaning
maximum number of organisms the environment can support
without degradation of resources
○ sometimes there is an overshoot of the carrying
capacity (and an overshoot of the maximum # of
 organisms the env can support) and experience dieback, bringing it back below K

● Population size can oscillate with predator/prey relationships

● Dieback can also be catastrophic
○ EX: 29 reindeer were introduced to an island & the population exploded because
there were no natural predators, and then there were no resources
● R-selected species grow at rapid rate of reproduction & likely to overshoot K
● K-selected species can better regulate reproduction; will oscillate/stay closer to
● Carrying capacity is not constant
○ If there are abundant resources, it can support large populations
○ If there are limited resources, they cannot
● When it exceeds K, it results in resource depletion & grazing animals can overgraze
● Lack of resources can lead to famine, disease/conflict, which results in dieback
● Overshoot can occur due to lag time; reproduction rates are high and competition/disease
increase death rates
● The factors that determine K are complex and can affect the entire ecosystem
3.5 Population Growth & Resource Availability
● Environmental Resistance: factors that limit growth (intersects with carrying capacity)

Density Dependent Resistance Factors Density Independent Resistance Factors

Tend to be biotic Tend to be abiotic

Have a strong influence when the number of Have an affect on all populations, regardless
organisms per unit area reach a certain level of size/density

Competition for resources Natural Disasters

Predation Drought

Parasitism/Disease

All populations,
regardless of K or r
selected, start out
small
exponentially. After
competition comes
into play, logistic
growth happens.
 ● Fecundity = the ability to produce offspring (how many offspring can they produce, when
do they, etc)
○ EX: As the population of frogs increases and resources become scarce, females
will produce fewer offspring; they will have lower fecundity

B = a population controlled by density

dependent factors; K-selected

A = a population that will eventually

experience dieback; r-selected

By interpreting population data, we can get an

idea about how organisms in a population are
using resources, which we need to know how
to manage populations/their resources.

3.6 Age Structure Diagrams

Age structure diagram = Population Pyramid
○ meant to show the distribution of ages in a certain population
○ divided by males & females
○ not always pyramidal
Parts of the Pyramid – they are graphs
○ x-axis: # of individuals, each side being male or female (could be in thousands,
millions, percentages)
○ y-axis: tends to be the center of diagrams, shows age groups
○ age groups are subdivided into by
reproductive ability (for females)
■ prereproductive: 0-14 yrs
■ reproductive: 15-45 yrs
■ postproductie: 46-100 yrs
● Population Growth rates can be interpreted
from age structure diagrams by the shape of
the structure
● A rapidly growing population will, as a rule have a higher proportion of younger people
compared to stable or declining populations
● Age structures diagrams come in many shapes
○ Bottom Heavy: population is growing quickly
■ pyramid shape, wide base
 ■ younger is largest & they will be reproducing longer
■ indicates developing nation because more children for labor
■ EX: Mexico, Brazil, Nigeria, India
○ Middle Heavy: population growth is stable
■ rectangular shape.
■ reproductive age groups have similar %s
■ not as many younger groups for reproduction
■ nations are developed and well off & not as much pressure for kids for
labor
■ EX: US, Canada, Australia, Sweden
○ Top Heavy: population may be negative/declining
■ inverted pyramid shape
■ larger % of the population is closer to post-reproductive
■ economically & socially developed, high edu common & that’s why they
delay having kids
■ long term social services many be impacted — not as many young people
paying taxes
■ EX: Japan, Russia, Germany, Italy

3.7 Total Fertility Rate

● Total Fertility Rate (TFR) = average number of children a woman has during her
childbearing years (15-49)
○ Meant to show average rate, thus a decimal
○ Current rate is currently = 2.5
● Developing nations have a TFR above 2.1 & may be as high as 6 or 7
○ Niger = 7.6, Democratic Republic of Congo = 6.3, Uganda = 6.2
● Developed nations have a TFR at or below 2.1, meaning slower growth
○ UK = 2.0, Japan = 1.4, USA = 1.8
● Societal factors affecting TFR
○ age of first pregnancy
○ educational opportunities
■ more edu for women = more time in workforce & less time for kids
○ family planning
○ less of a need for children in the workforce as country develops= less kids
 ○ cost of having children
○ government policies regulating children
■ the gov may give tax benefits for those who have less children
○ infant mortality rates related to healthcare access
● Globally, TFR has lowered overtimes, but some countries still have a higher TFR
3.8 Human Population Dynamics
● Human populations are affected by natural factors & (unlike non-human populations),
societal & economic factors also play a role
● What are societal factors affecting human populations?
Factors High Rate Low Rate

Birth Rate Speeds population growth Slows population growth

Death Rate Slows population growth Speeds population growth

Infant Mortality Rate Slows population growth Speeds population growth

Nutrition Speeds population growth Slows population growth

Education of women (most Slows population growth Speeds population growth

important of this list)

Age of Marriage Late — Slows population Early — Speeds population

growth growth
● Human populations have limits & experience carrying capacity
● According to Malthus, all populations have carrying capacity
● Human populations are limited by density-independent and density-dependent factors
○ Density-Independent: storms, fires, heat waves, drought
■ high density counties drop in population after hurricanes because damage
to homes, economic loss, and better opportunities from moving away
○ Density-Dependent: disease, territory size, food availability, access to food/clean
water
● Life expectancy can increase healthcare access, so less people die from diseases so they
can be treated
● Doubling time = amount of time for a population to double at a constant growth rate
○ needs to be memorized for the AP Exam
○ it is calculated using rule of 70
○ r = growth rate of population (needs to be a number percentage)
■ ex: 0.015 needs to be converted to 1.5%

70/r = Doubling Time (in years)

3.9 Demographic Transition
● Demographic Transition is a model that shows trends in birth rate, death rate, and the
total population
○ derived from historical data as development of a nation progresses
● Nations tend to move towards industrialization
○ change from agricultural to industrial economics
○ Agriculture lead to younger nations/populations having high infant mortality
children are needed in workforce
○ Happens in phases:

● Demographic transition is a model showing how a nation's population, birth & death rate
are historically correlated
● Less developed countries are in the later part of stage 2, early part of stage 3, undergoing
industrialization
● Under the demographic transition model, population starts growing slow, speeds up in the
middle, and ends with little to no growth