Topic 4: The Linux Operating System

4.2 Understanding Computer Hardware

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 1

 1. Key Knowledge Areas
• Hardware

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 2

 2.Partial list of the used files, terms and utilities

• Motherboards, processors, power supplies, optical drives,

peripherals
• Hard drives, solid state disks and partitions, /dev/sd*
• Drivers

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 3

 3. Introduction to Understanding Computer Hardware
Without hardware, software is nothing more than another form of literature.
●
Hardware processes the commands described by the software and provides mechanisms for storage, input, and
output.
●
Even the cloud is ultimately backed by hardware. As an operating system, one of Linux' responsibilities is providing
software with interfaces to access a system’s hardware.
●
Most configuration specifics are beyond the scope of this lesson.
●
However, users are often concerned with the performance, capacity, and other factors of system hardware since
they impact the ability of a system to adequately support specific applications.
●
This lesson discusses hardware as separate physical items using standard connectors and interfaces.
●
The standards are relatively static. But the form factor, performance, and capacity characteristics of hardware are
constantly evolving.
●
Regardless of how changes may blur physical distinctions the conceptual aspects of hardware described in this
lesson still apply.

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 4

 4. Power Supplies
All of the active components in a computer system require electricity to operate. Unfortunately, most sources of
electricity are not appropriate. Computer system hardware requires specific voltages with relatively tight tolerances.
●
Which is not what is available from your local wall outlet.
●
Power supplies normalize available sources of power. Standard voltage requirements allow manufacturers to create
hardware components that can be used in systems anywhere in the world.
●
Desktop power supplies tend to use the electricity from wall outlets as a source.
●
Server power supplies tend to be more critical so they can often connect to multiple sources to assure that they
continue operating if one source fails.
●
Consuming power generates heat. Excessive heat can cause system components to operate slowly or even fail. Most
systems have some form of fan to move air for more efficient cooling.
●
Components such as processors often generate heat that air flow alone cannot dissipate.
●
These hot components attach special fins known as heat sinks to help dissipate the heat they generate.
●
Heat sinks often have their own small local fan to ensure adequate air flow.

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 5

 5. Motherboard
All of a system’s hardware needs to interconnect. A motherboard normalizes that interconnection using standardized
connectors and form factors.
●
It also provides support for the configuration and electrical needs of those connectors.
●
There are a large number of motherboard configurations. They support different processors and memory systems.
●
They have different combinations of standardized connectors. And they adapt to the different sizes of the packaging that
contains them.
●
Except perhaps for the ability to connect specific external devices, motherboard configuration is effectively transparent to
users.
●
Administrators are mostly exposed to motherboard configuration when there is a need to identify specific devices.
●
When power is first applied there is motherboard specific hardware that must be configured and initialized before the
system can operate.
●
Motherboards use programming stored in nonvolatile memory known as firmware to deal with motherboard specific
hardware.
●
The original form of motherboard firmware was known as BIOS (Basic Input/Output System).

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 6

 5. Motherboard Cont
Beyond basic configuration settings BIOS was mostly responsible for identifying, loading, and transferring
operation to an operating system such as Linux.
●
As hardware evolved, firmware expanded to support larger disks, diagnostics, graphical interfaces,
networking, and other advanced capabilities independent of any loaded operating system.
●
Early attempts to advance firmware beyond basic BIOS was often specific to a motherboard manufacturer.
Intel defined a standard for advanced firmware known as EFI (Extensible Firmware Interface).
●
Intel contributed EFI to a standards organization to create UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface).
●
Today, most motherboards use UEFI. BIOS and EFI are almost never seen on recent systems.
Regardless, most people still refer to motherboard firmware as BIOS.
●
There are very few firmware settings of interest to general users so only individuals responsible for system
hardware configuration typically need to deal with firmware and its settings.
●
One of the few commonly changed options is enabling virtualization extensions of modern CPUs.

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 7

 6. Memory
System memory holds the data and program code of currently running applications. When they
●
talk about computer memory most people are referring to this system memory. Another common
●
term used for system memory is the acronym RAM (Random Access Memory) or some variation of
●
that acronym. Sometimes references to the physical packaging of the system memory such as DIMM,
SIMM or DDR are also used.
●
Physically, system memory is usually packaged on individual circuit board modules that plug into
the motherboard. Individual memory modules currently range in size from 2 GB to 64 GB.
●
For most general purpose applications 4 GB is the minimum system memory people should consider.
●
For individual workstations 16 GB is typically more than sufficient. However even 16 GB might be
●
limiting for users running gaming, video, or high-end audio applications.
●
Servers often require 128 GB or even 256 GB of memory to efficiently support user loads.

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 8

 6. Memory Cont
or the most part Linux allows users to treat system memory as a black box. An application is
●
started and Linux takes care of allocating the system memory required. Linux releases the
●
memory for use by other applications when an application completes. But what if an application
●
requires more than the available system memory? In this case, Linux moves idle applications
●
from system memory into a special disk area known as swap space. Linux moves idle applications
●
from the disk swap space back to system memory when they need to run.
●
Systems without dedicated video hardware often use a portion of the system memory (often 1 GB)
●
to act as video display storage. This reduces the effective system memory. Dedicated video
●
hardware typically has its own separate memory that is not available as system memory.

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 9

 6. Memory Cont

There are several ways to obtain information about system

memory. As a user, the total amount of memory available and in
use are typically the values of interest.
●
One source of information would be to run the command free
along with the parameter -m to use megabytes in the output:
●

●
$ free -m

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 10

 7. Processors
The word “processor” implies that something is being processed. In computers most of that processing
is dealing with electrical signals. Typically those signals are treated as having one of the binary values 1
or 0.
●
When people talk about computers they often use the word processor interchangeably with the
acronym CPU (Central Processing Unit). Which is not technically correct.
●
Every general purpose computer has a CPU that processes the binary commands specified by
software.
●
So it is understandable that people interchange processor and CPU. However, in addition to a CPU,
modern computers often include other task specific processors.
●
Perhaps the most recognizable additional processor is a GPU (Graphical Processing Unit). Thus, while
a CPU is a processor, not all
processors are CPUs.

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 11

 7. Processors Cont
For most people CPU architecture is a reference to the instructions that the processor supports. Although Intel and AMD
make processors supporting the same instructions it is meaningful to differentiate by vendor because of vendor specific
packaging, performance, and power consumption differences.
●
Software distributions commonly use these designations to specify the minimum set of instructions they require to operate:
i386
●
References the 32-bit instruction set associated with the Intel 80386.
x86
●
Typically references the 32-bit instruction sets associated with successors to the 80386 such as 80486, 80586, and
Pentium.
x64 / x86-64
●
References processors that support both the 32-bit and 64-bit instructions of the x86 family.
AMD
●
A reference to x86 support by AMD processors.

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 12

 7. Processors Cont

AMD64
●
A reference to x64 support by AMD processors.
ARM
●
References a Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) CPU that is not
based on the x86 instruction set.
●
Commonly used by embedded, mobile, tablet, and battery operated devices.
A version of Linux for ARM is used by the Raspberry Pi.

●
The file /proc/cpuinfo contains detailed information about a system’s processor.
Unfortunately the details are not friendly to general users.

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 13

 7. Processors Cont
●
A more general result can be obtained with the command lscpu.
Output from a Raspberry Pi B+:
●

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 14

 7. Processors Cont
●
To most people the myriad of vendors, processor families, and specification factors represent a
bewildering array of choices.
●
Regardless, there are several factors associated with CPUs and processors that even general users
and administrators often need to consider when they need to specify operational environments:

Bit size
●
For CPUs this number relates to both the native size of data it manipulates and the amount of
memory it can access. Most modern systems are either 32-bit or 64-bit.
●
If an application needs access to more than 4 gigabytes of memory then it must run on a 64-bit
system since 4 gigabytes is the maximum address that can be represented using 32 bits.
●
And, while 32-bit applications can typically run on 64-bit systems, 64-bit applications cannot run on
32-bit systems.

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 15

 7. Processors Cont
●
Clock speed
●
Often expressed in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). This relates to how fast a processor processes instructions. But processor
speed is just one of the factors impacting system response times, wait times, and throughput
●
Even an active multi-tasking user rarely keeps a CPU of a common desktop PC active more than 2 or 3 percent of the time.
●
Regardless, if you frequently use computationally intensive applications involving activities such as encryption or video rendering then
CPU speed may have a significant impact on throughput and wait time.

Cache
●
CPUs require a constant stream of both instructions and data in order to operate.
●
The cost and power consumption of a multi-gigabyte system memory that could be accessed at CPU clock speeds would be
prohibitive.
●
CPU-speed cache memory is integrated onto the CPU chip to provide a high-speed buffer between CPUs and system memory. Cache
is separated into multiple layers, commonly referenced as L1, L2, L3 and even L4. In the case of cache, more is often better.

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 16

 7. Processors Cont
Cores
●
Core refers to an individual CPU. In addition to core representing a physical CPU, Hyper- Threading
Technology (HTT) allows a single physical CPU to concurrently process multiple instructions thus virtually
acting as multiple physical CPUs.
●
Most typically, multiple physical cores are packaged as a single physical processor chip. However, there
are motherboards that support multiple physical processor chips.
●
In theory having more cores to process tasks would always seem to yield better system throughput.
●
Unfortunately, desktop applications often only keep CPUs busy 2 or 3 percent of the time, so adding more
mostly idle CPUs is likely to result in minimal improvement to throughput.
●
More cores are best suited to running applications that are written to have multiple independent threads of
operation such as video frame rendering, web page rendering, or multi-user virtual machine environments.

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 17

 8. Storage
●
Storage devices provide a method for retaining programs and data. Hard Disk Drives (HDDs) and
Solid State Drives (SSDs) are the most common form of storage device for servers and desktops.
●
USB memory sticks and optical devices such as DVD are also used but rarely as a primary device.
●
As the name implies, a hard disk drive stores information on one or more rigid physical disks.
●
The physical disks are covered with magnetic media to make storage possible.
●
The disks are contained within a sealed package since dust, small particles, and even finger prints would interfere with the ability
of the HDD to read and write the magnetic media.
●
SSDs are effectively more sophisticated versions of USB memory sticks with significantly larger capacity. SSDs store information in
microchips so there are no moving parts.
●
Although the underlying technologies for HDDs and SSDs are different, there are important factors that can be compared. HDD
capacity is based on scaling physical components while SSD capacity depends on the number of microchips.
●
Per gigabyte, SSDs cost between 3 and 10 times what an HDD costs. To read or write, an HDD must wait for a location on a disk
to rotate to a known location while SSDs are random access.
●
SSD access speeds are typically 3 to 5 times faster than HDD devices.
●
Since they have no moving parts SSDs consume less power and are more reliable than HDDs.

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 18

 8. Storage Cont
●
Storage capacity is constantly increasing for HDDs and SSDs. Today, 5 terabyte HDDs and 1
●
terabyte SSDs are commonly available. Regardless, large storage capacity is not always better.
●
When a storage device fails the information it contained is no longer available. And of course,
●
backup takes longer when there is more information to back up. For applications which read and
●
write a lot of data, latency and performance may be more important than capacity.
●
Modern systems use SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) or SATA (Serial AT Attachment) to
●
connect with storage devices. These interfaces are typically supported by the appropriate
●
connector on the motherboard. Initial load comes from a storage device attached to the
●
motherboard. Firmware settings define the order in which devices are accessed for this initial
●
loading.

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 19

 8. Storage Cont

●
Storage systems known as RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks)
are a common
●
implementation to avoid loss of information. A RAID array consists of
multiple physical devices containing duplicate copies of information.
●
If one device fails all of the information is still available. Different physical
RAID configurations are referenced as 0, 1, 5, 6, and 10.
●
Each designation has different storage size, performance characteristics
and ways to store redundant data or checksums for data recovery. Beyond
some administrative configuration overhead, the existence of RAID is
effectively transparent to users.

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 20

 9. Partitions
●
A storage device is effectively a long sequence of storage locations. Partitioning is the mechanism
●
that tells Linux if it is to see these storage locations as a single sequence or multiple independent
●
sequences. Each partition is treated as if it is an individual device. Most of the time partitions are
●
created when a system is first configured. If change is needed, administrative tools are available to
manage device partitioning.
●
So why would multiple partitions be desirable? Some examples for using partitions would be
●
managing available storage, isolating encryption overhead, or supporting multiple file systems.
●
Partitions make it possible to have a single storage device that can boot under different operating
●
systems.
●
While Linux can recognize the storage sequence of a raw device a raw device cannot be used as-is.
●
To use a raw device it must be formatted. Formatting writes a file system to a device and prepares
●
it for file operations. Without a file system a device cannot be used for file-related operations.

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 21

 9. Partitions Cont
●
Users see partitions as if they are individual devices. This makes it easy to overlook the fact
that
●
they’re still dealing with a single physical device. In particular, device to device operations that
●
are actually partition to partition operations will not have the expected performance. A single
●
device is one physical mechanism with one set of read/write hardware. More importantly, you
●
can’t use partitions of a single physical device as a fault tolerant design. If the device fails, all
●
partitions fail so there would be no fault tolerance.

NOTE
●
Logical Volume Manager (LVM) is a software capability that allows administrators to combine individual disks and disk
partitions and treat them as if they are a single drive.

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 22

 10. Peripherals
●
Servers and workstations need a combination of CPU, system memory, and storage to operate.
But
●
these fundamental components don’t directly interface with the external world. Peripherals are
●
the devices that provide systems with input, output, and access to the rest of the real world.
●
Most motherboards have built-in external connectors and firmware support for common legacy
●
peripheral interfaces supporting devices such as keyboard, mouse, sound, video, and network.
●
Recent motherboards typically have an Ethernet connector to support networks, a HDMI
●
connector supporting basic graphical needs, and one or more USB (Universal Serial Bus)
●
connectors for mostly everything else.
●
There are several versions of USB with different speed and
●
physical characteristics. Several versions of USB ports are common on a single motherboard.

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 23

 10. Peripherals Cont
●
Motherboards may also have one or more expansion slots. Expansion slots allow users to add special circuit boards
known as expansion cards that support custom, legacy, and non-standard peripherals.
●
Graphics, sound, and network interfaces are common expansion cards. Expansion
●
cards also support RAID, and special format legacy interfaces involving serial and parallel connections.

●
System on a Chip (SoC) configurations achieve power, performance, space, and reliability advantages over motherboard
configurations by packaging processors, system memory, SSD, and hardware to control peripherals as a single
integrated circuit package.
●
The peripherals supported by SoC configurations are limited by the components packaged. Thus, SoC configurations
tend to be developed for specific uses. Phones, tablets, and other portable devices are often based on SoC technology.

●
Some systems incorporate peripherals. Laptops are similar to workstations but incorporate
●
default display, keyboard, and mouse peripherals. All-In-One systems are similar to laptops but
●
require mouse and keyboard peripherals. Motherboard or SoC based controllers are often
●
packaged with integral peripherals appropriate to a specific use.

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 24

 11. Drivers and Device Files
●
Device drivers accept a standard set of requests then translate those requests into the device
appropriate control activities.
●
Device drivers are what allow you and the applications you run to read from the file /home/carol/stuff
without worrying about whether that file is on a hard drive, solid state
drive, memory stick, encrypted storage, or some other device.
●
Device files are found in the /dev directory and identify physical devices, device access, and
supported drivers.
●
By convention, in modern systems using SCSI or SATA based storage devices the specification
filename starts with the prefix sd.
●
The prefix is followed by a letter such as a or b indicating a physical device. After the prefix and device
identifier comes a number indicating a partition within the physical device. So, /dev/sda would
reference the entire first storage device while /dev/sda3 would reference partition 3 in the first storage
device.
●
The device file for each type of device has a naming convention appropriate to the device.

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 25

 Guided Exercises
●
1. Describe these terms:
●
Processor
●
CPU
●
GPU
●
2. If you are primarily running video editing applications (a computationally intensive
activity) which components and characteristics would you expect to have the most
impact on system usability:
●
CPU cores
●
CPU speed
●
Available system memory
●
Storage system
●
GPU
●
Video display
●
None of the above

Linux
●
Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 26
 Guided Exercises

●
3. What would you expect the name of the device file in /dev to be for
partition 3 of the third SATA drive in a system:
●
sd3p3
●
sdcp3
●
sdc3
●
None of the above

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 27

 Explorational Exercises

●
1. Run the lsblk command on your system. Identify the parameters below. If a system is not immediately
available, consider the lsblk -f listing for the Raspberry Pi system mentioned in the “Storage” section above:
●

◦
●

●
The type of devices and how many

◦ The partition structure of each device

◦ The type of file system and mount for each partition

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 28

 Summary

●
A system is the sum of its components. Different components impact cost, performance, and
usability in different ways. While there are common configurations for workstations and servers
there is no single best configuration.

Linux Essentials www.linuxlearnincentre.co.ke 29