RESEARCH METHODS

LECTURE 3 – RESEARCH TOOLS

TOPICS
◦ Statistical Analysis
◦ Mathematical Modeling
◦ Simulation and Optimization
DATA PREPARATION AND ORGANIZATION
◦ Upon collecting data, researchers prepare the collected data prior to
analysis.
◦ Regardless of the type of data, it is very important to note that these data
will provide meaningful insight if properly organized and analyzed.
◦ Data, if properly collected and organized for analysis will present patterns,
connections and relationships. Thus, preparation of data before subjecting
to analysis.
 DATA PREPARATION
Data Validation
◦ Its purpose is to find out, as far as possible, whether the data collection was done as
per the pre-set standards and without any bias
1. Fraud.
◦ to infer whether each respondent was actually interviewed or not.
2. Screening.
◦ to make sure that respondents were chosen as per the research criteria
3. Procedure.
◦ to check whether the data collection procedure was duly followed.
4. Completeness
◦ to ensure that the interviewer asked the respondent all the questions, rather than just a few
required ones
 DATA PREPARATION
Data Editing
◦ The researcher should conduct basic data checks, check for outliers, and edit the raw
research data to identify and clear out any data points that may hamper the accuracy
of the results
◦ Cleaning the Data
◦ Number of Respondents vs. Rows
◦ Number of Questions vs. Columns
◦ Geocoded Variables
◦ Time Stamps
◦ Outliers
◦ These are data that is way to different from the received data from the respondents. Its significance to
the data being analyzed vary, thus, it is important to identify what factors may result to this output.
 DATA PREPARATION
Data Coding
◦ refers to grouping and assigning values to responses from the survey
◦ For example,
◦ if a researcher has interviewed 1,000 people and now wants to find the average age of the
respondents, the researcher will create age buckets and categorize the age of each of the respondent
as per these codes. (For example, respondents between 13-15 years old would have their age coded as
0, 16-18 as 1, 18-20 as 2, etc.)
◦ Then during analysis, the researcher can deal with simplified age brackets, rather than
a massive range of individual ages.
PROCESSING OPERATIONS
1. Editing
2. Coding
3. Classification
4. Tabulation
Editing
◦ Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data (specially in
surveys) to detect errors and omissions and to correct these when
possible. As a matter of fact, editing involves a careful scrutiny of the
completed questionnaires and/or schedules.
◦ Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate, consistent with other
facts gathered, uniformly entered, as completed as possible and have been
well arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.
 Stages at which editing should be done
◦ Field editing consists in the review of the reporting forms by the investigator for
completing (translating or rewriting) what the latter has written in abbreviated
and/or in illegible form at the time of recording the respondents’ responses. This type
of editing is necessary in view of the fact that individual writing styles often can be
difficult for others to decipher. This sort of editing should be done as soon as possible
after the interview, preferably on the very day or on the next day. While doing field
editing, the investigator must restrain himself and must not correct errors of omission
by simply guessing what the informant would have said if the question had been
asked.
◦ Central editing should take place when all forms or schedules have been completed
and returned to the office. This type of editing implies that all forms should get a
thorough editing by a single editor in a small study and by a team of editors in case of
a large inquiry.
 Coding
◦ Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so
that responses can be put into a limited number of categories or classes. Such
classes should be appropriate to the research problem under consideration. They
must also possess the characteristic of exhaustiveness (i.e., there must be a class for
every data item) and also that of mutual exclusively which means that a specific
answer can be placed in one and only one cell in a given category set. Another rule
to be observed is that of unidimensionality by which is meant that every class is
defined in terms of only one concept.
◦ Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and through it the several replies may be
reduced to a small number of classes which contain the critical information required
for analysis. Coding decisions should usually be taken at the designing stage of the
questionnaire.
Classification
◦ Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be
reduced into homogeneous groups if we are to get meaningful relationships. This
fact necessitates classification of data which happens to be the process of
arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics.
◦ Data having a common characteristic are placed in one class and in this way the
entire data get divided into a number of groups or classes. Classification
can be one of the following two types, depending upon the nature of
the phenomenon involved:
◦ Classification according to attributes (such as literacy, sex, honesty, etc.) or
numerical (such as weight, height, income, etc.)
◦ Classification according to class-intervals (statistics of variables)
 Tabulation
◦ When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the researcher to
arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical order. This procedure is referred
to as tabulation. Thus, tabulation is the process of summarising raw data and displaying
the same in compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical tables) for further analysis. In a
broader sense, tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows.
◦ Tabulation is essential because of the following reasons
1. It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a
minimum.
2. It facilitates the process of comparison.
3. It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions.
4. It provides a basis for various statistical computations.
 Generally accepted principles of
tabulation:
Such principles of tabulation, particularly of constructing statistical tables, can be briefly states as follows:
1. Every table should have a clear, concise and adequate title so as to make the table intelligible without reference to the
text and this title should always be placed just above the body of the table.
2. Every table should be given a distinct number to facilitate easy reference.
3. The column headings (captions) and the row headings (stubs) of the table should be clear and brief.
4. The units of measurement under each heading or sub-heading must always be indicated.
5. Explanatory footnotes, if any, concerning the table should be placed directly beneath the table, along with the reference
symbols used in the table.
6. Source or sources from where the data in the table have been obtained must be indicated just below the table.
7. Usually the columns are separated from one another by lines which make the table more readable and attractive. Lines
are always drawn at the top and bottom of the table and below the captions.
8. There should be thick lines to separate the data under one class from the data under another class and the lines
separating the sub-divisions of the classes should be comparatively thin lines.
9. The columns may be numbered to facilitate reference.
 Generally accepted principles of
tabulation:
10. Those columns whose data are to be compared should be kept side by side. Similarly, percentages and/or averages must
also be kept close to the data.
11. It is generally considered better to approximate figures before tabulation as the same would reduce unnecessary details in
the table itself.
12. In order to emphasise the relative significance of certain categories, different kinds of type, spacing and indentations may
be used.
13. It is important that all column figures be properly aligned. Decimal points and (+) or (–) signs should be in perfect
alignment.
14. Abbreviations should be avoided to the extent possible and ditto marks should not be used in the table.
15. Miscellaneous and exceptional items, if any, should be usually placed in the last row of the table.
16. Table should be made as logical, clear, accurate and simple as possible. If the data happen to be very large, they should not
be crowded in a single table for that would make the table unwieldy and inconvenient.
17. Total of rows should normally be placed in the extreme right column and that of columns should be placed at the bottom.
18. The arrangement of the categories in a table may be chronological, geographical, alphabetical or according to magnitude
to facilitate comparison. Above all, the table must suit the needs and requirements of an investigation
The research tools
In every research project, the challenge is to validate the results using independent means. The
research plan must clearly outline the techniques which will be used to undertake this
validation.
The strongest case can be made if the experimental or numerical results can be validated against
a theoretical model. If two very different and independent methods yield results which are
statistically identical, then it is highly likely that both tools used in the research are valid.
There still remains a small probability that both techniques yield results with the same bias; that
is, both the results gained from the research project and the published results are incorrect. This
might occur if the same error is common to both methods of analysis.
ELEMENTS/TYPES OF ANALYSIS
◦ by analysis we mean the computation of certain indices or measures along
with searching for patterns of relationship that exist among the data
groups. Analysis, particularly in case of survey or experimental data,
involves estimating the values of unknown parameters of the population
and testing of hypotheses for drawing inferences.
◦ Analysis may, therefore, be categorised as
◦ descriptive analysis
◦ inferential analysis (Inferential analysis is often known as statistical
analysis)
Descriptive analysis
◦ “Descriptive analysis largely the study of distributions of one variable. This
study provides us with profiles of companies, work groups, persons and
other subjects on any of a multiple of characteristics such as size.
Composition, efficiency, preferences, etc. .
◦ this sort of analysis may be in respect of one variable (described as
unidimensional analysis), or in respect of two variables (described as
bivariate analysis) or in respect of more than two variables (described as
multivariate analysis). In this context we work out various measures that
show the size and shape of a distribution(s) along with the study of
measuring relationships between two or more variables
Inferential analysis
◦ Inferential analysis is concerned with the various tests of significance for
testing hypotheses in order to determine with what validity data can be
said to indicate some conclusion or conclusions.
◦ It is also concerned with the estimation of population values. It is mainly
on the basis of inferential analysis that the task of interpretation (i.e., the
task of drawing inferences and conclusions) is performed
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
◦ The application of statistics in engineering research is beyond experimental
analysis or statistical validation of survey questionnaires and respondent
answers
◦ Statistics is used as tool to determine the sources of error and uncertainty
in engineering design studies, the comparison between population and
parameters under investigation, and the specification requirements which
presents the evaluation of a design or production reliability and failure
probability.

“research outcomes which do not anticipate the probability of failure are

better described as scientific investigations rather than engineering
research” – David Thiel, Research methods for engineers, 2014.
SOURCES OF ERROR AND UNCERTAINTY
◦ Randomly occurring errors – errors which cannot be controlled
◦ Systematic errors – errors which can be controlled by performing
calibration that is performed before the actual measurement is performed.
◦ LINEARITY
◦ RESOLUTION
◦ SENSITIVITY
◦ ACCURACY
◦ ABSOLUTE ERROR
 LINEARITY
◦ Defined by the nonlinearity in the
measurement system: the difference between
the true response when compared to the ideal
response.
◦ There is a need to identify the DYNAMIC
RANGE over which the system can be
described as linear
◦ Occurs when expected response is not read
while performing an experiment . For example,
voltage input is high that the measuring
instrument got destroyed upon execution of
the project as it exceeds the maximum output
value .
RESOLUTION
◦ Smallest change in input that can be detected at the output.
◦ Presents the effect of using digital and analog measurement systems
◦ For example,

A fixed range of four-digit digital voltmeter has a maximum readout of 1.999

V. The resolution of this meter is therefore 1mV. If the signal being
measured changes by less than 1mV, then no change will be observed in the
display. The resolution of the voltage meter is 0.001 V.
SENSITIVITY
◦ Defined as the change in output divided by a small change in input.
◦ In linear response, the sensitivity is constant over the working range.
◦ Example,

The change in the resistance of a wire under (ΔR/R)strain can be used to

measure strain (ε1 ). A nichrome strain gauge quoted as having a sensitivity
S. Thus, to compute the value of strain, the change in the resistance of a
wire must be divided by this sensitivity.
ACCURACY
◦ The likely error of the measurement system. This error can be the result of
the intrinsic problems with the instrumentation (calibration problems,
nonlinear effects, imperfect components or coupling to the parameters
being measured, etc.) or external and environmental effects and
interferences
◦ Example,

The compressive and shear stress of soils require the removal of samples
and so, the in-situ structure is compromised before testing. The compaction
and water content of soil can be changed significantly, and the test
outcomes cannot be applied to the in-situ measurements.
ABSOLUTE ERROR
◦ Systematic error wherein there is a difference between the measured
value and the true value.
◦ Only repeated measurements can produce the same absolute error.
◦ Example,

In measuring the uniaxial compression strength of concrete samples, it

might be necessary to take samples at different times during the pour of
large slab. This is to eliminate the possible effect caused by the time of
mixing in the concrete strength and the variations in the volumes and size
fractions of the components in the mixture.
STATISTICS
POPULATION - group of individuals under study
SAMPLE – subset of the population where data is collected
INDIVIDUALS – element of the sample or population
STATISTICAL CHARACTERISTICS – property we analyze for each of the
individuals in the sample
◦ Qualitative (nationality, hair color)
◦ Quantitative (age, height)
→ statistical variables
◦ Discrete (specific variable: number of children)
◦ Continuous (height, weight)
COMMON TERMINOLOGIES
◦ Mean:
◦ numerical average of a set of values.
◦ Median:
◦ midpoint of a set of numerical values.
◦ Mode:
◦ most common value among a set of values.
◦ Percentage:
◦ used to express how a value or group of respondents within the data relates to a larger group of
respondents.
◦ Frequency:
◦ the number of times a value is found.
◦ Range:
◦ the highest and lowest value in a set of values.
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
◦ Also termed as univariate analysis as it is mostly used for analyzing single
variable
◦ first level of analysis as it helps researchers summarize the data and find
patterns.
◦ It provides absolute numbers; however, they do not explain the rationale
or reasoning behind those numbers
◦ most helpful when the research is limited to the sample and does not need
to be generalized to a larger population
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
◦ Complex analyses show the relationships between multiple variables to
generalize results and make predictions
◦ also known as sampling statistics and are mainly concerned with two
major type of problems: (i) the estimation of population parameters,
and (ii) the testing of statistical hypotheses
◦ Correlation
◦ Describes the relationship between two variables
◦ Regression
◦ Shows or predicts the relationship between two variables
◦ Analysis of Variance
◦ Tests the extent to which two or more groups differ
STATISTICAL PROPERTIES OF RATING
SCALES

Chapter 6 Measurement of Constructs | Research Methods for the Social Sciences (lumenlearning.com)
 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
◦ Content analysis:
◦ one of the most common methods to analyze qualitative data
◦ used to analyze documented information in the form of texts, media, or even physical items.
◦ When to use this method depends on the research questions. Content analysis is usually used to analyze responses from interviewees.
◦ Narrative analysis:
◦ This method is used to analyze content from various sources, such as interviews of respondents, observations from the field, or surveys.
◦ It focuses on using the stories and experiences shared by people to answer the research questions.
◦ Discourse analysis:
◦ Like narrative analysis, discourse analysis is used to analyze interactions with people. However, it focuses on analyzing the social context in
which the communication between the researcher and the respondent occurred. ▪
◦ Discourse analysis also looks at the respondent’s day-to-day environment and uses that information during analysis.
◦ Grounded theory:
◦ This refers to using qualitative data to explain why a certain phenomenon happened.
◦ It does this by studying a variety of similar cases in different settings and using the data to derive causal explanations.
◦ Researchers may alter the explanations or create new ones as they study more cases until they arrive at an explanation that fits all cases. Z