Embryology:

– Embryology deals with the events that take place in the prenatal period ( first 38 weeks)
– Prenatal period can be broken down into 3 shorter periods:
. Pre-embryonic: - first 2 weeks (after fertilization) - single cell zygote becomes multicellular
blastocyst.
. Embryonic: - from 3rd to 8th week - rudimentary versions of organ systems are seen.
. Fetal: - remaining 30 weeks - Major organs and organ systems are formed - size increases
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– Clevage: Mitotic cell division which forms multicellular blastocyst from single celled zygote.
– Gastrulation: Formation of 3 germ layers from blastocyst.
– organogenesis: The 3 germ layers fold and adjust in different ways to give rise to organs.

. Pre-embryonic Period
Five main events:
a. Fertilization: -Process of fusion of gametes.
– Occurs in the ampulla of the uterine tube.
– capacitation: A series of physiological changes during which a sperm gains the ability to
fertilize a secondary oocyte. Also, the sperm becomes capable of sensing chemotropic
signals from the oocyte which helps them in locating the oocyte.
-3 main stages of fertilization:
 . Corona radiata penetration: - aided by sperm motility.
. Zona pellucida penetration: - acrosome reaction occurs.
Acrosome reaction: it is the release of digestive enzymes from the acrosome which helps the sperm
to penetrate the zona pellucida.
– cortical reaction: as soon as the sperm enters the zona pellucida, cortical granules of oocyte
are released by exocytosis causing changes in the zona pellucida which hardens to prevent
polyspermy.
. Fusion of sperm and oocyte membranes: - entry of the sperm nucleus in the secondary
oocyte causes the oocyte to complete its second meiotic division.
– At this stage, both the sperm and oocyte nucleus are referred to as pronuclei. These
pronuclei fuse to form a diploid nucleus thus forming a zygote.

b. Cleavage: cell division in which the cells of the zygote increase in number but not in size.
-compaction: before the 8-celled stage the cells are not bound tightly together, after the 8-celled
stage, the contact between them is increased to maximum.
 – Blastocyst: - formed when the morula reaches the lumen of the uterus.
– Degenerating zona pellucida starts producing liquid which gets filled forming a cavity.
– Blastocyst has 2 main layers:
(i) Trophoblast: The outer covering of the blastocyst which later forms the chorionic villi.
(ii)Embryoblast: the inner mass of cell which later turns into the embryo. Made of pleuripotent stem
cells.
C. Implantation: - End of 1st week, blastocyst enter the lumen of uterus.
– Blastocyst secretes enzymes that makes it hatch out of zone pellucida.
– once it gets out of zona pellucida, it can implant itself in the endometrium of the uterus.
– Uterus endometrium: it has 2 layers: stratum baselis (inner layer, non functional) and stratum
functionales ( outer layer, functional).
– Implantation begins about at day 7.
– Simultaneously, the trophoblast divides into 2 layers: synctiotrophoblast (outer thick layer
that has no clear plasma membrane between its cells and burrows into the functional layer of
the endometrium, it also secretes hCG) and the cytotrophoblast which is the inner cellular
layer.
– By day 9, the blastocyst is completely burrowed into the endometrium.
– The blastocyst makes contact with maternal blood supply by day 9.
d. Formation of bilaminar germ disc and extra-embryonic membranes:
– By day 8, the cells of the embryoblast start differentiating into 2 layers:
(I) Hypoblast: A layer of small cuboidal cells near the blastocyst cavity (now yolk sac)
(II) Epiblast: A layer of columnar cells near the amniotic cavity.
– Bilaminar germ disc (blastodisc) = hypoblast + epiblast.
– Extra-embryonic layers: - First appear during the second week of development. The three
main extra-embryonic membranes are as follows:
(I) Yolk Sac: First extra-embryonic membrane. Formed from and continues with the hypoblast.
(II) Amnion: Formed from and continuous with the epiblast layer.It will eventually cover the entire
embryo.It secretes amniotic fluid which bathes the embryo.
(III) Chorion: Outermost extra embryonic layer. Formed from rapidly growing synctiotrophoblast and
cytotrophoblast cells.it gets merged with the stratum functionalis and gives rise to the placenta.

e. Formation of Placenta: - Placenta is the highly vascular connecting tissue between the mother
and the embryo that provides nutrition to the embryo to grow in size.
-Functions of placenta include:
(I) Exchange of nutrients, respiratory gases and waste products.
(II) Transmission of maternal antibodies
(III) Production of hormones like estrogen and Progesterone to maintain pregnancy.,
– placenta begins to form during the second week
– embryo is connected to placenta by the connecting stalk which eventually becomes the
umbilical cord.
– the fetal part of placenta comes from the chorion while the maternal portion comes from
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stratum functionalis.

. Embryonic Period:
– The events of the embryonic period are summarized in the table below:
a. Gastrulation: The process by which cells of the epiblast migrate and form the three primary germ
layers - ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.
– Begins with the formation of the primitive streak.
– The cephalic (upper) end of this streak is known as the primitive node, which consists of a
small elevated area surrounding a primitive pit.
 – Invagination: cells detach from the epiblast layer and migrate through the primitive streak
between the epiblast and the hypoblast.
– The layer of cells between these two layers is known as mesoderm, other migrating cells
displace the hypoblast and become the endoderm and the remaining cells form the
ectoderm.

b. Folding of the embryonic disc:

– Begins during the late third and fourth weeks.
– As the different regions of the embryo grow at different rates the three germ layers start
folding onto each other.
– The folding of embryonic disc occurs in two directions:
(i) Cephalocaudal folding: Occurs in the cephalic (head) and caudal (tail) regions.
– It occurs because the embryonic disc and the amnion are growing fast and the yolk sac is not
growing at all.
– this type of folding forms the future head and buttocks.
(ii) Transverse folding: Occurs when the left and right regions start folding.
– they eventually come toward the midline and pinch off the yolk sac.
– This type of pinching causes the ectoderm to be Solely on the outside.
– This folding forms the cylindrical torso of the embryo.

C. Differentiation of ectoderm: - Ectoderm forms the nervous system and many external structures
of the body like epidermis of the skin, hair, nails, etc.
– Neurulation: the inductive action that transforms a flat layer of ectoderm cells to a hollow
nervous system.
– Notochord is a cylindrical mass of mesodermal cells underneath and parallel to the primitive
streak.
 – Induction: the notochord induces the overlying ectoderm cells to form nervous tissue.
– Neural plate: Formed by ectoderm by the end of the third week.
– Neural Folds: The lateral edges of the neural plate elevate to form neural folds.
– Neural groove: the depression between the neural plates.
– Neural tube: Fusion of the neural folds form a hollow neural tube.
– Neurulation is complete by the end of the fourth week of development.
– Neural crest cells: when neural folds migrate towards each other, some cells from the
adjacent sides dissociate from the lateral borders. These are called neural crest cells. They
migrate throughout the body and give rise to structures including melanocytes of skin,
adrenal medulla, skeletal and muscular components of the head, spinal ganglia and some
portion of the developing heart.

d. Differentiation of the mesoderm: Mesoderm subdivides into 5 main categories.

. Chordamesoderm: (tightly packed midline): forms notochord.
. Paraxial mesoderm: (found on both sides of the neural tube) forms somites that give rise to
the axial skeleton, most of the muscles ) cartilage, dermis and connective tissues.
. Intermediate mesoderm: (found lateral to the paraxial mesoderm) forms the urinary and
reproductive systems.
. Lateral plate mesoderm: (most lateral part of the mesoderm) forms components of the
cardiovascular system, serous membrane that lines the body cavities,, the thoracic and the
abdominal body walls and connective tissues of the limb.
. Head mesenchyme: Forms the musculature and connective tissues of the face.

e. Differentiation of the endoderm:

– Forms the inner linings of the GI, respiratory, urinary and reproductive tracks.
– Also forms the thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, portions of palatine tonsils, most of the liver, gall
bladder and pancreas.

f. Organogenesis:
– Process of organ formation.
– Teratogens: chemicals that cause birth defects. Ex.- alcohol, cigarettes (nicotine), drugs,
some viruses and even medications like aspirin. etc.
– Teratogens cause the most harm to the development of an organ if taken during the peak
development period.
– Peak development period: Timeframe during which the most cellular organization and
construction of the organ framework occurs.
 . Fetal period: - Third month to birth.
– Length of fetus is measured in Centimeters, as CRL ( crown rump length) or as CHL (crown
heel length).
– All events of the fetal period are summarized in the table below.